11,23 Negative Skin Fri Example 11.11 Consider a 20-m-long stee! pile driven by a Bodine Resonant Driver (S 310 x 125) in a medium dense sand. If H, = 350 horsepower,v, = ( and f = 115 Hz, calculate the ultimate pile capacity, O, Solution From Eq, (11.122), 0.7461, + 98, + SF For an HP pile in medium dense sand, 5, = 0.762 x 107 m/cycle. So _ (0.746) (350) + (98) (0.0016) “0.0016 + (0.762 x 10°*)(115) = 2928 kN Negative Skin Friction Negative skin triction is a downward drag force exerted on a pile by rounding it. Such a force can exist under the following conditions, amor 1. I¢a fill of clay soil is placed over a granular soil layer into which ven, the fill will gradually consolidate. The consolidation process downward drag force on the pile (See Figure 11.42a) during th consolidation. 2. Ifa fill of granular soil is placed over a layer of soft clay, as shown in Fi it will induce the process of consolidation in the clay layer and thus e ward drag on the pile. Sand Figure 11.42 Negative skin friction552 Chapter 11 Pile Foundations 3. Lowering of the water table will increase the vertical effective stress on the soil at any depth, which will induce consolidation settlement in clay. If a pile is Io. cated in the clay layer, it will be subjected to a downward drag force In some cases, the downward drag force may be excessive and cause founda- tion failure. This section outlines two tentative methods for the calculation of nega. tive skin friction, Clay Fill over Granular Soil (Figure 11.42a) Similar to the B method presented in Section 11.13, the negative (downward) skin stress on the pile is, f= Kiohvand (11.125) where K' = earth pressure coefficient = K, = 1 — sing ar = vertical effective stress at any depth z= yz ‘y) = effective unit weight of fill 6 = soil-pile friction angle ~ 0.5-0.76" Hence, the total downward drag force on a pile is My pK'y;H} tan 6 Q, (pK'y; tan 6)2.dz z (11.126) where Hy ~ height of the fill If the fill is above the water table, the effective unit weight, y;, should be replaced by the moist unit weight Granular Soit Fill over Clay (Figure 11.42b) In this case, the evidence indicates that the negative skin stress on the pile may exist from z = 0 to z = Ly, which is referred to as the newiral depth. (See Vesic, 1977. pp. 25-26.) The neutral depth may be given as (Bowles, 19 (27) _ (bop) (est “ET Lb 2 where yj andy’ = effective unit weights of the fill and the underlying clay layer. respectively Cd nt os the nieOnce the value of L; is determined, the downward drag force is obtained in the following manner:The unit negative skin friction at any depth from z = Oto z = Lyis fy= Kioytand 11.23. (WedatRle Skin where K’ = a= b= 4h 1, [ Pind [ex oi - y's)tan 6 dz Lipk'y wn 2 = (pK'yjH, tan 8) Ly + If the soil and the fill are above the water table, the effective should be replaced by moist unit weights, In some cases, the piles can b bitumen in the downdrag zone to avoid this problem. A limited number of case studies of negative skin friction is avail erature. Bjerrum et al, (1969) reported monitoring the downdrag force at Sorenga in the harbor of Oslo, Norway (noted as pile G in the origin: study of Bjerrum et al. (1969) was also discussed by Wong and Teh (199 the pile being driven to bedrock at 40 m. Figure 11.43a shows the soil p pite. Wong and Teh estimated the following quantities: qq ~ Fill: Moist unit weight,y, = 16 KN/m? q Saturated unit weight, Yauy) ~ 18.5 KN/m? So y} — 18.5 ~ 9.81 = 8.69kN/m? - and H,= 13m Pe ~ Clay: K‘ van 5 = 0.22 1 Saturated effective unit weight, y' ~ 19 ~ 9.81 = 9.19 KN/m Z ~ Piles L = 40m Diameter, D = 500 m n Thus, the maximum downdrag force on the pite can be est Eq, (11.129), Since in this case the pile is a point bearing pile, the t L, = 27m, and ” Q, = (p)(K' tan Bigg X 2 + (13 = Dy) + pe or " (7 x 0.5)(0.22)[(16 * 2) + (8.69 x 11)1(27) + x £ = 2348 kN554 Chapter 11 Pile Foundations Axial force in pile (kN) O10 20003000 T bie Ft \ . Pile D = 50 mm Clay *” \\ ) Figure 11.43. Negative skin friction on a pile in the harbor of Oslo, Norway [based on Bjerrum et al. (1969) and Wong and Teh (1995)] ‘The measured value of the maximum Q, was about 2500 kN (Figure 51.43), which is in good agreement with the calculated value. Example 11.12 In Figure 11.42a, let Hy = 2 m, The pile is circular in cross section with a diame- ter of 0.305 m. For the fill that is above the water table, yy = 16 KN/m’ and $' = 32°. Determine the total drag force. Use 5 = 0.6 ¢". Solution From Eq. (11.126), pK'y;H} tan b with ney — np gco enA =1-sn@e =) smoe = U4l 6 = (0.6) (32) = 19.2° 11.23 Negative Skin Thus, __ (0.958) AT) (16)(2)? tan 19.2 5 " = 5.02KN Example 11.13 In Figure 11.426, let H, = 2m, pile diameter = 0,305 m, y, = Pay = 34°, Yoangenyy) = 172KN/m*, and L = 20m. The water tal with the top of the clay layer. Determine the downward drag fi that 6 = 0.66%, Solution ‘The depth of the neutral plane is given in Eq. (11.127) as L>H, (L~ Hy yA, “ Ly Ly ( 2 Note that 7} in Eq. (11.127) has been replaced by y, because the fi water table, so 1, = 2022) F00=2) 652) _ 1 Ly 2 (17.2 - 9.81) (7.2 or Now, from Eq. (11.129), we have Q, = (pR'yHy tan 8)Ly + Lipk with p= (0.305) = 0.958 m and K'=1~sin34° = 0.44 Hence, Q, = (0.958) (0.44) (16.5) (2)[tan(0.6 x 34)](11.75) 4 (11.75)*(0.958) (0.44) (17.2 = 9.81) tan(6 X | 2 = 60,78 + 79.97 = 140.75 kN556 Chapter 17 Group Piles 11.24 Pile Foundations Group Efficiency In most cases, piles are used in groups, as shown in Figure 11.44, to transmit the © structural load to the soil. A pile cap is constructed over group piles. The cap can be in contact with the ground, as in most cases (see Figure 11.44a), or well above the ground, as in the case of offshore platforms (see Figure 11.44). Determining the load-bearing capacity of group piles is extremely complicated and has not yet been fully resolved, When the piles are placed close to each other,a rea. sonable assumption is that the stresses transmitted by the piles to the soil will overlap (see Figure 11.44c), reducing the load-bearing capacity of the piles. Ideally, the piles in a group should be spaced so that the load-bearing capacity of the group is not less than.” the sum of the bearing capacity of the individual piles. [n practice, the minimum center- to-center pile spacing, d, is 2.5 and, in ordinary situations, is actually about 3~3.5D. “The efficiency of the load-bearing capacity of a group pile may be defined as Qe 50, (11.130) " where = group efficieney Oyu, = ultimate load-bearing capacity of the group pile Q,, = ultimate load-bearing capacity of each pile without the group effect, Many structural engineers use a simplified analysis to obtain the group effi ciency for friction piles, particularly in sand. This type of analysis can be explained with the aid of Figure 11.44a. Depending on their spacing within the group, the piles may act in one of two ways: (1) as a black, with dimensions L, x B, x Lor (2)as individ- ual piles. If the piles act as a block, the frictional capacity is fypyl- ~ Qxus- (Note: P,= perimeter of the cross section of block = 2(m, +n; ~2)d + 4D, and fy = average unit frictional resistance.] Similarly, for each pile acting individually, Q, pLfiy. (Note: p = perimeter of the cross section of each pile.) Thus, Seu _ fol2lm + ma — 2)d + ADIL 2Q, mampLfay 2(m + m—2)d +4D qis3h)Hence. 2m + me = 2)d + 4D] Qxtar = LQ, Lite ofp! : Tid 4 20/2) = 1d + 10/9) (el Figure 11.44 Group piles From Eq. (1 case, the piles will behave as individual piles. Thus, in practice. if 7 i Opn = WE Oe and ify = 1, then r-to-center spacing d is large eno Qsee = > Qu558 Chapter 11 Pile Foundations Table 11.15 Equations for Group Efficiency of Friction Piles Name Equation (=D Converse-Labarre equation y= 1 =| 2 where @(deg) = tan-*(D/a) Los Angeles Group Action equation n=l - === intr, ‘dnyny 0 + mg(m, — 1) + V2(m, — Yum - 1] eilerKeeney equation _f, fa mee 03 (Seiler and Keeney, 1944) 9 aie ikm tm 14) om tm where dis in & There are several other equations tike Eq. (11.132) for calculating the group eft ciency of friction piles. Some of these are given in Table 11.15, Feld (1943) suggested a method by which the load capacity of individual piles (when only frictional resistance is considered) in a group embedded in sand could be assigned. According to this method, the ultimate capacity of a pile is reduced by one-sixteenth by each adjacent diagonal or row pile. The technique can be explained if one examines Figure 11.45, which shows the plan of @ group pile. For pile type A, there are eight adjacent piles, for pile type B, there are five, and for pile type C, there are three. With this in mind, the following table can be prepared: No.of No. of adjacent Reduction factor —Uitimate Piles piles /pile for each pile capacity” A 1 8 0.5, B 4 5 c 4 3 (No af ples) (Q,) (reduction factor) enHence, 11.24 Gr 14 : r - Chay 4} Group size = 22 L=6m D= 150mm ‘Group wih ap , i |. | Freestanding group | | og | | of | come ‘equation | oot Figure 11.46. Variation of group efficiency with dD (alter Brand et Figure 11.46 shows a comparison of field-test results ir retical group efficiency calculated from the Converse-Tab Table 11.15.) Reported by Brand et al. (1972), the tests were details of which are given in Figure 3.7, Other parameters in — Length of piles = 6m Diameter of piles = 150 mm ~ Pile groups tested = 2 x 2 ~ Location of pile head = 1.5 m below the ground surface560 Chapter 11 Pile Foundations Pile tests were conducted with and without a cap. (In the latter state, the group = is a freestanding group.) Note that for d/D = 2, the magnitude of was greater than 1.0, Also, for similar values of d/D, the group efficiency was greater with the pile cap than without the cap. Figure 11.47 shows the pile group settlement at vari. * ous stages of the load test. Figure 11.48 shows the variation of the group efficiency n for a 3 x 3 group pile in sand (Kishida and Meyerhof, 1965). It can be seen that, for loose and medium sands, the magnitude of the group efficiency is larger than unity. This is due primar- ily to the densification of sand surrounding the pile. Liu et al. (1985) reported the results of field tests on 58 pile groups and 23 si gle piles embedded in granular soil, Included in the report were the following details: ~ Pile length, L = 8D-23D ~ Pile diameter, D = 125 mm-330 mm ~ Type of pile installation — bored ~ Spacing of piles in group,d = 2D-6D Figure 11.49 shows the behavior of 3 X 3 pile groups with low-sct and high-set pile caps in terms of the average skin friction, f,,. Figure 11.50 shows the variation of the average skin friction, based on the location of a pile in the group Based on the experimental observations of the behavior of group piles in sand to date, the following general conclusions may be drawn: aD 1 2 > H 4 5 6 chy i Group size = 2x2 | L=om I D= 150 mm. ment, in, x 10" Seu 1o}-— Capped Free. standing fisilue load failure load Aw.1 I OS a Figure 11.47. Variation of group pile settlement at various stages of load (after Brand et al., 1972) 11.24 Group E ib Figure | | 1 L of eli ot 2 1 6 8 groups i a Kishida B 1965) T rT T sany si Jor inate oad sob D=250 mm oF = 30 Eo 0 Pile group 8 \ ; Single pile r Figure 1 ior of k 1 1 set pile ° 70 20 40 ofaver ‘Settlement (min) (based (a) Low-set pile cap 1985)562 Chapter 17. Pile Foundations Sandy soil i fos ultimate toad rt c « 20 30 40 Settlement (em) Figure 11.49 b) High-rise pile cap (Continued) 1. For driven group piles in sand with d = 3D, Q,, may be taken to be 2 Q, which includes the frictional and the point bearing capacities of individual piles. w . For bored grou; taken to bi ies in sand at conventional spacings (d D), Qyiay May be nes EQ, (frictional and point bearing capacities of individ 2al piles). 11.25 Ultimate Capacity of Group Piles in Saturated Clay Figure 11.51 shows a group pile in saturated clay. Using the figure, one can estimate the ultimate load-bearing capacity of group piles in the following manner: 1. Determine ¥ Q, =» Q, + Q,). From Eq. (11.19), Q, = ALM where cy.) = undrained cohesion of the clay at the pile tipSo 11.26 Q, = Lape, AL EQ, = mn{9Ajeuy) + Sape,AL] a Sandy soll ter pile Z £ sob DS g D= 250mm a < Borde! pile Zr Corner pile < Average sk T a or fo o 10 20 30 Settlement (mm) 2. Determine the ultimate capacity by assuring that th block with dimensions L, % By XL. The skin resist Spe AL = LIL, + Bde, Caleulate the point bearing capacity: Ady = Agta NE = (LyBy)e Obtain the value of the beating capacity factor NZ | ultimate load is LQ, = LpBeCuoyNF + LL, + 3. Compare the values obtained from Eqs. (11.133) an two values is Qyiny Piles in Rock For point bearing piles resting on rock, most bu Qpiny = 3 Quy provided that the minimum center-to-ce D + 300 mm. For H-piles and piles with square cross sec equal to the diagonal dimension of the cross section of 1564 Chapter 11 Pile Foundations G10 TT a : Figure 11.51 Ultimate capacity of 7 group piles in clay LiBy Figure 11.52 Variation of N* with L,/B, and L/B,In Figure 1144a, let m= 4, m = 3, D=30Smm, d= 1220mm, and L = 15m. Suppose the piles are square in cross section and are embedded in a homogencous saturated clay with c, = 70 kN/m?. Using a factor of safety Vagal Pies" to 4, determine the allowable load-bearing capacity of the group 5 weight of clay, y = 18.8kN/m’, and the groundwater table is locate 18 m below the ground surface. - Solution From Eq. (11.133), XQ, = mnZIA,cyp) + Sape,AL] with A, = (0.305) (0.305) = 0.093 m? and p= (4)(0.305) = 1.22 m The average value of the effective overburden pressure is = (Bass) = 141 KN/m? Also, with 6, = TOKN/m? it follows that 70 vat 7 2496 From Figure 11.24, for 0.496, the magnitude of eis about 0.7. S« Qu = (4) (3)[(9) (0.093)(70) + (0.7) (1.22) (70) (15) = 12(58,59 + 896.7) ~ 11,463 kN Again, from Eq, (11.134), the ultimate block capacity is LpByCuyNt + 22Ly + BAL Now, Ly = (m- Vd + (2) = (4 = 1)(1.22) + 0.305 and By = (m~ 1d + (2) = (3 = 1)(1.22) + 0.305 = 2.7 0 we have566 Chapter 11 11.27 Pile Foundations and a 274s ~ 4 4 From Figure 11,52, N# ~ 86. So ‘ block capacity = (3.965) (2.745) (70)(8.6) + 2(3.965 + 2.745)(70)(15) = 6552 + 14,091 = 20,643 KN 4 Hence, 2 yuu) = 11,463 KN < 20,643 kN ; and Elastic Settlement of Group Piles In general, the settlement of a group pile under a similar working load per pile in- creases with the width of the group (B,) and the center-to-center spacing of the piles (d). This fact is demonstrated in Figure 11.53, obtained from the experimental results of Meyerhot (1961) for group piles in sand. In the figure, s,.. is the settlement of the group pile and s, is the settlement of isolated piles under a similar working load. Several investigations relating to the settlement of group piles have been re~ ported in the literature, with widely varying results. The simplest relation for the set- tlement of group piles was given by Vesic (1969), namely, (11.135)“11.28 ment of group pite: 'y 11.28 Gameciinenian Sans 4 1961) where s,i.) = elastic settlement of group piles B, = width of group pile section width or diameter of each pile in the groi y, = elastic settlement of each pile at comy Section 11.18) For group piles in sand and gravel, for elastic settle! gested the empirical relation where q = Oy (L,B,) (in US. ton/ft?) L, and B, = length and width of the group pile (Nj) ~ average corrected standard penetr: settlement (=B, deep below the ti J = influence factor = 1 — L/8B, = L = length of embedment of piles In S1 units, 0.96qVB,1 Sgiq(tmm) = ———— al (Nie where q is in KN/m? and B, and L, are in m, and L pa - Lim 8B, (m) Similarly, the group pile settlement is related to the con the formula _ abl © 2g. ete where g, = average cone penetration resistance within t that, in Eq, (11.140), all quantities are expressed in cons Consolidation Settlement of Group | ‘The consolidation settlement of a group pile in clay ca 2:1 stress distribution method. The calculation involv Figure 11.54): enEEE 568 Chapter 11 Pile Foundations Eg Groundwater table Figure 11.54 Consolidation settlement of group piles 1. Let the depth of embedment of the piles be L. The group is subjected to a total load of Q,. If the pile cap is below the original ground surface, Q, equals the total load of the superstructure on the piles, minus the effective weight of soil above the group piles removed by excavation. Assume that the load Q, is transmitted to the soil beginning at a depth of 2/3 from the top of the pile, as shown in the figure. The load Q, spreads out along two vertical lines ¢o one horizontal line from this depth. Lines aa’ and bb’ areby the load Q,. The formula is 2, do} = BE a)(L, AERP Concotidation sdtbedh where Ag} ~ increase in effective stress at the mic length and width, respectively of the distance from z = 0 to the middle of For example, in Figure 11.54, for layer 2, 2, = L,/2: fo and for layer 4, z, = Ly + L; + Ls/2. Note. however, crease in stress in clay layer 1, because it is above the | from which the stress distribution to the soil starts. 4, Calculate the consolidation settlement of each layer stress. The formula is [de consolidation settlement of layer i change of void ratio caused by the in initial void ratio of layer i (before con H, = thickness of layer i (Nove: In Figure 1 for layer 3, H, ~ Ly: and for lay H, | ai J where Relationships involving Ae,, are given in Chapter 1 5. The total consolidation settlement of the group piles is MSaigy = LAS Note that the consolidation settlement of piles may be nearby, adjacent floor loads, or the lowering of water table Example 11.15 A group pile in clay is shown in Figure 11.55. Determine ment of the piles. All clays are normally consolidated. Solution Because the lengths of the piles are 15 m each, the stres depth of 10 m below the top of the pile. We are given tha Calculation of Settlement of Clay Layer ? For normally consolidated clays, Coy lg + Act Asay = [=] lox [fess] Veal WL gu doin = +)570 Chapter 11. Pile Foundations Tan y= 182 RN/n “y Ground | 0.1624 m = 162.4 mm Settlement of Layer 2 As with layer 1, Coayt Aseay = Oiyzy = 2(16.2) + 16(18.0 = 9.81) + 2(18.9 — 9.81) = 181.62 kN/m?14.32 EN/T” = 0.0157 = (02) 1, [181.62 4 1 “1407 FL sie Settlement of Layer 3 Continuing analogously, we have igs) = 181.62 + 2(18.9 — 9.81) + 1(19 ~ 9.81) = 2000 + 12)(22 + 12) _ (0125)(2) |, [ 208.99 + 9.2 Ase = Tp o7s | 20899 Ags = 2 KN/m* ] = 0.0054 m = Hence, the total settlement is Asig) = 162.4 + 15.7 + 5.4 = 183.5 no Problems 11.1 A concrete pile is 25 m long and 305 nm 30S mm in is fully embedded in sand, for which y = 17.5 KN/m’ ai a. The ultimate point load, Q,, by Meyerhot’s method. b. The total frictional resistance [Egs. (11.14), (11.37) for K = 1.3and 5 = 0.84)’ 11.2 Solve Problem 11.1, Part (a), using Coyle and Castello’ 11.3 Solve Problem 11.1, Part (a), using Vesie’s metho I= 1, = 50. 11.4. Solve Problem 11.1, Part (a),using Janbu's method [Eq. 11S Use the results of Problems 11.1-11.4 to estimate an a point load. Take FS = 4. 14.6 Redo Problem 11.1 for y = 185 kN/m’ and #’ = 40°. 11.7 Solve Problem 11.6, Part (a), by Coyle and Castello’s m 11.8 A driven closed-ended pile, circular in cross section, is Calculate, a. The ultimate point load, using Meyerhof's procedure b. The ultimate point load, using Vesic’s procedure. Tsk €. An approximate ultimate point load, on the basis of d. The ultimate frictional resistance Q,. [Use Eqs. (1 and (11.39), and take K = 14 and 8 = 0.60", €. The allowable load of the pile. (Use FS = 4) 11.9 A concrete pile 20 m long having a cross section of fully embedded in a saturated clay layer for which Y.,