Available online at IJEE (Indonesian Journal of English Education) Website:

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IJEE (Indonesian Journal of English Education), 2 (2), 2015, 132-144

AN ORAL DISCOURSE PERSPECTIVE ON SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING

Iwan Jazadi

Received: 31th January 2015; Revised: 16th September 2015; Accepted: 25th November 2015
ABSTRACT
Teaching and learning to speak English using oral language data drawn from real life
communication can be unique experiences for English teachers and students who usually
rely on unauthentic written texts of a textbook. This small study focuses on a conversation
involving the author and his native speaker counterpart. Entities of the conversation put
under analysis and discussion include its register and generic structure, exchanges, prosodic
features and communication strategies. The dialogic features of the text are presented in the
data collection procedure and description section. The article is expected to provide a
perspective for doing similar analysis with other oral data by teachers and advanced learners
of English as a second or foreign language.
Key Words : actual oral language; exchanges; prosody; communication strategies
ABSTRAK
Mengajar dan belajar berbicara bahasa Inggris menggunakan data bahasa lisan dari komunikasi
kehidupan nyata dapat menjadi pengalaman unik bagi guru dan pembelajar yang biasanya bergantung
pada teks-teks buku pelajaran yang bersifat tertulis dan tidak otentik. Studi kecil ini difokuskan pada
percakapan yang melibatkan penulis dan mitranya seorang pembicara asli bahasa Inggris. Bagianbagian percakapan yang dianalisis dan dibahas termasuk register dan struktur umum, pertukaran,
ciri-ciri prosodik, dan strategi komunikasi. Ciri-ciri dialogis teks disajikan dalam bagian prosedur
pengumpulan dan gambaran data. Artikel ini diharapkan memberikan cara pandang untuk melakukan
telaah serupa dengan data lisan yang lain oleh guru dan pembelajar tingkat tinggi untuk bahasa
Inggris sebagai bahasa kedua atau bahasa asing.
Kata Kunci: bahasa lisan kehidupan nyata; pertukaran; prosodi; strategi komunikasi
How to Cite: Jazadi, I. (2015). An Oral Discourse Perspective on Second Language Learning. IJEE
(Indonesian Journal of English Education), 2(2), 132-144. doi:10.15408/ijee.v2i2.3092
Permalink/DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15408/ijee.v2i2.3092

INTRODUCTION

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IJEE (Indonesian Journal of English Education), 2 (2), 2015

INTRODUCTION
The use of interaction, actual
verbal communication, authentic oral
texts or spoken language corpora has
been identified as a determinant source
of learning English as a second or
foreign
language
(Hatch,
1992;
McCarthy & Carter, 1994; Stenstrom,
1994; Clennell, 1997; Aijmer &
Stenstrom, 2005; Stephens, 2011; Dose,
2013). Such a use can also serve as an
approach for reflective practice that is
both evidence-based and data-led
(Walsh & Mann, 2015).
Spoken language corpora are
used
to
analyze
phenomena
characteristic
of
natural
spoken
language, including discourse markers,
hedges, tags, backchannels and ellipsis
(Aijmer & Stenstrom, 2005). By
studying spoken language at discourse
level
students
can
gain
more
appropriate knowledge of the purposes
and motives that lie behind language
options (Hatch, 1992; McCarthy &
Carter, 1994). Clennell (1997) and
Stephens (2011) found that the use of
authentic oral texts as source for ESL
teaching and learning raises overseas
students awareness of appropriate
pragmatic discourse features of English
intonation, which is a key to reducing
communication breakdown between
native and non-native speakers of
English. In addition, actual oral

language data exposes learners with

ample strategies of communication so
as to allow the flow and maintenance of
an oral interaction (Clennell, 1994a, b;
Hie & Yin, 2008; Lam, 2010; Ugla &
Adnan, 2013). Thus, using actual or
appropriate oral English texts increases
the potential of foreign language
learners to produce spoken expressions
that sound natural or appropriate to
their native speaker counterparts (Dose,
2013). As a matter of fact, despite the
claim
of
continuously
using
communicative approach in which oral
interaction is generally a main feature,
the majority of English teachers have
not exploited the use of spoken
language corpora in teaching; this has
led to the lack of success of non-native
students especially at the advanced
level to achieve native like competence
(Clennell, 1997; Stephens, 2011; Dose,
2013). On the other hand, there have
been some practical books that provide
a good perspective for analyzing
spoken language data in ways that
facilitate learner understanding and
acquisition (e.g., McCarthy & Carter,
1994; Stenstrom, 1994). For this reason a
minor research project of a conversation
has been conducted, focusing on the
following questions:
1. What are the register and generic
structure of the conversation under
study?

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2. What are the characteristics of the
exchanges
or
conversational
movement and prosody of the
conversation?
3. What communication strategies are
used by the participants in the
conversation?
The main purpose of this project
is to share with EFL teachers and
advanced learners the researchers
genuine experience of studying (i.e.,
transcribing,
interpreting
and
identifying key features using a set of
standard
conventions
and
terminologies) his own orally produced
text. It is argued that using selfproduced oral discourse for analysis
and learning can result in everlasting
impressions and hence strongly
facilitates language acquisition at the
advanced level (Clennell, 1997). The
next section serves to explain the data
collection procedure and description,
which aims to illustrate both the
contextual choice and the text of the
conversation. The contextual choice
refers to initial steps which were gone
through to produce the dialogue, in
relation to ethical issues and data
credibility. By the text it means the
overall textual structure of the recorded
interaction. The data presentation and
analysis section focuses on some key
elements of the data, i.e., the register
and
generic
structure
of
the

conversation, explanation of exchanges,

prosodic features and communication
strategies. The key concepts (drawn
mainly
from
Stenstrom,
1994;
McCarthy, 1991; Brown & Yule, 1983)
are introduced, given examples and
explained through the recorded oral
data.
METHOD
To have actual spoken language
data for analysis, a small recording
project has been carried out. The
recording was transcribed using
standard orthographic forms using the
International
Phonetic
Association
(IPA) conventions adopted by Brown
and Yule (1983) as follows:
short pauses
:
+
longer pauses
:
++
overlappings
: | |
unintelligible parts
:
(?)
backchannelling
:
{ }
rising tone one tone group :
/
falling tone on tone group : \
rise/fall
:
/\
fall/rise
:
\/
turns
:
(number)
The sample of transcribed data for
analysis is provided in the appendix.
The interaction is between B, a native
English teacher in a language center of
an Australian university and A, the

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researcher, a non-native English
speaker. Some procedure has been
followed to produce the interaction. B
was met and informed that the
researcher would like to have an
informal conversation with her and
would record it for the purpose of a
small research project in teaching
English as a second language. She
agreed and the room was prepared; it
was one of the center quiet study rooms
and equipped with a recorder. The
sitting position of the researcher and
the resource person was opposite to
each other and mediated by a small
table. Until the time the recorded talk
was about to start, the sorts of topics to
talk about had not been determined.
The researcher explained that the topics
to talk about could be just anything as
long as a conversation was produced,
but of course the one which would be
familiar to both of them. In such a case,
the researcher could initiate by asking
questions and the interlocutor would
respond, or vice versa. The description
as above is important mainly because it
was not an accidental speech event, yet
the nature of the speech production is
guaranteed as a natural one, or it can be
seen as a particular genre (Eggins,
1994). What is important for both
participants to establish at stages as
above is an initial intersubjectivity;
that is the sharing of awareness, which
aims to establish a triangular

relationship between the speaker, the

listener, and the context of situation
(Wells, 1981, p. 47). This intersubjectivity
is
prerequisite
for
communication to be successful. That
the participants had not decided what
to talk about in the dialogue indicates
that the expressions or speech which
would be produced were natural,
unplanned, and therefore could
represent an actual spoken language
that can be analyzed for learning
purposes.
RESEARCH FINDINGS AND
DISCUSSION
The register and generic structure
The conversation can be analyzed
in terms of its register and generic
structure (Eggins, 1994). A text register
covers its field, mode and tenor.
The field deals with what the text is
about: teaching English as a second or
foreign language. The field can usually
be identified from the lexical items in
the conversation, such as international
students (turn 1), multicultural group
(turn 9), language background (turn
12), communicative approach (turn
13), and non-native speakers of
English (turn 22).
The mode has to do with what
role language is playing in the
interaction. As many turn-takings occur

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and as the terms dialogue or
conversation have been used so far,
the
interaction
is
evidently
communication between two persons.
However, it is quite difficult to identify
from the text whether the participants
are face-to-face or not, particularly by
observing its deictic words. It is because
they were talking about abstract things,
not concrete things which can be
observed in a view of whether they are
near or distant from the participants
and therefore can inform the distance of
the participants. Last, the tenor is to
do with the interpersonal relationships
between the participants and the social
role they are playing. From the text, we
can easily observe that B is an
experienced native English speaking
teacher while A is one who shares
many similarities in profession with
her, an English teacher but a non-native
English speaker, who seeks information
around Bs professional teaching
experiences.
In terms of generic structure, the
interaction can be more suitably labeled
as an informal interview because A has
always taken the turns of asking
questions while B of responding. The
interaction is developed by such things
as Bs confirming the questions, As
asking for confirmation of Bs
explanation. And, it is terminated by

As explicitly intending to end to

conversation by thanking B.
The purpose of the interview
seems to be more transactional as
there is a transaction of Bs knowledge
and experience in which A prompted B
to produce such. This cannot be
considered as an interpersonal one
because the interview was apparently
so packaged that it served a tangible
goal (Eggins, 1994, p. 47).
Explanation of the exchanges
What makes an interaction a
typical spoken interaction is that it
contains
the
atmosphere
of
cooperativeness and harmony. Spoken
interaction
is
a
collaborative,
spontaneous social activity governed by
the principles of turn-taking and
cooperation
between/among
the
participants. Because spoken interaction
is spontaneous, proper turn-taking is
not necessarily what happens; there are
some other forms of conversational
entities which signify attention or
provide positive impact to the flow of
the interaction (i.e. backchannels,
overlappings) and the ones which may
indicate various types of hesitation
phenomena, such as: verbal fillers,
silence, repetitions and incomplete
utterances (Stenstrom, 1994, p. 1). Each
of entities in the recorded interaction is
analyzed below.

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Turn-takings

17A:

{oo + yes}

A turn is everything the current

speaker says before the next speaker
takes over (Stenstrom, 1994, p. 4). The
turns of the recorded interaction are
indicated by the specific numbering in
the transcription, for example:

19A:

{uhm}

1 A:
Id like to ask you + first
of all + about what is your impression
particularly on having + uum + a lot of
+ um + international students or
something ++ coming |from|
2 B:
/impression

|whats|

my

The numbering 1 and 2 above

counts for the turns which A and B
used to produce their speech. Thus, as
shown in the appendix, the sample of
the transcribed data for this analysis
consists of 49 turns.
Backchannels
Backchannels are reduced turns of
a speaker to give a sign of attention to
the other party who is currently
dominating the flow of the interaction,
which do not involve a speaker shift
and even motivate the other to continue
(Stenstrom, 1994, p. 1 & 5).
Backchannelling can be found in
many turns of the recording, mediated
by the symbols { }, as the following:
7 A:

{oo + so + um}

Such backchannels also appear in

turns 23, 27, 33, 35, 37, 43 and 51.
Overlappings
There is also a time when a
participant interrupts a speakers turn
while s/he has not terminated her/his
speech and overlapping of speech
production occurs. In the transcription,
overlapping is signed by the symbols
||. These overlappings can be observed
in turns 1 and 2:
1 A:
Id like to ask you + first
of all + about what is your impression
particularly on having + uum + a lot of
+ um + international students of
something ++ coming |from|
2 B:
impression

|whats|

my/

Also in turns 37 and 38:

37A:

|{oo + so}|

38B:

|for beginners|

In turn 37, however, the speech is

not only overlapping, but also
backchannelling because it functions to
show attention to Bs speech.
Verbal fillers
Verbal fillers are sorts of lexical
expressions which are used to fill

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pauses, instead of silence, which do not
necessarily convey certain messages.
They may indicate some kind of
hesitation; they also can produce a
positive effect to the flow of
conversation which helps the speaker to
take, prepare and yield the turn and to
anticipate feedback (Stenstrom, 1994, p.
1). There are several verbal fillers which
are used in the recorded interaction, in
turns 1, 14, 16, 22, 42, 50 and 52; some
are presented below (in the bold type):
1 A:
Id like to ask you +
first of all + about what is your
impression particularly on having +
uum + a lot of + um + international
students or something ++ coming
|from|
14B:

well + let me see

42B:
yea + should be normal
+ but + you know + that is + that
students have said to me
Incomplete utterances
Another characteristic which is
often discovered in spoken interaction
is incomplete utterances which occur
when a participant takes over before the
other indicates to finish, more probably
because he/she can predict what
her/his interlocutor is going to say, or
the interlocutor is still planning to say
in her/his mind while the one
overtaking feels that he/she is able to
help for the idea or to confirm what the

interlocutor is going to say. To a high

extent, this construes the quality
principle of Grice (as cited in Cutting,
2002) which highlights the significance
of efficiency of speech. We can observe
these incomplete utterances in the
transcription, for example in turn 1 in
which B in turn 2 takes over and also in
turns 15, 20, 29, etc. One example can be
seen below:
29A:
\/do you ever have
some complaints + for example + from
your learners + about that kind of thing
+ in which your methods +
30B:
/\oo
teaching /methods

its

different

In turn 29, A has not finished his

speech, rather he is still planning what
to say (indicated by the pause (+)) when
B takes over. In such a case, B predicts
what A is going to say by specifying the
method with teaching method.
However, she is not completely sure
about the prediction yet and so at the
end of her expression she applies a
rising intonation (/method) which
serves as her device to ask for
confirmation from A. More on the
intonational discourse is discussed
below.
Prosodic features
Another area of analysis which
plays a quite determinant role for

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successful communication is prosody,
which includes, tone group boundaries,
tonic syllables and pitch movement.
Tone groups
Tone
groups
constitute
informational units segmented by the
speaker to convey a particular
pragmatic
message
and
form
phonological boundaries; such a
message is projected in at least one
nuclear prominence or tonic syllable in
a tone group (from now on, the tonic
syllables are shown in capital letters). A
nuclear prominence usually indicates
what the speaker assumes to be new in
the sense of newsworthy, in contrast
to being given information (McCarthy
1991, p. 99; Clennell, 1997, p. 3). Tone
groups may also be segmented by
certain pause lengths (Brown & Yule, as
cited in McCarthy, 1991). As shown in
some examples from the recording:
3 A:
UM + about how you
approach your /teaCHING + because u
+ will be + um a lot of um u +
intercultural
+
crosscultural
/\probLEMS
4 B:
/\YEAA + but I dont
usually find MUCH problem + AND +
its because Ive alWAYS taught in + a
multicultural \group
5 A:

/SINCE

6 B:
since
ALL
of
my
teaching + Ive been teaching for +
TWELve years.
In turn 3, there are evidently three
tone groups. The first one UM
indicates As impression on Bs
question in the previous turn. In next
tone groups in turn 3 and the other
turns, all the tonic syllables bring new
newsworthy.
Pitch movement
The main concern here is tonicity
which refers to the location of tone in a
tone unit. The same item in the same
position but in different turns may or
may not carry a nuclear tone; therefore,
analyzing the tonicity is necessarily
significant (Stenstorm, 1994, p. 24). The
tonicity is indicated by the flow of
intonation which consists of three
types: rising ( / ), falling ( \ ) and
leveling (no symbol) (Brown & Yule,
1983). Let us see the examples below:
10 B:
/CULture
11 A:

\YEAA + from different

from different \culture

Though similar in form, both

turns above bring about different
pragmatic meanings because each has
different intonation. The rising tone in
turn 10 shows asking for confirmation,
while the falling one in turn 11
indicates giving confirmation.

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Communication strategies
Communication strategies (CSs)
is the other very important area to
investigate for the purpose of second
language learning. Such strategies may
not necessarily be derived from
learning the second language. Many
second language learners have acquired
these in their first language acquisition.
Fortunately, many of the strategies may
be available universally because they
are
not
necessarily
linguisticdependent, but rather have to do with
how participants manage to survive, to
make others understand and to build a
smooth flow of communication.
In other words, as Clennell,
(1994a, p. 2) propounds, CSs, both
verbal and non-verbal, are significant
for two main reasons: to cope with
communication breakdowns and to
enhance
the
effectiveness
of
communication. In short, CSs deal with
interactants efforts to make their input,
linguistic
and
functional,
comprehensible to others (Tsui, 1991,
1995).
Observing
the
transcribed
recording, several key CSs which both
A and B have employed to produce
such a successful conversation were
found. The main CS which A used is
questioning, which is spread out in
almost all of As turns (turns 1, 5, 9, 13,
etc.). Indeed, this is really true, as

Stenstrom (1994, p. 2) remarks:

Question can be used to start a
conversation and they can be used over
and over again to keep it going when it
is on the point of fading out. Even, A
uses questions to shift from topic to
another and to develop the topic.
As further CS is doing any sort of
question
modification
which
is
comprehension-oriented, that is doing
any circumlocution to enable B to grasp
his intended messages. This is done so
because A feels that B has not
understood him (as indicated by her
facial expression or another nonlinguistic factor), or B herself employs a
confirmation checking device, namely
asking A to confirm what she said. The
way to carry out a confirmation check
can be by repeating or paraphrasing
what the previous speaker said with a
rising tone. As in the examples below:
1 A:
Id like to ask you + first
of all + about what is your impression
particularly on having + uum + a lot of
+ um + international students or
something ++ coming |from|
2 B:
|whats|
/impreSION

my

3 A:
UM + about how you
approach your /teaCHING + because u
+ will be + um a lot of um u +
intercultural
+
crosscultural
/\probLEMS

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In turn 1, A poses a question. Yet,
it is not fully comprehensible to B since
she
asks
for
confirmation
by
paraphrasing As question in a rising
tone. What A does further is
semantically modifying the question by
referring to any concrete referent, in
this case teaching practice and this
makes B understand what As question
actually is. In fact, confirmation check is
the device which B often uses in the
interaction; we can see other examples
in turn 10, 22, 30. However, as the
confirmation check in turn 22 is
observed more closely, it is a bit
different from the others:

decodes it as asking further clarification

(in the next turn). As in the following
turns:

22B:
how they /LEARNT +
\YEA + thats a good argument for
NON native of English + being good
teachers + do you /that + because +
because if you + if you add to learn
English yourself

CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION

The first tone unit (how they

/LEARNT), which is terminated in a
rising tone and so connotes a question,
is a confirmation check; but she does
not wait until A provides confirmation
as in other turns, rather she is
confirmed herself. The other CS which
was found interesting is what A
expresses in turn 41: he paraphrases Bs
previous explanation, but not applying
rising
intonation
to
ask
for
confirmation, rather he uses a sort of
opinionating, and successfully B

41A:
THINK +

it should be normal I

42B:
/\YEA + should be
normal + but you know + that is that
students have said to me
As preference of opinionating,
instead of tangible questioning, is
perhaps because the degree of his
certainty supersedes his curiosity. What
he needs, however, is support, not
objection, from his interlocutor B.

The data presentation and

analysis can be summarized as follows.
First, the contextual procedure in
spoken text production should be
considered to ensure its naturalness
and spontaneity so that it can be used
as a model source of learning. Second,
the register and generic structure of the
text provides the intrinsic nature of the
text. Third, the analysis of exchanges or
conversational movement and the
prosodic
features
which
are
characteristic to spoken language
interaction shows that spoken text is
just substantially different from a
written one. Such discussion leads to a
conclusion that considering actual data
of oral discourse can provide empirical

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evidence on how linguistic elements are
realized in actual communication and
what sort of role they play. Last, to
make the conversation flow, the
participants
have
applied
some
communication strategies. In the data
analysis it is shown that the
communication strategies such as
questioning, responding, modifying,
clarifying are developed and constitute
various nuances in the communication,
and play a role of determining to which
direction an interaction aims and is
further developed.
There are some implications from
the findings. First, an English teacher or
student can create a natural spoken text
provided that the requirement of
spontaneity in producing the utterances
is fulfilled. For many advanced level
students, involving themselves in
natural conversations in English either
with native English speakers or with
their non-native peers or teachers is an
opportunity to improve their oral
mastery in the second or foreign
language. Moreover, by recording,
transcribing and analyzing their own
conversations, the students can develop
their meta-cognition through which
they can reflect and critique their own
oral production. The data presentation
and analysis can serve a practical model
for EFL/ESL students and teachers in
creating and analyzing their own oral

texts. It is envisaged that being able to

analyze oral texts produced by native
English speakers and likewise nonnative speakers, advanced level
students would see the subtle
differences in the varied aspects of the
spoken texts. This skill may inform the
students regarding how they manage to
achieve a near-native level of oral
competence or a level where they can
communicate orally effectively with
their native speaking counterparts.
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