Buku.

indd 1 1/15/2017 1:18:20 AM

 Daftar Isi

Buku.indd 2 1/15/2017 1:18:23 AM

 bab 1 bab 6

1 26
Pengan DKV
tar Tek
nologi
Infor bab 4
masi

19
Visual
Story
Tell
bab 2 bab 7

7 27
crea Ds.
tive Entre
writ- pren
ing bab 5 eur

24
Meto
de Pro
duksi
Graf bab 8
bab 3

13 30
Meng Teori
gam Peri
bar klanan

Buku.indd 3 1/15/2017 1:18:23 AM

 PENGANTAR
TEKNOLOGI
INFORMASI

My Book | 01

Buku.indd 4 1/15/2017 1:18:24 AM

 A. Teknologi Informasi
Information technology (teknologi in-
formasi - TI) adalah istilah untuk
mendeskripsikan teknologi – teknologi
yang memungkinkan manusia untuk:
mencatat (record)
menyimpan (store)
mengolah (process)
mengambil kembali (retrieve)
mengirim (transmit)
menerima (receive)
B. Data & Informasi
DaTa ~ sekumpulan fenomena alam
(dlm bentuk angka, kata, gambar /
bentuk lain ) termasuk didalamnya
hasil dari pengalaman, observasi dan
penelitian.
Raw data / data mentah (dalam
istilah komputasi) ~ angka, karakter,
gambar atau bentuk lain yang digu-
nakan untuk mengkonversi kuantitas
fisik ke dalam simbol dalam penger-
tian yang luas
Informasi = data yang terstruktur hasil
olahan
C. Teknologi
Teknologi : ilmu yang berkaitan den-
gan seni atau sains dengan pengap-
likasian pengetahuan ilmiah ke praktis
aplikasi praktis dari sains dalam in-
dustri / bisnis
Teknologi : ilmu yang berkaitan den-
gan seni atau sains dengan pengap-
likasian pengetahuan ilmiah ke praktis
aplikasi praktis dari sains dalam in-
dustri / bisnis
Pengetahuan ilmiah : sistem as,sistem
elektronik,sistem pembakaran,sistem
pengemudian,sistem pengereman,-
sistem roda,sistem suspensi, sistem
Buku.indd 5
transmisi
Hasil teknologi : mobil modern
D. Teknologi Informasi
• Masa lalu: goresan/gambar, patung/
prasasti, alat hitung, arsip, telegraf,
dll
•Masa kini: komputer, faks, telekonfe-
rensi, handphone, dll
Mengapa informasi dibutuhkan ?
Dasar pengambilan keputusan
Kegembiraan
E. Sumber Informasi
• Pustaka [ilmiah, semi-ilmiah, pop-
uler]
• Media massa [cetak, radio, TV]
• Lisan [wawancara, telepon]
• Tulisan [surat, fax]
F. Perangkat Bantu
Manual [pensil/pena + kertas]
Mesin mekanis [mesin tik]
Alat telekomunikasi
Alat elektronis [komputer dalam berb-
agai bentuk]
G. Cara Olah Data
Perekaman awal [originating]
Pengklasifikasian [classifying]
Penyusunan/pengurutan [sorting]
Penghitungan [calculating]
Penyimpanan [storing]
Cara pengambilan kembali [retrieving]
Perbanyakan [copying]
Penyampaian [distributing]
H. Cara Olah Data
Data Mahasiswa
Perekaman awal [originating]
Pengumpulan data mahasiswa
Pengklasifikasian [classifying]
PTI | 02
1/15/2017 1:18:25 AM
 I. Cara Olah Data alatan Teknologi Informasi
Penyimpanan [storing]
Simpan ke pusat data di komputer K. Abad Informasi
Cara pengambilan kembali [retrieving] MASYARAKAT INFORMASI  sua-
Data dapat diambil untuk diolah tu masyarakat dimana lebih banyak
kembali (jika ada perubahan data, orang bekerja dalam bidang pen-
penambahan jumlah mahasiswa) anganan informasi dari pada bidang
Perbanyakan [copying] pertanian dan industri
Dapat diperbanyak
Penyampaian [distributing] KARAKTERISTIK ABAD INFORMASI
Disampaikan sebagai informasi Munculnya masyarakat berbasis infor-
masi Bisnis tergantung pada TI
J. Sejarah Adanya transformasi proses kerja
ABAD PERTANIAN Re-engineers proses bisnis yang
Periode < 1800 konvensional
Pekerja Petani Keberhasilannya bergan- tung
Perpaduan Manusia & tanah pada efektivitas pe-
Peralatan Tangan manfaatannya.
TI melekat pada ban-
ABAD INDUSTRI yak produk &
Periode 1800 – 1957
Pekerja Pegawai pabrik
Perpaduan Manusia & mesin pe-
Peralatan Mesin layanan
Contoh : de-
ABAD INFORMASI tik.com, facebook,
Periode 1957 – sekarang pulsa
Pekerja Pekerja terdidik
Perpaduan Manusia & manusia L. Kompo-
Per- nen TI

Buku.indd 6 1/15/2017 1:18:26 AM

 Hardware (HW)
Mouse, keyboard, monitor
Software (SW)
Game, windows, office
Firmware (FW)
instruksi disimpan permanen dalam
ROM
Brainware (BW)
User, programmer, analis
Infoware (IW)
Petunjuk penggunaan, aturan-aturan
M. Kesimpulan
Sejak dulu manusia butuh informasi
Informasi = hasil olahan data
Komponen TI: HW, SW, FW, BW, IW
N. Industri
Industri adalah bidang yang meng-
gunakan ketrampilan, dan ketekunan
kerja (bahasa Inggris: industrious)
dan penggunaan alat-alat di bidang
pengolahan hasil-hasil bumi, dan dis-
tribusinya sebagai dasarnya. Maka in-
dustri umumnya dikenal sebagai mata
rantai selanjutnya dari usaha-usa-
ha mencukupi kebutuhan (ekonomi)
yang berhubungan dengan bumi, yaitu
sesudah pertanian, perkebunan, dan
pertambangan yang berhubungan erat
dengan tanah. Kedudukan industri se-
makin jauh dari tanah, yang merupakan
basis ekonomi, budaya, dan politik.
Bidang industri dibedakan menjadi dua,
yaitu industri barang dan industri jasa.
Industri barang
Industri barang merupakan usaha
mengolah bahan mentah menjadi ba-
rang setengah jadi atau barang jadi.
Buku.indd 7
Kegiatan industri ini menghasilkan
berbagai jenis barang, seperti pa-
kaian, sepatu, mobil, sepeda motor,
pupuk, dan obatobatan. Industrijasa
Industri jasa merupakan kegiatan
ekonomi yang dengan cara memberi-
kan pelayanan jasa. Contohnya, jasa
transportasi seperti angkutan bus,
kereta api, penerbangan, dan pela-
yaran. Perusahaan jasa ada juga yang
membantu proses produksi.
Con- tohnya,
j a s a
bank
d an
p e r-
g u -
dan- g a n .
Pelayanan jasa ada yang
langsung ditujukan kepada para kon-
sumen. Contohnya asuransi, kes-
ehatan, penjahit, pengacara, sa-
lon kecantikan, dan tukang cukur.
Kebanyakan orang men-
gasumsikan bahwa industri hanya-
lah kegiatan ekonomi manusia yang
mengolah bahan baku/ bahan mentah
menjadi barang setengah jadi atau
bahan jadi. Padahal pengertian indus-
tri sangatlah luas, proses industri ini
meliputi semua kegiatan manusia da-
lam suatu bidang tertentu yang sifatnya
produktif dan komersial. Kata industri
berasal dari bahasa Francis kuno yaitu
PTI | 04
1/15/2017 1:18:30 AM
 “industrie” yang berarti aktivitas, teta-
pi kata tersebut dasarnya berasal dari
bahasa latin yaitu “Industria” yang
memiliki arti kerajinan dan aktivitas.
Dalam arti luas industri adalah suatu
bidang yang bersifat komersial yang
menggunakan keterampilan kerja ser-
ta teknologi untuk menghasilkan sua-
tu produk dengan tujuan mendapat-
kan keuntungan. Produk industri tidak
hanya berupa barang (manufaktur)
tetapi juga dalam bentuk jasa (pe-
layanan), contoh hasil produksi dalam
bentuk jasa seperti misalnya perban-
kan, asuransi, transportasi, jasa pen-
giriman barang dan sebagainya.
Suatu Industri identik dengan tem-
p a t d i m a - n a
b e r -
langsungnya suatu perindustrian yaitu
pabrik, dalam arti luas pabrik adalah
tempat manusia, mesin atau teknologi,
material, energi, modal dan sumber-
daya dikelola bersama-sama dalam
suatu sistem produksi dengan tujuan
menghasilkan suatu produk dan jasa
yang efektif, efisien dan aman yang
siap digunakan oleh masyarakat umum
maupun dapat diolah lebih lanjut untuk
menghasilkan jenis produk yang lainn-
ya. Pabrik identik dengan pengolahan
bahan baku dan menghasilkan produk
jadi dalam bentuk barang.
Industri jasa adalah (Service Indus-
tries) adalah industri yang bergerak
dalam bidang pelayanan atau jasa,
PTI | 05
Buku.indd 8
baik untuk melayani maupun menun-
jang aktifitas industri yang lain ser-
ta dapat juga memberikan pelayanan
langsung terhadap masyarakat (ko-
sumen). Industri jenis ini biasanya
melakukan aktivitas di dalam suatu
gedung (perkantoran).
Pengertian prinsip ekonomi adalah
panduan dalam kegiatan ekonomi un-
tuk mencapai perbandingan rasional
antara pengobanan yang dikeluar-
kan dan hasil yang diperoleh. atau
Prinsip ekonomi dapat juga diartikan
pengorabanan sekecil-kecilnya un-
tuk memperoleh hasil tertentu, atau
dengan pengorbanan tertentu untuk
memperoleh hasil semaksimal mung-
kin.
Eko n o m i m e r u-
p a k a n
sebagi-
an ilmu
sosial
y a n g
berhubungan dengan produksi, distri-
busi, dan konsumsi mengenai barang
dan jasa. Istilah ekonomi berasal dari
bahasa Yunani dari kata oikos yang
berarti keluarga, rumah, tangga. dan
nomos yang berarti peraturan, aturan,
hukum.
Prinsip Ekonomi memberi kita keun-
tungan yang pertama adalah dapat
memaksimalkan keuntungan dimana
mendapatkan hasil yang sebesar-be-
sarnya, keuntungan kedua adalah
meminimalkan kerugian dimana den-
gan pengorbanan yang sekecil-kecil-
nya. Prinsip ekonomi berlaku dalam
tiga kegiatan ekonomi yaitu produksi,
1/15/2017 1:18:31 AM
 distribusi, dan konsumsi.
Prinsip Ekonomi dalam Kegiatan Pro-
duksi
Dalam kegiatan produksi adalah dasar
dalam menghasilkan barang dan jasa
sebanyak-banyaknya dengan biaya
produksi dan pengorbanan tertentu.
Contoh Penerapannya - Contoh-con-
toh penerapan prinsip ekonomi pada
kegiatan produksi
Mendirikan tempat usaha dekat
dengan bahan baku, tenaga kerja
atau daerah pemasaran
Menggunakan tenaga kerja yang
terampil
Memakai bahan baku yang
berkualitas terbaik, namun dengan
harga paling murah
Memakai sumber daya misalnya
modal, tenaga kerja, dan waktu seef-
isien mungkin.
Memakai mesin modern dengan
produktivitas yang tinggi namun den-
gan biaya yang rendah
Menentukan harga jual yang
menguntungkan
Menentukan barang dan jasa
yang akan dihasilkan
Prinsip Ekonomi dalam Kegiatan Dis-
tribusi
Dalam kegiatan distribusi adalah pen-
yaluran barang dan jasa dari produs-
en ke konsumen. Contoh Penerapan
- Contoh-contoh penerapan prinsip
ekonomi berdasarkan kegiatan distri-
busi
Meningkatkan kualitas pelayanan
Buku.indd 9
Penyaluran barang yang tepat
waktu
Memakai sarana distribusi yang
dengan harga murah
Membeli barang dari produsen
secara langsung
Menyediakan barang dan jasa
yang populer bagi konsumen
Membeli barang di produsen
yang tepat
Menentukan lokasi perusahaan
yang berada diantara produsen dan
konsumen
Prinsip Ekonomi dalam Kegiatan Kon-
sumsi
Dalam kegiatan konsumsi adalah
upaya dalam memperoleh kepuasaan
sebesar-besarnya dari sautu barang
atau jasa dengan pengorbanan dan
penggunaan anggaran tertentu. Contoh
Penerapan - Contoh-contoh penera-
pan prinsip ekonomi berdasarkan ke-
giatan konsumsi
Membeli barang yang berkualiatas
Membeli barang dengan harga
terjangkau atau mura
PTI | 06
1/15/2017 1:18:32 AM
 CREATIVE
WRITING

My Book | 07

Buku.indd 10 1/15/2017 1:18:33 AM

 Iklan : pesan komunikasi pemasaran
tentang suatu produk yang disam-
paikan lewat suatu media berbayar
iklan adalah sebuah pesan komu-
nikatif dalam sebuah dengan tujuan
promosi kepada masyarakat/konsumen
Iklan adalah informasi yang isin-
ya membujuk khalayak banyak atau
orang banyak supaya tertarik kepada
barang atau jasa yang ditawarkan.
Dengan kata lain, iklan memberitahu
kepada banyak orang mengenai ba-
rang dan jasa yang dijual, dipasang
di media massa seperti kran dan
majalah atau di tempat-tempat umum.
Kata Iklan berasal dari
kata Yunani yang artinya menggiring
orang-orang kepada gagasan. Penger-
tian iklan secara lengkap yaitu semua
wujud aktivitas untuk mendatangkan
dan menawarkan penemu/ide, barang
dan/atau jasa secara bukan personal
yang dibayarkan oleh sponsor tertentu.
Secara umum, iklan berwujud pen-
yajian informasi nonpersonal tentang
suatu produk, merek, perusahaan,
atau toko yang dijalankan dengan
kompensasi biaya tertentu. Maka dari
itu, iklan berupa proses komunika-
si yang memiliki tujuan membujuk
atau menarik orang banyak untuk
Buku.indd 11
mengambil tindakan yang mengun-
tungkan pihak yang membuat iklan.
Sumber Asli : http://www.sis-
wamaster.com/2016/05/penger-
tian-iklan-syarat-ciri-jenis-jenis-
dan-manfaatnya.html#ixzz4Vj6572Wu
To identify these characteristics,
Martinsen gathered a group of art-
ists, musicians, and marketing cre-
atives and compared them with a
control group of managers and oth-
ers in professions less associat-
ed with creativity. Which personality
traits stood out among the artistical-
ly inclined? Martinsen found seven:
Associative orienta-
tion: Imaginative, play- f u l ,
have a wealth of ideas, abil-
ity to be committed, sliding tran-
sitions between fact and fiction.
Need for originality: Resists
rules and conventions. Have a re-
bellious attitude because of a need
to do things no one else does.
Motivation: Have a need to per-
form, goal oriented, innovative atti-
tude, stamina to tackle difficult issues.
Ambition: Have a need to be influ-
ential, attract attention and recognition.
Creative W | 08
1/15/2017 1:18:34 AM
 Flexibility: Have the ability to
see different aspects of issues and
come up with optimal solutions.
Low emotional stability: Have a
tendency to experience negative emo-
tions, greater fluctuations in moods and
emotional state, failing self-confidence.
Low sociability: Have a ten-
dency not to be very consider-
ate, are obstinate and find faults
and flaws in ideas and people.
What a creative idea isn’t
A creative idea is not a gimmick.
It’s not a pun or a catch phrase.
It’s not about using some new piece
of technical gimcrackery. Or deciding
on the colour green. These may be
the outcomes from a creative idea,
but the idea has to come first.
So how do you de-
fine a real creative idea?
Well the first thing you
should notice is that it’s
clever. Give good crea-
tive minds long enough to
think about a problem and
they should be able to
put the pieces together.
Buku.indd 12
Here are a few other recognisable
characteristics of a proper creative idea:
It’s highly relevant to the
brand’s commercial strategy.
It resonates with the needs
of the brand’s customers (and
often with more serious is-
sues out there in the real world).
It has ‘zing’. It stands out.
It feels fresh. It’s ‘right’ somehow.
It’s roomy. There is a broad canvas
for creative expression that goes be-
yond one or two executions. It should
be possible to use it for anything from
banner ads to supermarket wobblers.
It often seems obvi-
ous, and makes people think
the job of finding it was
easy. Usually afterwards.
Where do crea-
tive ideas come from?
Controlled thinking
- and lots of it.
Whether
it’s an
1/15/2017 1:18:37 AM
 advert, a song or a joke, the tech-
nique is more or less the same.
John Cleese probably put it best.
Talking is good too. Traditionally, ad-
vertising agencies would put writers
and art directors together to dis-
cuss a brief and solve it through
the intersection of visual and ver-
bal thinking. These days the team
may also include a digital design-
er or UX expert. But some people
like to tinker away on their own.
We do whatever works.
Also, we never forget that this type of
thinking must be nurtured. If the cre-
ative team are only ever in the office,
or commuting or doing domestic things
at home, they’ll soon dry up. It’s vital
to get out of the office and around the
galleries if you’re to avoid getting all
your ideas off of the furniture or decor.
We also believe it’s important to
keep an eye on the latest films,
books, music and news. Real cre-
atives need to be in touch with the
world, even the other worldly ones.
But most important of all
– we don’t skimp on time.
This may be hard when there
are countless deadlines, but the
amount of thought that goes into
an idea is usually quite transpar-
ent - even to people who’ve nev-
er stepped near a creative agency.
Writing is a medium of human com-
munication that represents language
and emotion through the inscription
Buku.indd 13
or recording of signs and symbols. In
most languages, writing is a comple-
ment to speech or spoken language.
Writing is not a language but a form
of technology that developed as tools
developed with human society. With-
in a language system, writing relies
on many of the same structures as
speech, such as vocabulary, gram-
mar and semantics, with the added
dependency of a system of signs or
symbols. The result of writing is gen-
erally called text, and the recipient of
text is called a reader. Motivations for
writing include publication, storytelling,
correspondence and diary. Writing has
been instrumental in keeping histo-
ry, maintaining culture, dissemina-
tion of knowledge through the media
and the formation of legal systems.
As human societies emerged, the de-
velopment of writing was driven by
pragmatic exigencies such as ex-
changing information, maintaining fi-
nancial accounts, codifying laws and
recording history. Around the 4th mil-
lennium BCE, the complexity of trade
and administration in Mesopotamia
outgrew human memory, and writing
became a more dependable method of
recording and presenting transactions
in a permanent form.[1] In both an-
cient Egypt and Mesoamerica writing
may have evolved through calendrics
and a political necessity for recording
historical and environmental events.
Originality is the aspect of
created or invented works by as
being new or novel, and thus can
be distinguished from reproductions,
clones, forgeries, or derivative works.
Creative W | 10
1/15/2017 1:18:38 AM
 [citation needed] An original work is
one not received from others nor
one copied from or based upon the
work of others.[citation needed]. It
is a work created with a unique
style and substance. The term “orig-
inality” is often applied as a com-
pliment to the creativity of artists,
writers, and thinkers.[citation needed]
The idea of originality as we[who?]
know it was invented by Romanti-
cism,[1] with a notion that is often
called romantic originality.[2][3][4]
The concept of originality is cultural-
ly contingent. It became an ideal
in Western culture starting from
the 18th cen- tury.
[5][6]
I n
con-
trast, at the time of Shakespeare
it was common to appreciate more
the similarity with an admired clas-
sical work, and Shakespeare him-
self avoided “unnecessary invention”
When an artist creates a unique art-
work, that is an original. That original
may be a painting of some kind, or
a sculpture, or a performance work,
or one of many other kinds of me-
dia. It seems that the types of orig-
inal media proliferate daily. However,
if the artist makes it with his/her
own hands OR under his/her su-
pervision (Jeff Koons has a huge
workshop with lots of “helpers” as
does the glassmaker Dale Chihuly -
and so did many of the Renais-
sance artists), then it is an original.
Creative W | 11
Buku.indd 14
With printmaking, there is a lot more
confusion in the artworld, and in fact,
Bernd’s answer needs a bit of clar-
ification. When an artist does origi-
nal printmaking, they make a printing
plate from which an edition is printed.
The plate does NOT copy a work
of art that was originally produced in
some other medium (an oil paint-
ing, acryclic, etc.). It is a unique
work, created solely as a print. The
pieces of the edition are signed and
numbered by the artist. (note: There
are also “monoprints”, which are one
of a kind prints that an artist
makes - each one a
unique piece - these a r e
just like originals, ex- cept they
are made by a printing process)
If the printing plate - these days
plates can be made photographically
- copies, or in other words, RE-
PRODUCES an image that the artist
originally made in some other me-
dium, and then the works in the
edition replicate THAT image, then
even if the artist numbers and signs
them and even if he or she makes
some little extra unique squiggles on
them with their own hand, and even
if the gallery calls them “originals”,
they are still reproductions. And what
is really important to understand, is
that they are of much less value that
any kind of original created by the
1/15/2017 1:18:39 AM
 artist, no matter how they are hyped. that represent (or approximate) syl-
This is the area where the great- lables. A glyph in a syllabary typically
est misinformation and flat out frauds represents a consonant followed by a
in the art business have occurred. vowel, or just a vowel alone, though
A logogram is a written char- in some scripts more complex syllables
acter which represents a word or mor- (such as consonant-vowel-conso-
pheme. A vast number of logograms nant, or consonant-consonant-vowel)
are needed to write Chinese charac- may have dedicated glyphs. Pho-
ters, cuneiform, and Mayan, where a netically related syllables are not so
glyph may stand for a morpheme, a indicated in the script. For instance,
syllable, or both—(“logoconsonantal” the syllable “ka” may look nothing
in the case of hieroglyphs). Many like the syllable “ki”, nor will sylla-
logograms have an ideographic com- bles with the same vowels be similar.
ponent (Chinese “radicals”, hiero-
glyphic “determiners”). For example,
in Mayan, the glyph for
“fin”, pronounced
“ka’”, was also
used to rep-
re- sent the
syl- lable
“ka” when-
e v er the
pronun- ciation of
a logogram needed to be
indicated, or when there was no log-
ogram. In Chinese, about 90% of
characters are compounds of a se-
mantic (meaning) element called a
radical with an existing character to
indicate the pronunciation, called a
phonetic. However, such phonetic el-
ements complement the logograph-
ic elements, rather than vice versa.

The main logographic system in use

today is Chinese characters, used
with some modification for the var-
ious languages or dialects of Chi-
na, and for Japanese. Korean,
even in South Korea, today uses
mainly the phonetic Hangul system
A syllabary is a set of written symbols

Creative W | 12

Buku.indd 15 1/15/2017 1:18:40 AM

 MENGGAM-
BAR

My Book | 13

Buku.indd 16 1/15/2017 1:18:41 AM

 Our lesson on drawing portraits is
an illustrated step by step tutorial
that will teach you the skills and
techniques you need to help you
draw a convincing pencil portrait.
Our section on the Proportions
of the Head helps you to measure
the size, calculate the shape and
position the features of a face in
your drawings. If you follow these
basic proportions you should notice
an improvement in the accuracy of
your portraits. These measurements
are something that you need to un-
derstand before you start any portrait.
Our section on Portrait Features
helps you with the problems that you
meet when drawing the eyes, nose,
mouth and ears. Each feature has
its own difficulties which we guide
Buku.indd 17
you through in our illustrated lessons.
Our Pencil Portrait explains
and illustrates each stage of draw-
ing a portrait from the initial out-
line to the subtle tones and tex-
tures of the finished work. Our step
by step approach allows you to see
the stages of development that you
need to work through in order to
achieve an image of satisfying quality.
Our Pencil Shading Techniques
will enable you to practice the skills
you need to improve your abili-
ty to render tone and form. You
can copy and print a free exercise
sheet to test your shading technique.
Firstly, the most useful technique to get
started and past the initial fear is to
Menggambar | 14
1/15/2017 1:18:49 AM
 simplify the major shapes of the face.
If you are drawing from an image, then
you can even draw the shapes on your
reference photo before you draw them
on your paper. This will help you get
a good understanding of proportions
and the distances between features.
The most common shapes used to
break up the face are circles and
triangles, but you can use whichev-
er shape comes closest to the el-
ements in your reference. Look at
your image — or live subject if you
are drawing from life — and try to
find the underlying shapes that create
the structure of the face and skull.
When drawing, it is easy to
let your brain take charge and begin
to draw what we think is there in-
stead of going with a fully observa-
tion approach and drawing what we
actually see. One way to overcome
this problem is to draw lines in order
Menggambar | 15
Buku.indd 18
to analyze how the features align on
the face. Using this technique will
help you learn how things like the
eyes, hairline, nose, ears, cheek-
bones, etc. interact with each other.
Draw vertical and diagonal lines to get
a sense of how the placement of the
nose relates to the placement of the
mouth, and chin; how the corner of
the eye interacts with the neck and
jawline; or the relationship between
the eye and the edge of the nose.
This tip is closely relat-
ed to the previous one. We are
still drawing lines over our refer-
ence image, but this time their
purpose is to measure distances.
Sketching the features of a face at
the correct distance from each other
is very important to achieve like-
ness. Some people have eyes that
are closer together, others are wider
apart, some have longer noses and
1/15/2017 1:18:50 AM
 others shorter ones. All of these de-
tails make up the person as a whole
and define their individual and char-
acteristic look. When you get the size
and distance of the features right, a
face becomes instantly recognizable
and can come alive on the page.
All of these tips are aimed at
improving and refining our observational
skills and analyzing the individual and
unique proportions of the person we
are sketching. Give them a try and see
how, after just a couple of attempts,
you will start to notice improvement
with ever new sketch you create.
This is tremendously encouraging,
to witness as we slowly improve
our skills and get better right be-
fore our very eyes. After all, that’s
what practice is all about, nothing
but a beautiful journey of discover-
ing how much we are capable of.
Gary Faigin, Craftsy in-
Buku.indd 19
structor, said that drawing portraits
is one of the most magical things
there is because, by using the sim-
plest of tools on a blank piece of
paper, a person suddenly appears
on it. I could not agree more, and
I think he put into words exact-
ly what the amazing beauty of the
portraiture experience is all about.
Our lesson on drawing por-
traits is an illustrated step by step
tutorial that will teach you the skills
and techniques you need to help
you draw a convincing pencil portrait.
Our section on the Proportions
of the Head helps you to measure
the size, calculate the shape and
position the features of a face in
your drawings. If you follow these
basic proportions you should notice
an improvement in the accuracy of
Menggambar | 16
1/15/2017 1:18:52 AM
 your portraits. These measurements
are something that you need to un-
derstand before you start any portrait.
Our section on Portrait Features
helps you with the problems that you
meet when drawing the eyes, nose,
mouth and ears. Each feature has
its own difficulties which we guide
you through in our illustrated lessons.
Our Pencil Portrait explains
and illustrates each stage of draw-
ing a portrait from the initial out-
line to the subtle tones and tex-
tures of the finished work. Our step
by step approach allows you to see
the stages of development that you
need to work through in order to
achieve an image of satisfying quality.
Our Pencil Shading Techniques
will enable you to practice the skills
you need to improve your abili-
ty to render tone and form. You
can copy and print a free exercise
sheet to test your shading technique.
Our section on the Pro-
portions of the Head helps you to
measure the size, calculate the shape
and position the features of a face
in your drawings. If you follow these
basic proportions you should notice
an improvement in the accuracy of
your portraits. These measurements
are something that you need to un-
derstand before you start any portrait.
Our section on Portrait Features
helps you with the problems that you
meet when drawing the eyes, nose,
mouth and ears. Each feature has
its own difficulties which we guide
Menggambar | 17
Buku.indd 20
you through in our illustrated lessons.
Our Pencil Portrait explains
and illustrates each stage of draw-
ing a portrait from the initial out-
line to the subtle tones and tex-
tures of the finished work. Our step
by step approach allows you to see
the stages of development that you
need to work through in order to
achieve an image of satisfying quality.
Our Pencil Shading Techniques
will enable you to practice the skills
you need to improve your abili-
ty to render tone and form. You
can copy and print a free exercise
sheet to test your shading technique.
ion approach and drawing
what we actually see. One way to
overcome this problem is to draw lines
in order to analyze how the features
align on the face. Using this technique
will help you learn how things like the
eyes, hairline, nose, ears, cheek-
bones, etc. interact with each other.
Draw vertical and diagonal lines to get
a sense of how the placement of the
nose relates to the placement of the
mouth, and chin; how the corner of
the eye interacts with the neck and
jawline; or the relationship between
the eye and the edge of the nose.
This tip is closely related to
Our section on the Pro-
portions of the Head helps you to
measure the size, calculate the shape
and position the features of a face
in your drawings. If you follow these
basic proportions you should notice
an improvement in the accuracy of
your portraits. These measurements
1/15/2017 1:18:52 AM
 are something that you need to un- achieve an image of satisfying quality.
derstand before you start any portrait.
Our Pencil Shading Techniques
Our section on Portrait Features will enable you to practice the skills
helps you with the problems that you you need to improve your abili-
meet when drawing the eyes, nose, ty to render tone and form. You
mouth and ears. Each feature has can copy and print a free exercise
its own difficulties which we guide sheet to test your shading technique.
you through in our illustrated lessons. Our section on the Pro-
portions of the Head helps you to
Our Pencil Portrait explains measure the size, calculate the shape
and illustrates each stage of draw- and position the features of a face
ing a portrait from the initial out- in your drawings. If you follow these
line to the subtle tones and tex- basic proportions you should notice
tures of the finished work. Our step an improvement in the accuracy of
by step approach allows you to see your portraits. These measurements
the stages of development that you are something that you need to un-
need to work through in order to derstand before you start any portrait.
achieve an image of satisfying quality.
Our section on Portrait Features
Our Pencil Shading Techniques helps you with the problems that you
will enable you to practice the skills meet when drawing the eyes, nose,
you need to improve your abili- mouth and ears. Each feature has
ty to render tone and form. You its own difficulties which we guidew
can copy and print a free exercise
sheet to test your shading technique.
Our section on the Pro-
portions of the Head helps you to
measure the size, calculate the shape
and position the features of a face
in your drawings. If you follow these
basic proportions you should notice
an improvement in the accuracy of
your portraits. These measurements
are something that you need to un-
derstand before you start any portrait.
Our Pencil Portrait explains and illus-
trates each stage of drawing a portrait
from the initial outline to the subtle
tones and textures of the finished work.
Our step by step approach allows you
to see the stages of development that
you need to work through in order to

Menggambar | 18

Buku.indd 21 1/15/2017 1:18:53 AM

 VISUAL
STORYTELL

My Book | 19

Buku.indd 22 1/15/2017 1:18:53 AM

 Storytelling is the social and
cultural activity of sharing stories, of-
ten with improvisation, theatrics, or
embellishment. Stories or narratives
have been shared in every culture
as a means of entertainment, edu-
cation, cultural preservation and in-
stilling moral values. Crucial elements
of stories and storytelling include
plot, characters and narrative point of
view. The term ‘storytelling’ is used
in a narrow sense to refer specif-
ically to oral storytelling and also
in a looser sense to refer to tech-
niques used in other media to unfold
or disclose the narrative of a story.
Storytelling predates writing,
with the earliest forms of storytelling
usually oral combined with gestures
and expressions. In addition to be-
ing part of religious rituals, some
archaeologists believe rock art may
have served as a form of storytell-
ing for many ancient cultures.[1] The
Australian aboriginal people painted
symbols from stories on cave walls
as a means of helping the storytell-
er remember the story. from generation to generation, despite
Buku.indd 23
The story was then told using
a combination of oral narrative, mu-
sic, rock art and dance, which bring
understanding and meaning of hu-
man existence through remembrance
and enactment of stories.[2] People
have used the carved trunks of living
trees and ephemeral media (such as
sand and leaves) to record stories
in pictures or with writing. Complex
forms of tattooing may also represent
stories, with information about ge-
nealogy, affiliation and social status.
With the advent of writing and the
use of stable, portable media, stories
were recorded, transcribed and shared
over wide regions of the world. Stories
have been carved, scratched, painted,
printed or inked onto wood or bam-
boo, ivory and other bones, pottery,
clay tablets, stone, palm-leaf books,
skins (parchment), bark cloth, pa-
per, silk, canvas and other textiles,
recorded on film and stored elec-
tronically in digital form. Oral stories
continue to be created, improvisation-
ally by impromptu storytellers, as well
as committed to memory and passed
Vis-Storytell | 20
1/15/2017 1:18:56 AM
 the increasing popularity of written and
televised media in much of the world.
Modern storytelling has a
broad purview. In addition to its tradi-
tional forms (fairytales, folktales, my-
thology, legends, fables etc.), it has
extended itself to representing history,
personal narrative, political commentary
and evolving cultural norms. Contem-
porary storytelling is also widely used
to address educational objectives.[3]
New forms of media are creating new
ways for people to record, express
and consume stories. Tools for asyn-
chronous group communication can
provide an environment for individuals
to reframe or recast individual sto-
ries into group stories.[4] Games and
other digital platforms, such as those
used in interactive fiction or interactive
storytelling, may be used to position
the user as a character within a big-
ger world. Documentaries, including
interactive web documentaries, em-
ploy storytelling narrative techniques
Vis-Storytell | 21
Buku.indd 24
to communicate information about their
topic. Self-revelatory stories, creat-
ed for their cathartic and therapeutic
effect, are growing in their use and
application, as in Psychodrama, Dra-
ma Therapy and Playback Theatre.[5]
Albert Bates Lord exam-
ined oral narratives from field tran-
scripts of Yugoslav oral bards col-
lected by Milman Parry in the 1930s,
and the texts of epics such as
the Odyssey and Beowulf.[6] Lord
found that a large part of the sto-
ries consisted of text which was im-
provised during the telling process.
Lord identified two types of story vo-
cabulary. The first he called “for-
mulas”: “rosy-fingered dawn”, “the
wine-dark sea” and other specific
set phrases had long been known
of in Homer and other oral ep-
ics. Lord, however, discovered that
across many story traditions, fully
90% of an oral epic is assembled
1/15/2017 1:19:02 AM
 from lines which are repeated verba-
tim or which use one-for-one word
substitutions. In other words, oral
stories are built out of set phrases
which have been stockpiled from a
lifetime of hearing and telling stories.
The other type of story vocabulary
is theme, a set sequence of story
actions that structure a tale. Just as
the teller of tales proceeds line-by-
line using formulas, so he proceeds
from event-to-event using themes.
One near-universal theme is repe-
tition, as evidenced in Western folk-
lore with the “rule of three”: three
brothers set out, three attempts are
made, three riddles are asked. A
theme can be as simple as a specific
set sequence describing the arming
of a hero, starting with shirt and
trousers and ending with headdress
and weapons. A theme can be large
enough to be a plot component. For
example: a hero proposes a journey
to a dangerous place / he disguises
himself / his disguise fools everybody
/ except for a common person of
little account (a crone, a tavern maid
or a woodcutter) / who immediately
recognizes him / the commoner be-
comes the hero’s ally, showing unex-
pected resources of skill or initiative.
A theme does not belong to a specific
story, but may be found with mi-
nor variation in many different stories.
Themes may be no more than handy
prefabricated parts for constructing a
tale, or they may represent universal
truths – ritual-based, religious truths,
as James Frazer saw in The Gold-
en Bough, or archetypal, psychological
truths, as Joseph Campbell describes
Buku.indd 25
in The Hero With a Thousand Faces.
The story was described by Reyn-
olds Price, when he wrote:
A need to tell and hear sto-
ries is essential to the species Homo
sapiens – second in necessity ap-
parently after nourishment and be-
fore love and shelter. Millions survive
without love or home, almost none in
silence; the opposite of silence leads
quickly to narrative, and the sound
of story is the dominant sound of
our lives, from the small accounts of
our day’s events to the vast incom-
municable constructs of psychopaths.[
Folklorists sometimes di-
vide oral tales into two main groups:
Märchen and Sagen.[8] These are
German terms for which there are
no exact English equivalents, how-
ever we have approximations:
Märchen, loosely translated as
“fairy tale(s)” (lit. little stories),
take place in a kind of separate
“once-upon-a-time” world of no-
where-in-particular, at an indeter-
minate time in the past. They are
clearly not intended to be understood
as true. The stories are full of clear-
ly defined incidents, and peopled by
rather flat characters with little or no
interior life. When the supernatural
occurs, it is presented matter-of-fact-
ly, without surprise. Indeed, there is
very little effect, generally; blood-
curdling events may take place, but
with little call for emotional response
from the listener.[citation needed]
Sagen, best translated as “legends”,
Vis-Storytell | 22
1/15/2017 1:19:03 AM
 are supposed to have actually hap-
pened, very often at a particular time
and place, and they draw much of
their power from this fact. When
the supernatural intrudes (as it of-
ten does), it does so in an emo-
tionally fraught manner. Ghost and
lovers’ leap stories belong in this
category, as do many UFO sto-
ries and stories of supernatural be-
ings and events.[citation needed]
Another important examination of oral-
ity in human life is Walter J. Ong’s
Orality and Literacy: The Technol-
ogizing of the Word (1982). Ong
studies the distinguishing characteris-
tics of oral traditions, how oral and
written cultures interact and condi-
tion one another, and how they ulti-
mately influence human epistemology.
empts are made, three riddles
are asked. A theme can be as simple
as a specific set sequence describing
the arming of a hero, starting with
shirt and trousers and ending with
headdress and weapons. A theme can
be large enough to be a plot com-
ponent. For
Buku.indd 26
example: a hero proposes a journey
to a dangerous place / he disguises
himself / his disguise fools everybody
/ except for a common person of
little account (a crone, a tavern maid
or a woodcutter) / who immediately
recognizes him / the commoner be-
comes the hero’s ally, showing unex-
pected resources of skill or initiative.
A theme does not belong to a specific
story, but may be found with minor
variation in many different stories.
Themes may be no more than handy
prefabricated parts for constructing a
tale, or they may represent universal
truths – ritual-based, religious truths,
as James Frazer saw in The Golden
Bough, or archetypal, psychological
truths, as Joseph Campbell describes
in The Hero With a Thousand Faces.
The story was de-
scribed by Reynolds
Price, when he wrote:
A need to tell
and hear stories
is essential
to the species
Homo sapiens
– second in ne-
cessity apparently
after nourishment
a n d
1/15/2017 1:19:08 AM
 before love and shelter. Millions sur-
vive without love or home, almost
none in silence; the opposite of si-
lence leads quickly to narrative, and
the sound of story is the dominant
storytelling narrative techniques
to communicate information about their
topic. Self-revelatory stories, creat-
ed for their cathartic and therapeutic
effect, are growing in their use and
application, as in Psychodrama, Dra-
ma Therapy and Playback Theatre.[5]
Albert Bates Lord exam-
ined oral narratives from field tran-
scripts of Yugoslav oral bards col-
lected by Milman Parry in the 1930s,
and the texts of epics such as
the Odyssey and Beowulf.[6] Lord
found that a large part of the sto-
ries consisted of text which was im-
provised during the telling process.
Lord identified two types of story vo-
cabulary. The first he called “for-
mulas”: “rosy-fingered dawn”, “the
wine-dark sea” and other specific
set phrases had long been known
of in Homer and other oral epics.
Lord, however, discovered that across
many story traditions, fully 90% of
an oral epic is assembled from lines
which are repeated verbatim or which
use one-for-one word substitu-
tions. In other words, oral stories
are built out of set phrases which
have been stockpiled from a life-
time of hearing and telling stories.
The other type of story vocabulary
is theme, a set sequence of story
actions that structure a tale. Just as
the teller of tales proceeds line-by-
line using formulas, so he proceeds
Buku.indd 27
from event-to-event using themes.
One near-universal theme is repe-
tition, as evidenced in Western folk-
lore with the “rule of three”: three
brothers set out, three attempts are
made, three riddles are asked. A
theme can be as simple as a specific
set sequence describing the arming
of a hero, starting with shirt and
trousers and ending with headdress
and weapons. A theme can be large
enough to be a plot component. For
example: a hero proposes a journey
to a dangerous place / he disguises
himself / his disguise fools everybody
/ except for a common person of
little account (a crone, a tavern maid
or a woodcutter) / who immediately
recognizes him / the commoner be-
comes the hero’s ally, showing unex-
pected resources of skill or initiative.
A theme does not belong to a specific
story, but may be found with mi-
nor variation in many different stories.
Themes may be no more than handy
prefabricated parts for constructing a
tale, or they may represent universal
truths – ritual-based, religious truths,
as James Frazer saw in The Gold-
en Bough, or archetypal, psychological
truths, as Joseph Campbell describes
in The Hero With a Thousand Faces.
The story was described by Reyn-
olds Price, when he wrote:
A need to tell and hear sto-
ries is essential to the species Homo
sapiens – second in necessity ap-
parently after nourishment and be-
fore love and shelter. Millions sur-
vive without love or home, almost
none in silence; the opposite of si-
Vis-Storytell | 24
1/15/2017 1:19:09 AM
 lence leads quickly to narrative, and
the sound of story is the dominant
storytelling narrative techniques
to communicate information about their
topic. Self-revelatory stories, creat-
ed for their cathartic and therapeutic
effect, are growing in their use and
application, as in Psychodrama, Dra-
ma Therapy and Playback Theatre.[5]
Albert Bates Lord exam-
ined oral narratives from field tran-
scripts of Yugoslav oral bards col-
lected by Milman Parry in the 1930s,
and the texts of epics such as
the Odyssey and Beowulf.[6] Lord
found that a large part of the sto-
ries consisted of text which was im-
provised during the telling process.
Lord identified two types of story vo-
cabulary. The first he called “for-
mulas”: “rosy-fingered dawn”, “the
wine-dark sea” and other specific
set phrases had long been known
of in Homer and other oral epics.
Lord, however, discovered that across
many story traditions, fully 90% of
an oral epic is assembled from lines
which are repeated verbatim or which
use one-for-one word substitu-
tions. In other words, oral stories
are built out of set phrases which
have been stockpiled from a life-
time of hearing and telling stories.
a ries is essential to the species Homo
The other type of story vocabulary
is theme, a set sequence of story
actions that structure a tale. Just as
the teller of tales proceeds line-by-
line using formulas, so he proceeds
from event-to-event using themes.
One near-universal theme is repe-
tition, as evidenced in Western folk-
Vis-Storytell | 25
Buku.indd 28
lore with the “rule of three”: three
brothers set out, three attempts are
made, three riddles are asked. A
theme can be as simple as a specific
set sequence describing the arming
of a hero, starting with shirt and
trousers and ending with headdress
and weapons. A theme can be large
enough to be a plot component. For
example: a hero proposes a journey
to a dangerous place / he disguises
himself / his disguise fools everybody
/ except for a common person of
little account (a crone, a tavern maid
or a woodcutter) / who immediately
recognizes him / the commoner be-
comes the hero’s ally, showing unex-
pected resources of skill or initiative.
A theme does not belong to a specific
story, but may be found with mi-
nor variation in many different stories.
Themes may be no more than handy
prefabricated parts for constructing a
tale, or they may represent universal
truths – ritual-based, religious truths,
as James Frazer saw in The Gold-
en Bough, or archetypal, psychological
truths, as Joseph Campbell describes
in The Hero With a Thousand Faces.
The story was described by Reyn-
olds Price, when he wrote:
A need to tell and hear sto-
sapiens – second in necessity ap-
parently after nourishment and be-
fore love and shelter. Millions sur-
vive without love or home, almost
none in silence; the opposite of si-
lence leads quickly to narrative, and
the sound of story is the dominant
storytelling narrative techniques
1/15/2017 1:19:09 AM
 to communicate information about their
topic. Self-revelatory stories, creat-
ed for their cathartic and therapeutic
effect, are growing in their use and
application, as in Psychodrama, Dra-
ma Therapy and Playback Theatre.[5]
Albert Bates Lord exam-
ined oral narratives from field tran-
scripts of Yugoslav oral bards col-
lected by Milman Parry in the 1930s,
and the texts of epics such as
the Odyssey and Beowulf.[6] Lord
found that a large part of the sto-
ries consisted of text which was im-
provised during the telling process.
Lord identified two types of story vo-
cabulary. The first he called “for-
mulas”: “rosy-fingered dawn”, “the
wine-dark sea” and other specific
set phrases had long been known
of in Homer and other oral epics.
Lord, however, discovered that across
many story traditions, fully 90% of
an oral epic is assembled from lines
which are repeated verbatim or which
use one-for-one word substitu-
tions. In other words, oral stories
are built out of set phrases which
have been stockpiled from a life-
time of hearing and telling stories.
The story was then told us-
ing a combination of oral narrative,
music, rock art and dance, which
bring understanding and meaning of
human existence through remembrance
and enactment of stories.[2] People
have used the carved trunks of living
trees and ephemeral media (such as
sand and leaves) to record stories
in pictures or with writing. Complex
forms of tattooing may also represent
stories, with information about ge-
Buku.indd 29
nealogy, affiliation and social status.
With the advent of writing and the use
of stable, portable media, stories were
recorded, transcribed and shared over
wide regions of the world. Stories
have been carved, scratched, painted,
printed or inked onto wood or bam-
boo, ivory and other bones, pottery,
clay tablets, stone, palm-leaf books,
skins (parchment), bark cloth, pa-
per, silk, canvas and other textiles,
recorded on film and stored elec-
tronically in digital form. Oral stories
Lord identified two types of
story vocabulary. The first he called
“formulas”: “rosy-fingered dawn”,
“the wine-dark sea” and other spe-
cific set phrases had long been
known of in Homer and other oral
epics. Lord, however, discovered that
across many story traditions, fully
90% of an oral epic is assembled
from lines which are repeated verba-
tim or which use one-for-one word
substitutions. In other words, oral
stories are built out of set phrases
which have been stockpiled from a
lifetime of hearing and telling stories.
a
The other type of story vocabulary is
theme, a set sequence of story ac-
tions that structure a tale. Just as the
teller of tales proceeds line-by-line
using formulas, so he proceeds from
event-to-event using themes. One
near-universal theme is repetition, as
evidenced in Western folklore with the
“rule of three”: three brothers set
out, three attempts are made, three
riddles are asked. A theme can be
as simple as a specific set sequence
describing the arming of a hero,
Vis-Storytell | 26
1/15/2017 1:19:10 AM
 starting with shirt and trousers and described by Reyn-
ending with headdress and weapons. olds Price, when he wrote:
A theme can be large enough to be
a plot component. For example: a A need to tell and hear sto-
hero proposes a journey to a danger- ries is essential to the species Homo
ous place / he disguises himself / sapiens – second in necessity ap-
his disguise fools everybody / except parently after nourishment and be-
for a common person of little account fore love and shelter. Millions sur-
(a crone, a tavern maid or a wood- vive without love or home, almost
cutter) / who immediately recognizes none in silence; the opposite of si-
him / the commoner becomes the lence leads quickly to narrative, and
hero’s ally, showing unexpected re- the sound of story is the dominant
sources of skill or initiative. A theme storytelling narrative tech-
does not belong to a specific story, niques lore with the “rule of three”:
but may be found with minor variation three brothers set out, three attempts
in many different stories. Themes may are made, three riddles are asked. A
be no more than handy prefabricated theme can be as simple as a specific
parts for constructing a tale, or they set sequence describing the arming
may represent universal truths – ritu- of a hero, starting with shirt and
al-based, religious truths, as James trousers and ending with headdress
Frazer saw in The Golden Bough, a n d weapons. A theme
or archetypal, psychological truths, as can be large enough to
Joseph Campbell describes in The be a plot component.
H e r o With a Thousand For ex- a m p l e :
Faces. a hero
pro-
T h e
story
was

Buku.indd 30 1/15/2017 1:19:12 AM

 poses a journey to a dangerous place
/ he disguises himself / his dis-
guise fools everybody / except for a
common person of little account (a
crone, a tavern maid or a woodcut-
ter) / who immediately recognizes
him / the commoner becomes the
hero’s ally, showing unexpected re-
sources of skill or initiative. A theme
does not belong to a specific story,
but may be found with minor variation
in many different stories. Themes may
be no more than handy prefabricat-
ed parts for constructing a tale, or
they may represent universal truths
– ritual-based, religious truths, as
James Frazer saw in The Golden
Bough, or archetypal, psychological
truths, as Joseph Campbell describes
in The Hero With a Thousand Faces.
The story was described by Reyn-
olds Price, when he wrote:
A need to tell and hear sto-
ries is essential to the species Homo
sapiens – second in necessity ap-
parently after nourishment and be-
fore love and shelter. Millions sur-
vive without love or home, almost
none in silence; the opposite of si-
lence leads quickly to narrative, and
the sound of story is the dominant
storytelling narrative techniques
to communicate information about their
topic. Self-revelatory stories, creat-
ed for their cathartic and therapeutic
effect, are growing in their use and
application, as in Psychodrama, Dra-
ma Therapy and Playback Theatre.[5]
Albert Bates Lord exam-
ined oral narratives from field tran-
scripts of Yugoslav oral bards col-
Buku.indd 31
lected by Milman Parry in the 1930s,
and the texts of epics such as
the Odyssey and Beowulf.[6] Lord
found that a large part of the sto-
ries consisted of text which was im-
provised during the telling process.
Lord identified two types of story vo-
cabulary. The first he called “for-
mulas”: “rosy-fingered dawn”, “the
wine-dark sea” and other specific
set phrases had long been known
of in Homer and other oral epics.
Lord, however, discovered that across
many story traditions, fully 90% of
an oral epic is assembled from lines
which are repeated verbatim or which
use one-for-one word substitu-
tions. In other words, oral stories
are built out of set phrases which
have been stockpiled from a life-
time of hearing and telling stories.
The story was then told us-
ing a combination of oral narrative,
music, rock art and dance, which
bring understanding and meaning of
human existence through remembrance
and enactment of stories.[2] People
have used the carved trunks of living
trees and ephemeral media (such as
sand and leaves) to record stories
in pictures or with writing. Complex
forms of tattooing may also repre-
sent stories, with information about ge
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