JARINGAN TELEKOMUNIKASI

UIN SGD

Nanang Ismail

Tipe-tipe Media Transmisi

Guided transmission media
Kabel tembaga
Open Wires
Coaxial
Twisted Pair

Kabel serat optik

Unguided transmission media

infra merah
gelombang radio
microwave: terrestrial maupun satellite

Guided Transmission Media

WAVES ARE GUIDED ALONG SOLID MEDIUM

Model Saluran Transmisi

Menurut Telegrapher's Equations, suatu saluran transmisi terdiri dari serangkaian

komponen dua kutub yang jumlahnya tak terhingga

R menyatakan resistensi konduktor

L menyatakan induktansi salurann
C menyatakan kapasitansi antara dua konduktor
G menyatakan konduktansi materi dielektrik yang memisahkan kedua konduktor

Impedansi karakteristik dinyatakan oleh

Kabel Tembaga
Paling lama dan sudah biasa digunakan
Kelemahan: redaman tinggi dan sensitif terhadap interferensi
Redaman pada suatu kabel tembaga akan meningkat bila frekuensi
dinaikkan
Kecepatan rambat sinyal di dalam kabel tembaga mendekati 200.000
km/detik
Tiga jenis kabel tembaga yang biasa digunakan:
Open wire
Coaxial
Twisted Pair

Open wire
Sudah jarang digunakan
Kelemahan:
Terpengaruh kondisi cuaca dan
lingkungan
Kapasitas terbatas (hanya
sekitar 12 kanal voice)

70 miles open wire from Hawthorne to Tonopah

Photograph taken by Brian Hayes in 1999
(http://flickr.com/photos/brianhayes/321552411/)

Coaxial
Bandwidth lebar (45-500 MHz)
Lebih kebal terhadap interferensi
Contoh penggunaan : pada antena TV,
LAN dsb.
(D)
(C)
(B)
(A)

RG58 coax and BNC Connector

Twisted pair

Twisted pair dibangun dari dua konduktor yang dipilin

Kabel dipilin untuk mengeliminasi crosstalk

Pada suatu bundel twisted pair (lebih dari satu pasang), twist
length (twist rates) masing-masing pasangan dibedakan untuk
mencegah crosstalk antar pasangan
Pengiriman sinyal pada twisted pair menggunakan balance
signaling untuk mengeliminasi pengaruh interferensi (noise)

Balance Signaling
A balanced transmission line is one whose currents are symmetric with
respect to ground so that all current flows through the transmission line and
the load
none through ground

Note that line balance depends on the current through the line, not the
voltage across the line
It is also called differential signaling

Source: York County Amateur Radio Society

10

Examples of a Balanced Line

All using DC rather than AC to simplify the analysis
V = +6 VDC

Example #1

I = 25 mA
6V

6V

I = -25 mA
V = -6 VDC

Notice that the currents are equal and opposite and that the
total current flowing through ground = 25mA-25mA = 0

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V = +9 VDC
I = 25 mA

Example #2

I = -25 mA
V = -6 VDC

Note that the total current flowing through ground is again 0

Because the ground current is 0, the ground is not required

12

V = +6 VDC

Example #3

I = 20 mA

I = -25 mA
V = -6 VDC

Is the line balanced?

No although the voltages are equal and opposite, the currents are not!

13

FYI:
Coaxial is an example of unbalanced transmission line
Many types of antenna (dipoles, yagi etc.) are balanced load
So, to feed balanced antenna with unbalance transmission lines we have to
use baluns (balance-unbalance)

14

Twisted pairs Types

Unshielded Twisted pair (UTP)
Shielded Twisted pair (STP)

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Unshielded Twisted pair (UTP)

Category 1- originally designed for voice telephony only, but thanks to some new
techniques, long-range Ethernet and DSL, operating at 10Mbps and even faster, can
be deployed over Cat 1
Category 2 - accommodate up to 4Mbps and is associated with token-ring LANs.
Category 3 - Cat 3 cable operates over a bandwidth of 16MHz on UTP and supports
up to 10Mbps over a range of 330 feet (100 m).
Key LAN applications include 10Mbps Ethernet and 4Mbps token-ring LANs.

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UTP (cont.)
Category 4 - operates over a bandwidth of 20MHz on UTP and can carry up to 16Mbps
over a range of 330 feet (100 m). The key LAN application is 16Mbps token ring.
Category 5 - operates over a bandwidth of 100MHz on UTP and can handle up to 100Mbps
over a range of 330 feet (100m). Cat 5 cable is typically used for Ethernet networks
running at 10Mbps or 100Mbps.
Key LAN applications include 100BASE-TX, ATM, CDDI, and 1000BASE-T.
It is no longer supported, having been replaced by Cat 5e.

Category 5e - Cat 5e (enhanced) operates over a bandwidth of 100MHz on UTP, with a

range of 330 feet (100 m).
The key LAN application is 1000BASE-T.
The Cat 5e standard is largely the same as Category 5, except that it is made to somewhat more
stringent standards.
Category 5e is recommended for all new installations and was designed for transmission speeds of
up to 1Gbps (Gigabit Ethernet).
Although Cat 5e can support Gigabit Ethernet, it is not currently certified to do so.

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UTP (cont.)
Category 6 - specified under ANSI/TIA/EIA-568-B.2-1,
operates over a bandwidth of up to 400MHz and supports
up to 1Gbps over a range of 330 feet (100 m).
Cable standard for Gigabit Ethernet and other network
protocols that is backward compatible with the Cat 5/5e
and Cat 3 cable standards.
Cat 6 features more stringent specifications for crosstalk
and system noise.
Cat 6 is suitable for 10BASE-T/100BASE-TX and 1000BASET (Gigabit Ethernet) connections.

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Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

Twisted pair cables are often shielded in attempt to prevent
electromagnetic interference.
Because the shielding is made of metal, it may also serve as a
ground.
However, usually a shielded or a screened twisted pair cable
has a special grounding wire added called a drain wire.
This shielding can be applied to individual pairs, or to the
collection of pairs.
When shielding is applied to the collection of pairs, this is
referred to as screening.
The shielding must be grounded for the shielding to work.

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STP (cont.)
Screened unshielded twisted pair (S/UTP)
Also known as Fully shielded (or Foiled) Twisted Pair (FTP), is a screened UTP
cable (ScTP).

Shielded twisted pair (STP or STP-A)

Screened shielded twisted pair (S/STP or S/FTP)

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Screened unshielded twisted pair (S/UTP)

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Shielded twisted pair (STP or STP-A)

1 Jacket
2 Shield-foil
3 Drain wire
4 Solid twisted pair

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Screened shielded twisted pair (S/STP or

S/FTP)

1 Jacket

2 Rip-cord
3 Shield-foil
4 Drain wire
5 Protective skin
6 Polymer tape
7 Solid twisted pair

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Category 7
Cat 7 is specified in the frequency range of 1MHz to
600MHz.
ISO/IEC11801:2002 Category 7/Class F is a cable standard for Ultra
Fast Ethernet and other interconnect technologies that can be made
backward compatible with traditional Cat 5 and Cat 6 Ethernet cable.
Cat 7, which is based on four twisted copper pairs, features even
more stringent specifications for crosstalk and system noise than Cat
6.
To achieve this, shielding has been added for individual wire pairs
and the cable as a whole

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Copper Cable Transmission Characteristics

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Crosstalk
magnetic fields
(crosstalk)

Source:

Whenever a current flows through a conductor, a magnetic field is set up around the conductor in a
direction given by the right-hand corkscrew rule
Because the signal on a transmission line is an electro-magnetic wavefront propagating along the line,
current flowing in one direction in one conductor flows in the opposite direction in the other conductor.
The magnetic field around the right hand conductor flows anti-clockwise.
At some distance from the line the effects of the fields cancel out, but near to the conductors the fields reinforce, and are in the same direction throughout the length of the transmission line

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If we now bring another pair of conductors close to the first, the re-inforcing
field created by the currents flowing in the first line cuts through the plane of
the new line, and this has the effect of inducing current into the new line.

We have created a very long narrow transformer, and have caused a coupling
between the two lines which is crosstalk

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Now let us see what happens if we twist the interfering pair.

The magnetic fields still rotate around the conductors in the same directions, and they still re-inforce near
to the pair. But now they are not pointing in the same direction all along the length of the line. At every
twist, the direction is reversed, so the net effect on the adjacent pair is cancelled out.

If the second pair is twisted as well, the crosstalk is reduced still further, provided that the twists in the
two pairs are not in phase with each other. This is an important consideration when designing and
manufacturing cables.

By twisting the pairs we have reduced the potential for crosstalk.

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 External noise pickup is ideally the same on the two

conductors (zero difference) and ignored by the receiver
resulting in total noise suppression
Only the differential (opposite on the two conductors) data
signal is let into the receiver
+2.5V1 + N - ( -2.5V2 + N ) = +5.0VDiff

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External noise pickup on either of the two conductors cannot be

neutralized and will interfere with desired signal received
The differential (opposite on the two conductors) data signal and Noise
is let into the receiver
+2.5V1 + N - ( -2.5V2 ) = +5.0VDiff + N

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Crosstalk Measurement
Crosstalk is measured in two ways and resulted in NEXT (Near-end
crosstalk) and FEXT (Far-end crosstalk)

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NEXT

Near End Crosstalk (NEXT) is measured at one end only of a cable, by transmitting a
signal into one pair and measuring the resulting signal power on an adjacent pair at
the same end.
The NEXT is given by:
NEXT = POUT/PIN = 10 log (POUT/PIN) dB

To be sure that the measured signal is really due to crosstalk, and not to some other
source of interference, the receiver is tuned to the same frequency as the
transmitter.
This can be a single frequency or it can be swept across the frequency spectrum

The desired outcome for the NEXT measurement is a dB value as large as possible
NEXT is used as indicator for quality of components and workmanship

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PSNEXT
Power sum NEXT (PSNEXT) is
actually a calculation, not a
measurement
PSNEXT is a measure of difference
in signal strength between
disturbing pairs and a disturbed
pair
A larger number (less crosstalk) is
more desirable than a smaller
number (more crosstalk)
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FEXT

Far End Crosstalk (FEXT) is measured at both ends of a cable, by

transmitting a signal into one pair at one end and measuring the resulting
signal power on an adjacent pair at the other end.
The FEXT is given by
FEXT = POUT/PIN = 10 log (POUT/PIN) dB

A higher FEXT values correspond to better cable performance

FEXT is highly influenced by the length of the cable, since the signal
strength inducing the crosstalk is affected by how much it has been
attenuated from its source

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Equal Level Far End Crosstalk (ELFEXT)

ELFEXT is a calculated result, rather than a measurement
It is derived by subtracting the attenuation of the disturbing pair
from the Far End Crosstalk (FEXT) this pair induces in an
adjacent pair.
ELFEXT loss is critical when two or more wire-pairs carry signals
in the same direction.
50 m link example:
For FEXT = 45 dB and Attenuation = 11 dB, then ELFEXT = 45 - 11 = 34 dB

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Power Sum ELFEXT (PSELFEXT)

PSELFEXT is the computed effect of disturbing
pairs upon the disturbed pair with respect to
the far end of the cable

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Nominal velocity of propagation (NVP)

NVP refers to how quickly signals travel in a cable expressed as a percentage
relative to the speed of light in vacuum

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Propagation Delay
Propagation Delay is the time required for data signal to travel from its
source to its destination over a single pair
If we have more than one pair, for example bellow we have four pairs, then
since each pair has different twist rates, each pair length is different
Therefore, the propagation delay in a 4 pair cable is different for each pair

This variance (delay skew) should not exceed 50 nS on any link segment up
to 100 meters

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Delay Skew
Delay skew is a calculation, derived from the propagation delay
Delay Skew is the difference in Propagation Delay time between the
fastest (shortest) and slowest (longest) pairs within the same cable
sheath
Well-constructed and properly installed structured cabling should have
a skew less than 50 nanoseconds (nSec) over a 100-meter link
Lower skew is better
Anything under 25 nSec is excellent.
Skew between 45 and 50 nanoseconds is marginally acceptable

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Insertion Loss (Attenuation)

Attenuation is the loss of electrical power as signal travels
along a cable
Any passive device inserted in a circuit, such as a cables, has an
attenuation and so it is also called insertion loss
Insertion loss (expressed in dB) measures the amount of
energy that is lost as the signal arrives at the receiving end of
the cabling link
Insertion loss also increases with the length of the link
The smaller insertion loss measurement values (expressed in
dB) are better than larger values.

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Depending upon the gauge of wire used in constructing the

pairs, 24 gauge wires will have less attenuation than the
same length 26 gauge (thinner) wires.
American Wire Gauge (AWG) is a standardized method of measuring
wire diameter
As the AWG number increases, the wire diameter decreases

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Also, stranded cabling will have 20-50% more

attenuation than solid copper conductors
If the power transmitted by the source is PT and the
power received by the load is PR, then the insertion
loss in dB is given by

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Attenuation to Crosstalk Ratio

(ACR)/Headroom
The difference between NEXT (in dB) and Attenuation (in dB)
ACR is a very good indicator of the real transmission quality of the link
The higher the ACR the better as it implies that the desired signal is not being so severely
attenuated that the effect of crosstalk noise will become too significant
In communication channels it is generally considered that a positive value of ACR is required for
successful error free transmission
Minimum value of ACR of the cabling system in the applicable bandwidth should be greater than
10 dB

Cable engineering for local area networks By Barry J. Elliott

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Return Loss
Return Loss (RL) is a measure of the reflected energy from a transmitted signal at all locations
along the link and is expressed in decibel (dB).
A higher RL values correspond to better cable performance
Mismatches predominantly occur at locations where connectors are present, but can also occur in
cable where variations in characteristic impedance along the length of the cable are excessive
Other RL factors include manufacturing tolerances, installation and termination methods such as
kinks in the cable, poor cable construction, improper termination or a compressed cable

Return lossdB = 20 log(Zn + Z0)/(Zn Z0)

Zn = line impedance
Z0 = characteristics impedance

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 Example:

Consider the following networks output port and its termination. The characteristic impedance (Z0) of
the output of the network is 600 .We have terminated this network in its characteristic impedance
(Z0). Let us assume for this example that it is 600 . How well does the networks output port match its
characteristic impedance?

Return loss tells us this

First let us suppose that Zn is exactly 600 . If we substitute that in the equation, what do we get? We
have then in the denominator 0. Anything divided by zero is infinity. Here we have the ideal case, an
infinite return loss; a perfect match.
Suppose Zn were 700 . What would the return loss be? We would then have:
Return lossdB = 20 log(700 + 600)/(700 600) = 20 log(1300/100) = 20 log 13 = 22.28 dB.

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Good return loss values are in the range of 25 dB to 35 dB

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DC loop resistance
DC loop resistance for copper conductors, the following
formula is applicable
RDC = 0.1095/d2
RDC = loop resistance (/mi)
d = diameter of the conductor (inches)

Example: If we want a 17-mile loop, allowing 100 per mile

of loop (for the 1700- limit), what diameter of copper wire
would we need?
Ans:
100 = 0.1095/d
d = 0.1095/100 = 0.001095
d = 0.0331 inches or 0.84 mm or about 19 gauge

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Twisted Pair Connectors

Kabel twisted pair untuk komputer menggunakan konektor RJ45 (8 pin)
Kabel twisted pair untuk telepon menggunakan konektor RJ11

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Cable Fire Rating

49

Cable Comparison

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Cable Legend

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Optical Fiber
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Optical Fiber Advantages

Weight and Size
Fiber cable is significantly smaller and lighter than electrical cables to do the same job

Material Cost
Fiber cable costs significantly less than copper cable for the same transmission capacity

Information Capacity
Recently, bit-rates of up to 14 Tbit/s have been reached over a single 160 km line using optical amplifiers

No Electrical Connection
Electrical connections have problems:
Ground loops (in a conductor connecting two points that are supposed to be at the same potential, often ground, but are
actually at different potentials) causing noises and interferences
Dangerous (must be protected)
Lightning poses a severe hazard

No Electromagnetic Interference
Because the connection is not electrical, you can neither pick up nor create electrical interference
(the major source of noise)

Longer distances between Regenerators (hundreds of kilometers)

Open Ended Capacity
The maximum theoretical capacity of installed fiber is very great (almost infinite)

Better Security
It is possible to tap fiber optical cable. But it is very difficult to do and the additional loss caused by the tap is
relatively easy to detect

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Optical Fiber Elements

Core

Carries the light signal (pure silica glass and

doped with germanium)

Cladding

Keeps light signal within core (Pure Silica

Glass)

Coating

Protects Optical Fiber From Abrasion and

External Pressures (UV Cured Acrylate)

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Mengapa cahaya bisa bergerak sepanjang

serat optik?
Karena ada fenomena Total
Internal Reflection (TIR)
TIR dimungkinkan dengan
membedakan indeks bias (n)
antara core dan clading
Dalam hal ini ncore > ncladding
Memanfaatkan hukum Snellius

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Remembering Snellius
ncore > ncladding

56

Critical angle
At the critical angle we know that q equals 90 and sin 90 = 1 and so

57

for rays where q1 is less than a critical value then the ray will
propagate along the fiber and will be bound within the fiber
(Total Internal Reflection)

where the angle q1 is greater than the critical value the ray is
refracted into the cladding and will ultimately be lost outside
the fiber
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Numerical Aperture (NA)

59

Light Modes
Can be as few as one mode and as many as tens of thousands of modes

60

Fiber Transmission Windows

(Bands)

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Transmitter Light Sources

Light Emitting Diodes (LED)

Used for multimode: 850 nm or 1300 nm

Wide beam width fills multimode fibers
Wider spectrum (typically 50 nm)
Inexpensive
Cannot modulate as fast as lasers

VCSELsVertical Cavity Surface Emitting Laser

Used for multimode at 850 and 1300 nm

Quite narrow spectrum
Narrow beam width (does not fill multimode fibers)
Much less expensive than FP or DFB lasers

Fabry-Perot (FP) and Distributed Feedback

(DFB) Lasers

Used for singlemode: 1310 nm or 1550 nm

Narrow spectrum (can be less than 1 nm)
Narrow beam width (does not fill multimode fibers)
Highest power and fastest switchingMost expensive
(especially DFB)

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Salah satu cara untuk mengidenifikasi

konstruksi kabel optik adalah dengan
menggunakan perbandingan antara
diameter core dan cladding. Sebagai
contoh adalah tipe kabel 62.5/125.
Artinya diamater core 62,5 micron dan
diameter cladding 125 micron
Contoh lain tipe kabel:50/125, 62.5/125
dan 8.3/125
Jumlah core di dalam satu kabel bisa
antara 4 s.d. 144

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Klasifikasi Serat Optik

Berdasarkan mode gelombang cahaya yang
berpropagasi pada serat optik
Multimode Fibre
Singlemode Fibre

Berdasarkan perubahan indeks bias bahan

Step index fibre
Gradded index fibre

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Step Index Fiber vs Gradded Index Fiber

Pada step index fiber, perbedaan antara index bias
inti dengan index bias cladding terjadi secara
drastis

65

Pada gradded index fiber, perbedaan index bias bahan dari inti sampai
cladding berlangsung secara gradual
Contoh profile gradded index:
Untuk 0 r a
r = jari-jari di dalam inti serat
a = jari-jari maksimum inti serat

66

Multimode Optical Fiber

Step-index multimode. Used with 850nm, 1300 nm source.

Graded-index multimode. Used with 850nm, 1300 nm source.

67

Singlemode Optical Fiber

68

 If a short pulse of light from a source such as a laser

or an LED is sent down a narrow fiber, it will be
changed (degraded) by its passage down the fiber
It will emerge (depending on the distance) much weaker
lengthened in time (smeared out), and
distorted in other ways

The reasons for the above are as follows:

Attenuation
Maximum Power
Polarization
Dispersion
Noise

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Attenuation
The pulse will be weaker because all glass
absorbs light
More accurately, impurities in the glass can
absorb light but the glass itself does not
absorb light at the wavelengths of interest

In addition, variations in the uniformity of

the glass cause scattering of the light
Both the rate of light absorption and the
amount of scattering are dependent on the
wavelength of the light and the
characteristics of the particular glass
Most light loss in a modern fiber is caused
by scattering
So, internally, attenuation is caused by :
Absorption
Scattering

70

External factors of
attenuation
Micro Bending
Caused by small deviations
in fiber core

Macro Bending

71

It can cause microbending also

72

Maximum Power
There is a practical limit to the amount of power that can be sent on a
fiber
This is about half a watt (in standard single-mode fiber) and is due to a
number of non-linear effects that are caused by the intense electromagnetic
field in the core when high power is present

73

Polarization
One way of thinking about light is to
conceive of it as an electromagnetic
wave just like a radio wave
An electromagnetic wave consists of
two fields: An electric field and a
magnetic field
Both of these fields have a direction
and a strength (or amplitude)
Within the electromagnetic wave the
two fields (electric and magnetic) are
oriented at precisely 90 to one another

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 The orientation of the

electromagnetic field is referred to
as polarization
The established convention when
discussing polarization of
electromagnetic fields is to refer to
the direction of the electric field
with respect to some plane or
boundary towards which the wave
is headed
The field orientations can also
change over time and we get what
are called circular and elliptical
polarizations

Circular

Linear

Elliptical

75

Conventional communication optical fiber is cylindrically symmetric but

contains imperfections
Light travelling down such a fiber is changed in polarization

Note: Light that comes from a mixture of all the possible polarizations
(generated by, say, a light bulb) is called unpolarized

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Dispersion
Dispersion occurs when a pulse of light is spread out during
transmission on the fiber
A short pulse becomes longer and ultimately joins with the pulse behind,
making recovery of a reliable bit stream impossible

There are many kinds of dispersion but the most important three are
below:
Material dispersion (chromatic dispersion)
Modal dispersion
Waveguide dispersion

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Material Dispersion (chromatic dispersion)

Both lasers and LEDs produce a range of
optical wavelengths (a band of light) rather
than a single narrow wavelength
The fiber has different refractive index
characteristics at different wavelengths and
therefore each wavelength will travel at a
different speed in the fiber
Thus, some wavelengths arrive before others
and a signal pulse disperses (or smears out)
Expressed in picoseconds per kilometer per
nanoseconds (ps/km/n)
Maximum information-carrying capacity at
1310 nm also known at zero-dispersion
wavelength

78

Modal dispersion
When using multimode fiber,
the light is able to take many
different paths or modes as it
travels within the fiber
The distance traveled by light
in each mode is different from
the distance travelled in other
modes
Therefore, some components
of the pulse will arrive before
others
Not issue in single mode fiber

79

Waveguide dispersion
Waveguide dispersion is a very complex effect and is caused by the
shape and index profile of the fiber core
However, this can be controlled by careful design and, in fact,
waveguide dispersion can be used to counteract material dispersion

80

Noise
Fiber doesn't pick up noise from outside the system
However, there are various kinds of noise that can come from
components within the system itself (we will not cover this, you can
take Optical Communication System course to learn it)

81

Bandwidth-distance product
Because the effect of dispersion increases with the length
of the fiber, a fiber Information carrying capacity is often
characterized by its bandwidth-distance product, often
expressed in units of MHzkm.
This value is a product of bandwidth and distance
because there is a trade off between the bandwidth of
the signal and the distance it can be carried
For example, a common multimode fiber with bandwidthdistance product of 500 MHzkm could carry a 500 MHz
signal for 1 km or a 1000 MHz signal for 0.5 km.

82

Cutoff wavelength
The cutoff wavelength is the shortest
wavelength at which the fiber will be
single-moded
Wavelengths shorter than the cutoff
will travel in multiple modes whereas
wavelengths longer than the cutoff
will travel in a single mode

83

Optical Fiber Selection Table

84

Optical Fiber Connectors

85

Fiber Optic Installation Safety

Rules
Keep all food and beverages out of the work area. If fiber particles are ingested they can cause
internal hemorrhaging
Wear disposable aprons to minimize fiber particles on your clothing
Fiber particles on your clothing can later get into food, drinks, and/or be ingested by other means

Always wear safety glasses with side shields and protective gloves
Treat fiber optic splinters the same as you would glass splinters.
Never look directly into the end of fiber cables until you are positive that there is no light
source at the other end

Use a fiber optic power meter to make certain the fiber is dark. When using an optical tracer or continuity
checker, look at the fiber from an angle at least 6 inches away from your eye to determine if the visible light is
present..

Only work in well ventilated areas

Contact wearers must not handle their lenses until they have thoroughly washed their hands.
Do not touch your eyes while working with fiber optic systems until they have been
thoroughly washed
Keep all combustible materials safely away from the curing ovens
Put all cut fiber pieces in a safe place.
Thoroughly clean your work area when you are done
Do not smoke while working with fiber optic systems.
Source: http://www.jimhayes.com/

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