Earthquakes, Uplift, and Landscape Second EditionContents Preface 1 Introduction to Active Tectonics: Emphasizing Earthquakes xiii 1 Active Tectonics 1 Global Tectonic 4 Earthquakes and Related Phenomena 6 Magnitude and Intensity of Earthquakes u 16 16 Earthquake Intensity Ground Acceleration during Earthquakes Seismic Waves 19 Material Amplification 21 Directivity 23 Active Fault Zones 23 Slip Rates and Recurrence Intervals 25 Tectonic Creep 26 Estimation of Seismic Risk 27 Effects of Earthquakes 33 Earthquakes Caused by Human Activity 38 ‘The Earthquake Cycle 39 Predicting Ground Motion. 42 Summary 46 References Cited 47 2 Landforms, Tectonic Geomorphology, and Quaternary Chronology 49 ‘Tectonic Geomorphology 49 Geomorphic Concepts 50 Landscape Evolution 50 ‘Thresholds 53 ‘Complex Response 33 Relationship Between Form and Process 55 ‘Tectonic Geomorphology and Faulting 55 Landforms of Strike-Slip Faulting ST Landforms of Normal Faulting 3 Landforms of Reverse Faulting 70 Pleistocene and Holocene Chronology 72 Summary 83 References Cited 83 viivill 3 4 5 Contents Geodesy Introduction Geodesy Defined History of Geodesy Principles of Geodesy Geodetic Frames of Reference Geodetic Change Geodetic Techniques Ground-Based Geodesy ‘Very Long Baseline Interferometry Satellite Laser Ranging Global Positioning System Satellite Radar Interferometry Summary of Geodetic Techniques Applications ‘Geodesy and Plate Motion Seismic Deformation Cycle Other Applications of Geodesy Summary References Cited Geomorphic Indices of Active Tectonics Introduction Hypsometric Curve and Hypsometric Integral Drainage Basin Asymmetry Stream Length-Gradient Index (SL) SL Indices in the San Gabriel Mountains of Southern California SL Indices at the Mendocino Triple Junction, Northern California Mountain-Front Sinuosity (S..:) Mountain-Front Sinuosity Near the Garlock Fault, California Ratio of Valley-Floor Width to Valley Height (V,) Alluvial Fans and Tectonic Activity at Mountain Fronts San Emigdio Canyon: An Example of a Deformed Alluvial Fan Relic Mountain Fronts Classification of Relative Tectonic Activity Sum References Cited Active Tectonics and Rivers Introduction, Bedrock Rivers, Alluvial Rivers, and River Grade Coseismic Modification of River Systems 134 135 137 138 141 149 149 154 154 157 1596 7 Fluvial Responses to Tectonic Modification ‘Aggradation and Degradation Changes in Drainage and Stream Pattern Responses of Bedrock Channels Changes in Longitudinal Profile Fluvial Terraces Other Responses to Longitudinal Deformation Responses to Lateral Tilting Models of Tectonic Adjustment Numerical Models Experimental Models Empirical Models Summary References Cited Active Tectonics and Coastlines Introduction ‘Major Controls on Coastal Morphology Three Classes of Coastlines Coastal Landforms Erosional Coasts Clastic Coasts Carbonate Coasts ‘Coseismic Deformation ‘Tide Gauges ‘Mortality of Intertidal Organisms Uplifted Holocene Coastal Landforms ‘Tsunami Deposits Coseismic Subsidence Coastal Geomorphology and Sea Level Long-Term Uplift Deformation of Coastal Terraces Lake Shorelines Dating Coastal Landforms Coastal Tectonics and Time Scale Summary References Cited Active Folding and Earthquakes Introduction Fold-and-Thrust Belts Fault-Propagation Folds Fault-Bend Folds Rollover Folds Contents ix 159 233x Contents Fold-and-Thrust Belts: Selected Processes Flexural-Stip Faults Folding and Strike-Slip Faulting ‘Tectonic Geomorphology of Active Folds Fault and Fold Growth Lateral Propagation of Folds Case Study: Wheeler Ridge Anticline Case Study: Ventura Avenue Anticline s References Cited 8 Paleoseismology and Earthquake Prediction Paleoseismology Evidence for Paleoearthquakes Fault Exposures Trenching Seismic Reflection Faulted Landforms Fault Scarps Stratigraphic Evidence for Earthquakes Fault-Zone Segmentation 238 242 246 Bgee 8 eeeeee 273 275 279 286 290 Case Study: Segmentation and Paleoseismicity of the Wasatch Fault Zone, Utah 293 Models of Earthquake Recurrence Earthquake Clustering ‘Case Study: Twelve Centuries of Earthquakes on the San Andreas Fault Conditional Probabilities for Future Earthquakes Earthquake Prediction Progress Toward Earthquake Prediction Earthquake-Hazard Reduction Earthquakes and Critical Facilities Adjustments to Earthquake Activity Summary References Cited 9 Mountain Building Tntroduetion Landscape Scale ‘The Shape of the Earth Models of Landscape and Mountain Development Historical Models A New "Cybernetic" Model of Orogenesis Dynamics of Orogenesis Driving Mechanisms Structural Support of Mountains Special Section: Calculating Esostatic Support of Mountains 295 297 298 8 301 a sgsgge 313 314 315 35 319 319 327Surficial Processes in Mountains Linkages in a Feedback-Rich Orogenic System Orography Isostatic Uplift ‘Long-Term Geochemical Cycling Landscape Evolution Equilibrium Landscapes Summary References Cited Appendix A. Glossary Index