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5-0

ROBBINS & JUDGE

ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
13TH EDITION

Chapter 5:
Perception and Individual Decision Making
 Persepsi
5-1

 Sebuah proses dimana individu mengatur dan

menginterpretasikan kesan sensori mereka untuk
memberi makna bagi lingkungan mereka.
 Perilaku masyarakat didasarkan pada persepsi
mereka tentang apa realitas, bukan pada realitas
itu sendiri.
 Faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi persepsi - lihat
Exhibit 5-1

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Faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi Persepsi

Faktor-faktor dalam diri si

Pengarti:
 Sikap-sikap;
 Motif-motif;
 Minat-minat;
 Pengalaman;
 Harapan-harapan

Faktor-faktor dalam situasi:

 Waktu;
 Keadaan Kerja;
 Keadaan Sosial Persepsi

Faktor-faktor dalam diri

Target:
 Sesuatu yang baru;
 Gerakan
 Suara;
 Ukuran;
 Latar Belakang;
 Kedekatan;
 Kemiripan
 Attribution Theory: Judging Others
5-3

 Our perception and judgment of others are

significantly influenced by our assumptions of
the other people’s internal states.
 When individuals observe behavior, they attempt
to determine whether it is internally or externally
caused.
 Internalcauses are under that person’s control.
 External causes are not – person forced to act in that
way.

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 Teori Atribusi: Penilaian thd orang lain
5-4

 Persepsi dan penilaian terhadap orang lain

dipengaruhi secara signifikan oleh asumsi tentang
kondisi internal orang lain.
 Ketika individu mengamati perilaku, mereka berusaha untuk
menentukan apakah disebabkan oleh faktor internal atau
eksternal
 Penyebab internal berada di bawah kendali orang tersebut.
 Penyebab eksternal bukan – dengan cara memaksa orang lain
untuk melakukan tindakan tertentu.

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 Teori Atribusi: Penilaian thd orang lain
5-5

 Penyebab dinilai melalui:

 Keberbedaan / Kekhasan
 Menunjukkan perilaku yang berbeda dalam situasi yang berbeda.
 Konsensus
 Respon yang sama seperti orang lain pada situasi yang sama.
 Konsistensi
 Memberikan respon dengan cara yang sama dari waktu ke waktu.

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 Kesalahan dan Bias dalam Atribusi
5-6

Kesalahan mendasar atribusi

 Kecenderungan untuk meremehkan pengaruh faktor

eksternal dan melebih-lebihkan pengaruh faktor internal
ketika membuat penilaian tentang perilaku orang lain
 Yang disalahkan pertama kali adalah orangnya, bukan
menyalahkan situasinya
 Bias dalam Self-Serving
 Kecenderungan bagi individu untuk memberikan atribut
keberhasilan mereka sendiri karena faktor internal dan
menyalahkan penyebab kegagalan pada faktor-faktor eksternal
 Kalau sukses "kami" – Kalau gagal "mereka"

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 Cara Pintas yang Sering digunakan dalam menilai orang
lain
5-7

 Persepsi selektif
 Orang selektif menafsirkan apa yang mereka lihat atas dasar
minat mereka, latar belakang, pengalaman, dan sikap.

 Halo Effect
 Menggambarkan kesan umum tentang seorang individu
berdasarkan karakteristik tunggal
 Efek kontras
 Evaluasi karakteristik seseorang yang dipengaruhi oleh
perbandingan dengan orang lain yang baru memperoleh
peringkat lebih tinggi atau lebih rendah pada karakteristik yang
sama

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 Jalan Pintas lainnya: Stereotyping
5-8

Menilai seseorang atas dasar persepsi seseorang dari

kelompok yang dia miliki – sebuah kelaziman dan
sering berguna, jika tidak selalu akurat, generalisasi

 Profiling
 Suatu bentuk stereotip di mana anggota kelompok yang
dipilih untuk pengamatan yang intens berdasarkan satu,
sering dari sisi ras, sifat.

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 Jalan pintas Spesifik Pelamar Kerja didalam
organisasi
5-9

 Wawancara Karyawan
 bias persepsi dari penilai mempengaruhi keakuratan penilaian
pewawancara pelamar.
 Dibentuk dalam sekejap - 1/10 detik!

 Harapan kinerja
 Kinerja yang lebih rendah atau lebih tinggi dari karyawan
mencerminkan harapan pemimpin terbentuk sebelumnya tentang
kemampuan karyawan.

 Evaluasi kinerja
 Penilaian yang sering merupakan persepsi yang subjektif dari penilai
kinerja karyawan.
 Dampak kritis pada karyawan

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 Perceptions and Individual Decision
5-10
Making
 Problem
 A perceived discrepancy between the current state of
affairs and a desired state
 Decisions
 Choices made from among alternatives developed from
data
 Perception Linkage:
 All elements of problem identification and the decision
making process are influenced by perception.
 Problems must be recognized
 Data must be selected and evaluated

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 Decision-Making Models in
5-11
Organizations
 Rational Decision-Making
 The “perfect world” model: assumes complete information, all
options known, and maximum payoff
 Six-step decision-making process
 Bounded Reality
 The “real world” model: seeks satisfactory and sufficient solutions
from limited data and alternatives
 Intuition
 A non-conscious process created from distilled experience that
results in quick decisions
 Relies on holistic associations
 Affectively charged – engaging the emotions
See Exhibit 5-3

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 Common Biases and Errors in Decision-
5-12
Making
 Overconfidence Bias
 Believing too much in our own ability to make good
decisions – especially when outside of own expertise
 Anchoring Bias
 Using early, first received information as the basis for
making subsequent judgments
 Confirmation Bias
 Selecting and using only facts that support our decision
 Availability Bias
 Emphasizing information that is most readily at hand
 Recent
 Vivid

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 More Common Decision-Making Errors
5-13

 Eskalasi Komitmen
 Meningkatkan komitmen untuk keputusan meskipun bukti bahwa
itu adalah salah - terutama jika bertanggung jawab atas
keputusan!
 Kesalahan keacakan
 Memaknai sesuatu dari kejadian yang bersifat acak - takhayul
 Pemenang Kutukan
 Penawar tertinggi membayar terlalu banyak karena nilai terlalu
tinggi
 Kemungkinan meningkat dengan jumlah orang dalam lelang
 Bias Melihat latar belakang
 Setelah hasil sudah diketahui, percaya yang itu bisa akurat
memprediksi sebelumnya

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 Individual Differences in Decision-
5-14
Making
 Personality
 Conscientiousness may effect escalation of commitment
 Achievement strivers are likely to increase commitment
 Dutiful people are less likely to have this bias
 Self-Esteem
 High self-esteem people are susceptible to self-serving bias
 Gender
 Women analyze decisions more than men – rumination
 Women are twice as likely to develop depression
 Differences develop early

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 Organizational Constraints
5-15

 Performance Evaluation
 Managerial evaluation criteria influence actions
 Reward Systems
 Managers will make the decision with the greatest personal
payoff for them
 Formal Regulations
 Limit the alternative choices of decision makers
 System-imposed Time Constraints
 Restrict ability to gather or evaluate information
 Historical Precedents
 Past decisions influence current decisions

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 Ethics in Decision Making
5-16

 Ethical Decision Criteria

 Utilitarianism
 Decisions made based solely on the outcome
 Seeking the greatest good for the greatest number
 Dominant method for businesspeople
 Rights
 Decisions consistent with fundamental liberties and privileges
 Respecting and protecting basic rights of individuals such as
whistleblowers
 Justice
 Imposing and enforcing rules fairly and impartially
 Equitable distribution of benefits and costs

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 Ethical Decision-Making Criteria
5-17
Assessed
 Utilitarianism
 Pro:Promotes efficiency and productivity
 Con: Can ignore individual rights, especially minorities

 Rights
 Pro:Protects individuals from harm, preserves rights
 Con: Creates an overly legalistic work environment

 Justice
 Pro:Protects the interests of weaker members
 Con: Encourages a sense of entitlement

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 Improving Creativity in Decision
5-18
Making
 Creativity
 The ability to produce novel and useful ideas
 Who has the greatest creative potential?
 Those who score high in Openness to Experience
 People who are intelligent, independent, self-confident,
risk-taking, have an internal locus-of-control, tolerant of
ambiguity, low need for structure, and who persevere
in the face of frustration

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 The Three-Component Model of Creativity
5-19

Proposition that individual creativity results from a

mixture of three components
 Expertise
 This is the foundation
 Creative-Thinking Skills
 The personality characteristics associated with
creativity
 Intrinsic Task Motivation
 The desire to do the job because of its characteristics
See Exhibit 5-4

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 Global Implications
5-20

 Attributions
 There are cultural differences in the ways people attribute
cause to observed behavior
 Decision-Making
 No research on the topic: assumption of “no difference”
 Based on our awareness of cultural differences in traits that
affect decision making, this assumption is suspect
 Ethics
 No global ethical standards exist
 Asian countries tend not to see ethical issues in “black and
white” but as shades of gray
 Global companies need global standards for managers

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 Summary and Managerial Implications
5-21

 Perception:
 People act based on how they view their world
 What exists is not as important as what is believed
 Managers must also manage perception

 Individual Decision Making

 Most use bounded rationality: they satisfice
 Combine traditional methods with intuition and creativity for
better decisions
 Analyze the situation and adjust to culture and organizational
reward criteria
 Be aware of, and minimize, biases

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