Fisiologi Sistem Respirasi

Deskripsi Sistem respirasi terdiri dari cavum nasal (rongga hidung), pharynk, larynk, trakhea, bronkhus, bronkhioli, bronkhioli terminalis, bronkhioli respiratorius, duktus alveoli dan alveoli pada paru-paru.

Saat udara melewati jalan nafas maka terjadi penghangatan oleh dinding mukosa yang banyak mengandung kapiler, humidifikasi (pelembaban) dan filterisasi (penyaringan) oleh bulu hidung, mukus dan silia. Mikroorganisme patogen yang masuk bersama udara dan tidak tersaring pada jalan nafas akan berakhir pada alveoli dan dibasmi oleh makrofag alveoli. Fungsi utama sistem respirasi adalah memenuhi kebutuhan oksigen jaringan tubuh dan membuang karbondioksida sebagai sisa metabolisme serta berperan dalam menjaga keseimbangan asam dan basa. Sistem respirasi bekerja melalui 3 tahapan yaitu : 1. Ventilasi 2. Difusi 3. Transportasi

Ventilasi Ventilasi merupakan proses pertukaran udara antara atmosfer dengan alveoli. Proses ini terdiri dari inspirasi (masuknya udara ke paru-paru) dan ekspirasi (keluarnya udara dari paru-paru). Ventilasi terjadi karena adanya perubahan tekanan intra pulmonal, pada saat inspirasi tekanan intra pulmonal lebih rendah dari tekanan atmosfer sehingga udara dari atmosfer akan terhisap ke dalam paru-paru. Sebaliknya pada saat ekspirasi tekanan intrapulmonal menjadi lebih tinggi dari atmosfer sehingga udara akan tertiup keluar dari paru-paru. Perubahan tekanan intrapulmonal tersebut disebabkan karena perubahan volume thorax akibat kerja dari otot-otot pernafasan dan diafragma. Pada saat inspirasi terjadi kontraksi dari otot-otot insiprasi (muskulus interkostalis eksternus dan diafragma)sehingga terjadi elevasi dari tulang-tulang kostae dan menyebabkan peningkatan volume cavum thorax (rongga dada), secara bersamaan paru-paru juga akan ikut mengembang sehingga tekanan intra pulmonal menurun dan udara terhirup ke dalam paru-paru.

Setelah inspirasi normal biasanya kita masih bisa menghirup udara dalam-dalam (menarik nafas dalam), hal ini dimungkinkan karena kerja dari otot-otot tambahan isnpirasi yaitu muskulus sternokleidomastoideus dan muskulus skalenus. Ekspirasi merupakan proses yang pasif dimana setelah terjadi pengembangan cavum thorax akibat kerja otot-otot inspirasi maka setelah otot-otot tersebut relaksasi maka terjadilah ekspirasi. Tetapi setelah ekspirasi normal, kitapun masih bisa menghembuskan nafas dalam-dalam karena adanya kerja dari otot-otot ekspirasi yaitu muskulus interkostalis internus dan muskulus abdominis.

Kerja dari otot-otot pernafasan disebabkan karena adanya perintah dari pusat pernafasan (medula oblongata) pada otak. Medula oblongata terdiri dari sekelompok neuron inspirasi dan ekspirasi. Eksitasi neuron-neuron inspirasi akan dilanjutkan dengan eksitasi pada neuron-neuron ekspirasi serta inhibisi terhadap neuron-neuron inspirasi sehingga terjadilah peristiwa inspirasi yang diikuti dengan peristiwa ekspirasi. Area inspirasi dan area ekspirasi ini terdapat pada daerah berirama medula (medulla rithmicity) yang menyebabkan irama pernafasan berjalan teratur dengan perbandingan 2 : 3 (inspirasi : ekspirasi). Ventilasi dipengaruhi oleh : 1. Kadar oksigen pada atmosfer 2. Kebersihan jalan nafas 3. Daya recoil & complience (kembang kempis) dari paru-paru 4. Pusat pernafasan Fleksibilitas paru sangat penting dalam proses ventilasi. Fleksibilitas paru dijaga oleh surfaktan. Surfaktan merupakan campuran lipoprotein yang dikeluarkan sel sekretori alveoli pada bagian epitel

alveolus dan berfungsi menurunkan tegangan permukaan alveolus yang disebabkan karena daya tarik menarik molekul air & mencegah kolaps alveoli dengan cara membentuk lapisan monomolekuler antara lapisan cairan dan udara. Energi yang diperlukan untuk ventilasi adalah 2 3% energi total yang dibentuk oleh tubuh. Kebutuhan energi ini akan meningkat saat olah raga berat, bisa mencapai 25 kali lipat. Saat terjadi ventilasi maka volume udara yang keluar masuk antara atmosfer dan paru-paru dapat dilihat pada tabel di bawah ini :

Volume tidal adalah volume udara yang diinspirasi dan diekspirasi dalam pernafasan normal. IRV (volume cadangan inspirasi) adalah volume udara yang masih bisa dihirup paru-paru setelah inspirasi normal. ERV (volume cadangan ekspirasi) adalah volume udara yang masih bisa diekshalasi setelah ekspirasi normal. Sedangkan RV (volume sisa) adalah volume udara yang masih tersisa dalam paruparu setelah ekspirasi kuat.

Difusi Difusi dalam respirasi merupakan proses pertukaran gas antara alveoli dengan darah pada kapiler paru. Proses difusi terjadi karena perbedaan tekanan, gas berdifusi dari tekanan tinggi ke tekanan rendah. Salah satu ukuran difusi adalah tekanan parsial.

Difusi terjadi melalui membran respirasi yang merupakan dinding alveolus yang sangat tipis dengan ketebalan rata-rata 0,5 mikron. Di dalamnya terdapat jalinan kapiler yang sangat banyak dengan

diameter 8 angstrom. Dalam paru2 terdapat sekitar 300 juta alveoli dan bila dibentangkan dindingnya maka luasnya mencapai 70 m2 pada orang dewasa normal. Saat difusi terjadi pertukaran gas antara oksigen dan karbondioksida secara simultan. Saat inspirasi maka oksigen akan masuk ke dalam kapiler paru dan saat ekspirasi karbondioksida akan dilepaskan kapiler paru ke alveoli untuk dibuang ke atmosfer. Proses pertukaran gas tersebut terjadi karena perbedaan tekanan parsial oksigen dan karbondioksida antara alveoli dan kapiler paru.

Volume gas yang berdifusi melalui membran respirasi per menit untuk setiap perbedaan tekanan sebesar 1 mmHg disebut dengan kapasitas difusi. Kapasitas difusi oksigen dalam keadaan istirahat sekitar 230 ml/menit. Saat aktivitas meningkat maka kapasitas difusi ini juga meningkat karena jumlah kapiler aktif meningkat disertai dDilatasi kapiler yang menyebabkan luas permukaan membran difusi meningkat. Kapasitas difusi karbondioksida saat istirahat adalah 400-450 ml/menit. Saat bekerja meningkat menjadi 1200-1500 ml/menit. Difusi dipengaruhi oleh : 1. Ketebalan membran respirasi 2. Koefisien difusi 3. Luas permukaan membran respirasi* 4. Perbedaan tekanan parsial

Transportasi Setelah difusi maka selanjutnya terjadi proses transportasi oksigen ke sel-sel yang membutuhkan melalui darah dan pengangkutan karbondioksida sebagai sisa metabolisme ke kapiler paru. Sekitar 97 - 98,5% Oksigen ditransportasikan dengan cara berikatan dengan Hb (HbO2/oksihaemoglobin,) sisanya larut dalam plasma. Sekitar 5- 7 % karbondioksida larut dalam plasma, 23 30% berikatan dengan Hb(HbCO2/karbaminahaemoglobin) dan 65 70% dalam bentuk HCO3 (ion bikarbonat).

Saat istirahat, 5 ml oksigen ditransportasikan oleh 100 ml darah setiap menit. Jika curah jantung 5000 ml/menit maka jumlah oksigen yang diberikan ke jaringan sekitar 250 ml/menit. Saat olah raga berat dapat meningkat 15 20 kali lipat.

Transportasi gas dipengaruhi oleh : 1. Cardiac Output 2. Jumlah eritrosit 3. Aktivitas 4. Hematokrit darah Setelah transportasi maka terjadilah difusi gas pada sel/jaringan. Difusi gas pada sel/jaringan terjadi karena tekanan parsial oksigen (PO2) intrasel selalu lebih rendah dari PO2 kapiler karena O2 dalam sel selalu digunakan oleh sel. Sebaliknya tekanan parsial karbondioksida (PCO2) intrasel selalu lebih tinggi karena CO2 selalu diproduksi oleh sel sebagai sisa metabolisme.

Regulasi Kebutuhan oksigen tubuh bersifat dinamis, berubah-ubah dipengaruhi oleh berbagai faktor diantaranya adalah aktivitas. Saat aktivitas meningkat maka kebutuhan oksigen akan meningkat sehingga kerja sistem respirasi juga meningkat. Mekanisme adaptasi sistem respirasi terhadap perubahan kebutuhan oksigen tubuh sangat penting untuk menjaga homeostastis dengan mekanisme sebagai berikut :

Sistem respirasi diatur oleh pusat pernafasan pada otak yaitu medula oblongata. Pusat nafas terdiri dari daerah berirama medulla (medulla rithmicity) dan pons. Daerah berirama medula terdiri dari area inspirasi dan ekspirasi. Sedangkan pons terdiri dari pneumotaxic area dan apneustic area. Pneumotaxic area menginhibisi sirkuit inspirasi dan meningkatkan irama respirasi. Sedangkan apneustic area mengeksitasi sirkuit inspirasi.

Daerah berirama medula mempertahankan irama nafas I : E = 2 : 3. Stimulasi neuron inspirasi menyebabkan osilasi pada sirkuit inspirasi selama 2 dan inhibisi pada neuron ekspirasi k emudian terjadi kelelahan sehingga berhenti. Setelah inhibisi hilang kemudian sirkuit ekspirasi berosilasi selama 3 dan terjadi inhibisi pada sirkuit inspirasi. Setelah itu terjadi kelelahan dan berhenti dan terus menerus terjadi sehingga tercipta pernafasan yang ritmis. Pengaturan respirasi dipengaruhi oleh : 1. Korteks serebri yang dapat mempengaruhi pola respirasi. 2. Zat-zat kimiawi : dalam tubuh terdapat kemoresptor yang sensitif terhadap perubahan konsentrasi O2, CO2 dan H+ di aorta, arkus aorta dan arteri karotis.

3. Gerakan : perubahan gerakan diterima oleh proprioseptor. 4. Refleks Heuring Breur : menjaga pengembangan dan pengempisan paru agar optimal. 5. Faktor lain : tekanan darah, emosi, suhu, nyeri, aktivitas spinkter ani dan iritasi saluran nafas

Pulmonary function tests

URL of this page: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003853.htm

Pulmonary function tests are a group of tests that measure how well the lungs take in and release air and how well they move gases such as oxygen from the atmosphere into the body's circulation.

How the Test is Performed

In a spirometry test, you breathe into a mouthpiece that is connected to an instrument called a spirometer. The spirometer records the amount and the rate of air that you breathe in and out over a period of time. For some of the test measurements, you can breathe normally and quietly. Other tests require forced inhalation or exhalation after a deep breath. Lung volume measurement can be done in two ways:

The most accurate way is to sit in a sealed, clear box that looks like a telephone booth (body plethysmograph) while breathing in and out into a mouthpiece. Changes in pressure inside the box help determine the lung volume. Lung volume can also be measured when you breathe nitrogen or helium gas through a tube for a certain period of time. The concentration of the gas in a chamber attached to the tube is measured to estimate the lung volume.

To measure diffusion capacity, you breathe a harmless gas for a very short time, often one breath. The concentration of the gas in the air you breathe out is measured. The difference in the amount of gas inhaled and exhaled measures how effectively gas travels from the lungs into the blood.

How to Prepare for the Test

Do not eat a heavy meal before the test. Do not smoke for 4 - 6 hours before the test. You'll get specific instructions if you need to stop using bronchodilators or inhaler medications. You may have to breathe in medication before the test.

How the Test Will Feel

Since the test involves some forced breathing and rapid breathing, you may have some temporary shortness of breath or lightheadedness. You breathe through a tight-fitting mouthpiece, and you'll have nose clips.

Why the Test is Performed

Pulmonary function tests are done to:

Diagnose certain types of lung disease (especially asthma, bronchitis, and emphysema) Find the cause of shortness of breath Measure whether exposure to contaminants at work affects lung function

It also can be done to:

Assess the effect of medication Measure progress in disease treatment

Spirometry measures airflow. By measuring how much air you exhale, and how quickly, spirometry can evaluate a broad range of lung diseases. Lung volume measures the amount of air in the lungs without forcibly blowing out. Some lung diseases (such as emphysema and chronic bronchitis) can make the lungs contain too much air. Other lung diseases (such as fibrosis of the lungs and asbestosis) make the lungs scarred and smaller so that they contain too little air. Testing the diffusion capacity (also called the DLCO) allows the doctor to estimate how well the lungs move oxygen from the air into the bloodstream.

Normal Results
Normal values are based upon your age, height, ethnicity, and sex. Normal results are expressed as a percentage. A value is usually considered abnormal if it is less than 80% of your predicted value. Normal value ranges may vary slightly among different laboratories. Talk to your doctor about the meaning of your specific test results.

What Abnormal Results Mean

Abnormal results usually mean that you may have some chest or lung disease.

Risks
The risk is minimal for most people. There is a small risk of collapsed lung in people with a certain type of lung disease. The test should not be given to a person who has experienced a recent heart attack, or who has certain other types of heart disease.

Considerations
Your cooperation while performing the test is crucial in order to get accurate results. A poor seal around the mouthpiece of the spirometer can give poor results that can't be interpreted. Do not smoke before the test.

Alternative Names
PFTs; Spirometry; Spirogram; Lung function tests

References
Mason RJ, Broaddus VC, Murray JF, Nadel JA. Murray and Nadel's Textbook of Respiratory Medicine. 4th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders; 2005.

spirometry
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Flow-Volume loop showing successful FVC maneuver. Positive values represent expiration, negative values represent inspiration. The trace moves clockwise for expiration followed by inspiration. (Note the FEV 1 value is arbitrary in this graph and just shown for illustrative purposes; these values must be calculated as part of the procedure).

Spirometry (meaning the measuring of breath) is the most common of the Pulmonary Function Tests (PFTs), measuring lung function, specifically the measurement of the amount (volume) and/or speed (flow) of air that can be inhaled and exhaled. Spirometry is an important tool used for generating pneumotachographs which are helpful in assessing conditions such as asthma, pulmonary fibrosis, cystic fibrosis, and COPD. device for spirometry. The patient places his or her lips around the blue mouthpiece. The teeth go between the nubs and the shield, and the lips go over the shield. A noseclip guarantees that breath will flow only through the mouth. The spirometry test is performed using a device called a spirometer, which comes in several different varieties. Most spirometers display the following graphs, called spirograms:

a volume-time curve, showing volume (liters) along the Y-axis and time (seconds) along the X-axis a flow-volume loop, which graphically depicts the rate of airflow on the Y-axis and the total volume inspired or expired on the X-axis

procedure
The basic forced volume vital capacity (FVC) test varies slightly depending on the equipment used. Generally, the patient is asked to take the deepest breath they can, and then exhale into the sensor as hard as possible, for as long as possible, preferrably at least 6 seconds. It is sometimes directly followed by a rapid inhalation (inspiration), in particular when assessing

possible upper airway obstruction. Sometimes, the test will be preceded by a period of quiet breathing in and out from the sensor (tidal volume), or the rapid breath in (forced inspiratory part) will come before the forced exhalation. During the test, soft nose clips may be used to prevent air escaping through the nose. Filter mouthpieces may be used to prevent the spread of microorganisms, particularly for inspiratory maneuvers.

Limitations of test
The maneuver is highly dependent on patient cooperation and effort, and is normally repeated at least three times to ensure reproducibility. Since results are dependent on patient cooperation, FEV1* and FVC can only be underestimated, never overestimated.(*FEV1 can be overestimated in people with some diseases - a softer blow can reduce the spasm or collapse of lung tissue to elevate the measure Due to the patient cooperation required, spirometry can only be used on children old enough to comprehend and follow the instructions given (typically about 45 years old), and only on patients who are able to understand and follow instructions - thus, this test is not suitable for patients who are unconscious, heavily sedated, or have limitations that would interfere with vigorous respiratory efforts. Other types of lung function tests are available for infants and unconscious persons. Another major limitation is the fact that many intermittent or mild asthmatics have normal spirometry between acute exacerbation, limiting spirometry's usefulness as a diagnostic. It is more useful as a monitoring tool: a sudden decrease in FEV1 or other spirometric measure in the same patient can signal worsening control, even if the raw value is still normal. Patients are encouraged to record their personal best measures. Related tests Spirometry can also be part of a bronchial challenge test, used to determine bronchial hyperresponsiveness to either rigorous exercise, inhalation of cold/dry air, or with a pharmaceutical agent such as methacholine or histamine. Sometimes, to assess the reversibility of a particular condition, a bronchodilator is administered before performing another round of tests for comparison. This is commonly referred to as a reversibility test, or a post bronchodilator test (Post BD), and is an important part in diagnosing asthma versus COPD. Other complementary lung functions tests include plethysmography and nitrogen washout. The most common parameters measured in spirometry are Vital capacity (VC), Forced vital capacity (FVC), Forced expiratory volume (FEV) at timed intervals of 0.5, 1.0 (FEV1), 2.0, and 3.0 seconds, Forced expiratory flow 2575% (FEF 2575) and Maximal voluntary ventilation (MVV).[1] Other tests may be performed in certain situations. Results are usually given in both raw data (litres, litres per second) and percent predicted the test result as a percent of the "predicted values" for the patients of similar characteristics (height, age, sex, and sometimes race and weight). The interpretation of the results can vary

depending on the physician and the source of the predicted values. Generally speaking, results nearest to 100% predicted are the most normal, and results over 80% are often considered normal. However, review by a doctor is necessary for accurate diagnosis of any individual situation. A bronchodilator is also given in certain circumstances and a pre/post graph comparison is done to access the effectiveness of the bronchodilator. See the example printout. Functional residual capacity (FRC) cannot be measured via spirometry, but it can be measured with a plethysmograph or dilution tests (for example, helium dilution test).
Average values for Forced Vital Capacity (FVC), Forced Expiratory Volume in 1 Second (FEV1) and Forced Expiratory Flow 2575% (FEF2575%), according to a study in the United States 2007 of 3,600 subjects aged 480 years.[2] Y-axis is expressed in litres for FVC and FEV1, and in litres/second for FEF2575%.

Forced Vital Capacity (FVC)

Forced Vital Capacity (FVC) is the volume of air that can forcibly be blown out after full inspiration, measured in liters. FVC is the most basic maneuver in spirometry tests. Forced Expiratory Volume in 1 second (FEV1) Average values for FEV1 in healthy people depend mainly on sex and age, according to diagram at left. Values of between 80% and 120% of the average value is considered normal.[3]

FEV1/FVC ratio (FEV1%)

FEV1/FVC (FEV1%) is the ratio of FEV1 to FVC. In healthy adults this should be approximately 7580%. In obstructive diseases (asthma, COPD, chronic bronchitis, emphysema) FEV1 is diminished because of increased airway resistance to expiratory flow and the FVC may be decreased (for instance by premature closure of airway in expiration). This generates a reduced value (<80%, often ~45%). In restrictive diseases (such as pulmonary fibrosis) the FEV1 and FVC are both reduced proportionally and the value may be normal or even increased as a result of decreased lung compliance. A derived value of FEV1% is FEV1% predicted, which is defined as FEV1% of the patient divided by the average FEV1% in the population for any person of similar age, sex and body composition.

Forced Expiratory Flow (FEF)

Forced Expiratory Flow (FEF) is the flow (or speed) of air coming out of the lung during the middle portion of a forced expiration. It can be given at discrete times, generally defined by what fraction remains of the functional vital capacity (FVC). The usual intervals are 25%, 50% and 75% (FEF25, FEF50 and FEF75), or 25% and 50% of FVC. It can also be given as a mean of the flow during an interval, also generally delimited by when specific fractions remain of FVC, usually 2575% (FEF2575%). Average ranges in the healthy population

depend mainly on sex and age, with FEF2575% shown in diagram at left. Values ranging from 50-60% and up to 130% of the average are considered normal.[3] MMEF or MEF stands for maximal (mid-)expiratory flow and is the peak of expiratory flow as taken from the flow-volume curve and measured in liters per second. It should theoretically be identical to peak expiratory flow (PEF), which is, however, generally measured by a peak flow meter and given in liters per minute.[4] FEF 2575% or 2550% gives an indication of what is happening in the lower airways. It is a more sensitive parameter and not as reproducibles as the others. It is a useful serial measurement because it will be affected before FEV, so can act as an early warning sign of small airway disease. In small airway diseases such as asthma this value will be reduced, it could be more than 65% less than expected value. More rarely, forced expiratory flow may be given at intervals defined by how much remains of total lung capacity. In such cases, it is usually designated as e.g. FEF70%TLC, FEF60%TLC and FEF50%TLC.[4]

[edit] Forced Inspiratory Flow 2575% or 2550%

Forced Inspiratory Flow 2575% or 2550% (FIF 2575% or 2550%) is similar to FEF 25 75% or 2550% except the measurement is taken during inspiration.

Peak Expiratory Flow (PEF)

Peak Expiratory Flow (PEF) is the maximal flow (or speed) achieved during the maximally forced expiration initiated at full inspiration, measured in liters per minute. Tidal volume (TV) Tidal volume (TV) is the specific volume of air drawn into, and then expired out of, the lungs during normal tidal breathing.

Total Lung Capacity (TLC)

Total Lung Capacity (TLC) is the maximum volume of air present in the lungs

Diffusion capacity (DLCO)

Diffusing Capacity (DLCO) is the carbon monoxide uptake from a single inspiration in a standard time (usually 10 sec). This will pick up diffusion impairments, for instance in pulmonary fibrosis. This must be corrected for anemia (because rapid CO diffusion is dependent on hemoglobin in RBC's a low hemoglobin concentration, anemia, will reduce DLCO) and pulmonary hemorrhage (excess RBC's in the interstitium or alveoli can absorb CO and artificially increase the DLCO capacity).[dubious discuss]

Maximum Voluntary Ventilation (MVV)

Maximum Voluntary Ventilation (MVV) is a measure of the maximum amount of air that can be inhaled and exhaled with in one minute. For the comfort of the patient this is done over a 15 second time period before being extrapolated to a value for one minute expressed as liters/minute. Average values for males and females are 140-180 and 80-120 liters per minute respectively.

Static lung compliance (Cst)

When estimating static lung compliance, volume measurements by the spirometer needs to be complemented by pressure transducers in order to simultaneously measure the transpulmonary pressure. When having drawn a curve with the relations between changes in volume to changes in transpulmonary pressure, Cst is the slope of the curve during any given volume, or, mathematically, V/P.[6] Static lung compliance is perhaps the most sensitive parameter for the detection of abnormal pulmonary mechanics.[7] It is considered normal if it is 60% to 140% of the average value in the population for any person of similar age, sex and body composition.[3] In those with acute respiratory failure on mechanical ventilation, "the static compliance of the total respiratory system is conventionally obtained by dividing the tidal volume by the difference between the "plateau" pressure measured at the airway opening (PaO) during an occlusion at end-inspiration and positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) set by the ventilator".[8]

Others
Forced Expiratory Time (FET) Forced Expiratory Time (FET) measures the length of the expiration in seconds. Slow Vital capacity (SVC) Slow Vital capacity (SVC) is the maximum volume of air that can be exhaled slowly after slow maximum inhalation. Maximal pressure (Pmax and Pi) Pmax is the asymptotically maximal pressure that can be developed by the respiratory muscles at any lung volume and Pi is the maximum inspiratory pressure that can be developed at specific lung volumes.[9] This measurement also requires pressure transducers in addition. It is considered normal if it is 60% to 140% of the average value in the population for any person of similar age, sex and body composition.[3] A derived parameter is the coefficient of retraction (CR) which is Pmax/TLC .<hedenstrom2009/> Mean transit time (MTT) Mean transit time is the area under the flow-volume curve divided by the forced vital capacity.[10]

Technologies used in spirometers

Volumetric Spirometers o Water bell o Bellows wedge Flow measuring Spirometers

o o o o o o

Fleisch-pneumotach Lilly (screen) pneumotach Turbine (actually a rotating vane which spins because of the air flow generated by the subject. The revolutions of the vane are counted as they break a light beam) Pitot tube Hot-wire anemometer Ultrasound