53-Communities Text (Indo)
53-Communities Text (Indo)
Community Ecology
Figure 53.1
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Concept 53.1: Interaksi komunitas meliputi
kompetisi, predasi, herbivori, simbiosis dan
penyakit.
• Populasi dihubungkan dengan interaksi-
interaksi interspesifik
– Yang mempengaruhi kelangsungan hidup dan
reproduksi spesies yang terlibat dalam
interaksi
Table 53.1
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Competition
• Kopetisi interspesifik
– Terjadi ketika spesies-spesies berkompetisi
untuk suatu sumber tertentu yang
ketersediaannya sedikit
Chthamalus
fundamental niche
Balanus
realized niche
Ocean Ocean
Low tide Low tide
A. ricordii
A. insolitus
A. distichus perches
on fence posts and A. alinigar A. christophei
other sunny
A. distichus
surfaces.
A. cybotes
A. etheridgei
Figure 53.3
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Character Displacement
• In character displacement
– There is a tendency for characteristics to be more
divergent in sympatric populations of two species
than in allopatric populations of the same two G. fortis
species G. fuliginosa
Beak
depth
Los Hermanos
40
G. fuliginosa,
20
allopatric
0
Daphne
40
20 G. fortis, allopatric
0
8 10 12 14 16
Beak depth (mm)
Figure 53.4
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Predation
• Predasi merupakan suatu interaksi
– Dimana suatu spesies, predator, membunuh
dan memakan spesies lain, yaitu buruannya.
Figure 53.5
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Aposematic coloration
– Warns predators to stay away from prey
Figure 53.6
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Dalam beberapa kasus, suatu spesies buruan
– Membuat perlindungan dengan meniru
penampilan hewan/benda lain
Figure 53.8a, b
(b) Yellow jacket
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Herbivory
• Herbivori, adalah proses dimana suatu
herbivora memakan bagian dari suatu
tumbuhan
– Yang membawa kepada evolusi pertahanan
secara kimia dan mekanik tumbuhan tersebut
dan adaptasi sebaliknya oleh hebivora
Figure 53.9
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Commensalism
• Pada komensalisme
– Suatu spesies diuntungkan dan spesies yang
lain tidak ada pengaruh
Figure 53.10
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Interaksi komensalis sulit untuk
mendokumentasikannya di alam
– Karena adanya hubungan erat antara spesies
mungkin mempengaruhi kedua spesies
• Kelimpahan relatif
– Adalah proporsi tiap-tiap spesies yang ada
terhadap total individu yang ada dalam
komunitas tersebut
Community 1
A: 25% B: 25% C: 25% D: 25%
Community 2
Figure 53.11 A: 80% B: 5% C: 5% D: 10%
– Menghubungkan
tingkat tropik dari Carnivore Carnivore
Tertiary
produsen ke consumers
Secondary
consumers
Carnivore Carnivore
Primary
consumers
Herbivore Zooplankton
Primary
producers
Plant Phytoplankton
Figure 53.12 A terrestrial food chain A marine food chain
– Merupakan
percabangan Baleen
whales
Smaller toothed
whales
Sperm
whales
rantai
makanan Crab-eater seals
Leopard
seals
Elephant
seals
dengan
interaksi tropik Birds Fishes Squids
yang kompleks
Carnivorous
plankton
Euphausids Copepods
(krill)
Phyto-
plankton
Figure 53.13
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Jaring makanan dapat disederhanakan
– Dengan cara mengisolasi bagian komunitas
yang sangat sedikit berinteraksi dengan sisa
komunitas
Fish larvae
6 6
No. of species
5 5
4 links 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
High Medium Low
(control)
Productivity
Figure 53.15
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Species with a Large Impact
• Spesies tertentu dapat memiliki dampak besar
pada struktur seluruh komunitas
– Entah karena mereka sangat berlimpah atau
karena mereka memainkan peran penting
dalam dinamika komunitas
Number of species
15
present
10 Without Pisaster (experimental)
0
1963 ´64 ´65 ´66 ´67 ´68 ´69 ´70 ´71 ´72 ´73
80
(% max. count)
Otter number
60
pengaruh 40
20
keberadaan 0
(a) Sea otter abundance
berang-berang 400
pada 300
Grams per
0.25 m2
200
100
komunitas laut 0
(b) Sea urchin biomass
10
8
Number per
6
0.25 m2
4
2
0
1972 1985 1989 1993 1997
Year
Food chain before (c) Total kelp density Food chain after killer
Figure 53.17 killer whale involve- whales started preying
ment in chain on otters
Figure 53.18
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Beberapa spesies dasar bertindak sebagai
fasilitator
– Yang memiliki efek positif pada kelangsungan
hidup dan reproduksi beberapa spesies lain
dalam komunitas
8
Number of plant
4
species
2
0
With Without
Juncus Juncus
Salt marsh with Juncus
Figure 53.19 (foreground) Conditions
75
Percentage of
50
25
0
0 100 200 300 400
Figure 53.21a–c (a) Before a controlled burn. (b) During the burn. The detritus (c) After the burn. Approximately one
A prairie that has not burned for serves as fuel for fires. month after the controlled burn,
several years has a high propor- virtually all of the biomass in this
tion of detritus (dead grass). prairie is living.
(a) Soon after fire. As this photo taken soon after the fire shows, ( b) One year after fire. This photo of the same general area taken the
the burn left a patchy landscape. Note the unburned trees in the following year indicates how rapidly the community began to
distance. recover. A variety of herbaceous plants, different from those in the
Figure 53.22a, b former forest, cover the ground.
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Human Disturbance
• Manusia
– Adalah agen gangguan yang paling luas
dampaknya
1 899 1941
1900
1879 1879 1892 1913
1935 1949
1860
Reid Gl.
1879
Johns Hopkins
Gl. Glacier
Bay
1830
1780
1760
Pleasant Is.
Figure 53.23
McBride glacier retreating
60
50
Soil nitrogen (g/m2)
40
30
20
10
0
Pioneer Dryas Alder Spruce
Successional stage
(c) Spruce stage
(d) Nitrogen fixation by Dryas and alder
Figure 53.24a–d increases the soil nitrogen content.
160 200
140
100
120
(log scale)
100
50
80
60
40
20
10
0 1
500 1,000 1,500 2,000
100 300 500 700 900 1,100
Actual evapotranspiration (mm/yr) Potential evapotranspiration (mm/yr)
(a) Trees (b) Vertebrates
Figure 53.25a, b
100
10
1
1 10 100 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 1010
Area (acres)
Figure 53.26
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Island Equilibrium Model
• Kekayaan spesies di pulau-pulau
– Tergantung pada ukuran pulau, jarak dari
daratan utama, imigrasi, dan kepunahan
Equilibrium number Small island Large island Far island Near island
(a) Immigration and extinction rates. The (b) Effect of island size. Large islands may (c) Effect of distance from mainland.
equilibrium number of species on an ultimately have a larger equilibrium num- Near islands tend to have larger
island represents a balance between the ber of species than small islands because equilibrium numbers of species than
immigration of new species and the immigration rates tend to be higher and far islands because immigration rates
extinction of species already there. extinction rates lower on large islands. to near islands are higher and extinction
rates lower.
Figure 53.27a–c
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• Studi kekayaan spesies di Kepulauan
Galapagos
– Mendukung prediksi bahwa kekayaan spesies
meningkat dengan ukuran pulau
FIELD STUDY Ecologists Robert MacArthur and E. O. Wilson studied the
number of plant species on the Galápagos Islands, which vary greatly in size, in
relation to the area of each island.
RESULTS
400
200
Number of plant species (log scale)
100
50
25
10
0
0.1 1 10 100 1,000
Area of island(mi2)
(log scale)
individual
species
Environmental gradient
(such as temperature or moisture)
individual
species
Environmental gradient
(such as temperature or moisture)
(b) Individualistic hypothesis. Species are independently
distributed along gradients and a community is simply the
assemblage of species that occupy the same area because of
Figure 53.29b similar abiotic needs.
600
per hectare
Number of
plants
400
200
0
Wet Moisture gradient Dry
(c) Trees in the Santa Catalina Mountains. The distribution of tree species at one
elevation in the Santa Catalina Mountains of Arizona supports the individualistic
hypothesis. Each tree species has an independent distribution along the gradient,
apparently conforming to its tolerance for moisture, and the species that live
together at any point along the gradient have similar physical requirements.
Because the vegetation changes continuously along the gradient, it is impossible to
Figure 53.29c delimit sharp boundaries for the communities.
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Rivet and Redundancy Models
• Model komunitas pancang (The rivet model of
communities)
– Mengusulkan bahwa semua spesies dalam
suatu komunitas adalah saling berhubungan
dalam suatu jaringan interaksi yang sangat
erat
– Juga menyatakan bahwa kehilangan bahkan
satu spesies sekalipun memiliki dampak yang
kuat bagi komunitas