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Nyeri Sebagai Tanda

Vital ke-5
TRAINING MODULE FOR THE DOCTORS
• 2008:
• diimplementasikan sebagai kebijakan internasional

• Saat Ini:
• Salah satu persyaratan untuk RUMAH SAKIT BEBAS
NYERI

P5VS: Doctors’ training module


KRITERIA UNTUK RUMAH SAKIT
BEBAS NYERI
Does your hospital…
1. Mempunyai kebijakan tertulis untuk penanganan dan manajemen nyeri ?
2. Pain as the 5th
mentasikan Vital
nyeri Sign? tanda vital ke 5 3.
sebagai
Mengimple Mempunyai standarisasi protokol untuk penanganan nyeri akut
dardized treatment protocols for management of
acute staff tenaga kesehatan untuk pengetahuan dan
4. Melatih semua
ketrampilan dalam penanganan dan manajemen nyeri ?
5. Mengedukasi pasien dan melibatkan mereka dalam penanganan
manajemen nyeri mereka sendiri?
6.Mengerjakan audit regular pada penanganan dan manajemen nyeri dan
hasilnya?
7. Mempunyai kebijakan dan panduan pada pembedahan invasive
minimal?
8. Mempunyai kebijakan dan panduan pada One Day Care Surgery?
9. Menggunakan pendakatan tim multidisipliner dalam manajemen nyeri ?
10.Bekerjasama dengan non farmakologis termasuk T/CM untuk tindakan
penanganan nyeri?
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
TUJUAN DARI PELATIHAN MODUL INI :

• Kesiagaan yang lebih baik pada nyeri


• Penanganan nyeri yang lebih baik
• Melatih dokter, perawat dan seluruh personel
tenaga kesehatan di :
• Penanganan Nyeri
• Pendekatan pada penanganan nyeri

• è Mengimplementasikan nyeri sebagai tanda


vital ke 5
e hospital
• è Berusaha menuju bebas rasa nyeri
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
Saat 2008- 4 Tanda Vital

• Saat 2008 ( Implementasi Nyeri sebagai tanda


vital ke 5 )
• 4 Tanda vital yang rutin dimonitor:
• Temperatur (T)
• Pulse rate (PR)
• Respiratory rate (RR)
• Tekanan Darah (TD)
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
Apakah 4 tanda vital cukup?

Dia diam dan tampak


nyaman TD, PR, RR normal
Dia tidak ada demam

Akuberharap
mereka tahu aku
dalam keadaan
nyeri berat

4 Tanda Vital – Tidak Ada Komunikasi


P5VS: Doctors’ training module
ISSUE WITH NOT ASSESSING
PAIN:

“Those who do not feel


pain
seldom think that it is
felt”
Dr. Samuel Johnson
(1709-1784)

P5VS: Doctors’ training module


HAMBATAN UNTUK MANAJEMEN
NYERI

• Penanganan nyeri yang tidak adekuat


• diidentifikasi sebagai penyebab hambatan manajemen
nyeri terbesar
(Von Roenn JH, Cleeland CS, Gonin R, et al. Ann Intern Med,
1993)

• Perhatian yang kurang


• Jika kamu tidak bertanya kamu tidak akan tahu
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
JCAHO / JCI STANDARDS:
PAIN AS THE 5TH VITAL
SIGN

200 200
200
200
2
200 200 6
Hospital
8
1 3 4 MALAYSI
Austra Selayan
US Europ S‟pore g pilot A
li a
A e projec Ministry
t of
Healt
h
POLIC
Y
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
KEUNTUNGAN NYERI SEBAGAI
TANDA VITAL KE 5

• Mempromosikan interaksi dokter-pasien &


perawat-pasien
• Komunikasi yang lebih baik
• Kepuasan pasien yang lebih baik

• Menyediakan penanganan pasien yang lebih


baik
• Prioritas pada penanganan nyeri
• Penanganan secara individual

• Kesiagaan yang lebih baik untuk nyeri


• Manajemen nyeri yang lebih baik untuk nyeri
• Penyembuhan yang lebih cepat
• Mengurangi length of stay

P5VS: Doctors’ training module


MENGGABUNGK
AN
ESSENTIAL PAIN MANAGEMENT
(EPM)
DI MODUL PELATIHAN

• EPM program
• diciptakan oleh Dr. Roger Goucke dan Dr. Wayne
Morris
• dibuat untuk meningkatkan manajemen nyeri secara
lobal pada tingkat paling bawah
• Didukung oleh Faculty of pain Medicine (FPM),
Australia

• TUJUAN EPM:
• meningkatkan pemahaman tentang nyeri
• Untuk mengajarkan alur penanganan nyeri yang
mudah
• Mengurangi hambatan dalam penatalaksanaan nyeri

P5VS: Doctors’ training module


Pendekatan untuk nyeri

• R-A-T model (approach)

• Recognise
• Assess
• Treat

P5VS: Doctors’ training module


APPROACH TO PAIN

Recognise ( mengenali )
• Apakah pasien merasakan nyeri?
• Apakah orang lain tahu pasien merasa
nyeri?
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
APPROACH TO PAIN

Assess (mengenali ):
• Seberapa berat nyerinya?
• Apa tipe nyerinya?
• Apakah ada faktor lain?

P5VS: Doctors’ training module


APPROACH TO PAIN

Treat ( Penanganan )
• Apa pengobatan non farmakologis
yang bisa digunakan?
• Apa pengobatan farmakologis
yang bisa digunakan?
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
Apa Itu Nyeri?

• Definisi:
• Nyeri adalah sensasi sensorik dan pengalaman
emosional yang tidak menyenangkan yang
dihubungkan dengan kerusakan jaringan baik nyata
atau potensial, yang digambarkan dalam keadaan
tersebut
• International Association for the Study of Pain (IASP)
(Bogduk & Merskey 1996
IASP)

• Pertanyaan:
• Apa maksudnya?
• Apakah ada definisi lain?
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
Apa maksudnya?

Bahwa kita (tenaga kesehatan )


m e n g e r t i ….
•Tidak nyaman
•Emosi itu penting
•Penyebabnya tidak selalu terlihat

Untuk pasien…..
NYERI adalah yg disebut pasien……
SAKI
T
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
Bagaimana
konsekuensinya jika
tidak merawat nyeri
akut?
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
Adverse effects
of
severe acute
pain

CVS GI General Psycholog Neuro-


& i- cal plastici
RS MSK
ty

Increased Splintin Increase


sympathet g Impairs d Anxiety Peripher
ic activity shallow GI cataboli and al
breathin motilit c fear sensitizati
g y demand on
s

Poor
Myocardi Atelactasis wound Sleepless
hypoxaemi ness & Centra
Constipati healing
al a helplessne l
O2 on and
hypercarbi ss sensitizati
demand muscle on
a weakness
Weaknes
MI Delays Psychologi-
s
recover c
Pneumonia &impaire
y
d
rehabilitati
on

Chronic pain
P5VS: Doctors’ training module

al stress
Adverse effects
of
severe acute
pain
General & Psychologi-
RS GI Neuro- MSK cal
plasticity

CVS

Splinting Impairs GI Increased Anxiety and


shallow Peripheralcatabolic
Increased motility fear
sympathet breathing demands
sensitization
ic activity

Poor wound
Atelactasis healing and Sleepless
Myocardial hypoxaemia Constipation ness &
O2 demand Central
muscle
hypercarbia sensitization helplessness
weakness

MI Weaknes
Delays s
Pneumonia &impaired
Chronic pain
CLASSIFICATION OF
PAIN
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
Klasifikasi Nyeri

• Tujuan:
• Klasifikasi tipe nyeri
• Untuk tahu mekanisme pendekatan pada nyeri

• TIDAK SEMUA NYERI SAMA


• 3 Pertanyaan Utama:
• Berapa lama pasien merasa sudah nyeri?
• Apakah penyebabnya?
• Bagaimana mekanisme nyerinya?

P5VS: Doctors’ training module


KLASIFIKASI NYERI

Basis Tipe Nyeri


Durasi Akut

Kronik

Akut dalam perjalanan ke Kronik

Penyebab Kanker

Non kanker

Mekanisme Nociceptive (fisiologis)

Neuropathic (patologis)

P5VS: Doctors’ training module


NYERI AKUT vs Kronik

• Nyeri Akut:
• Nyeri yang baru saja terjadi dan mungkin durasinya
terbatas

• NYERI Kronik:
• Nyeri yang tetap ada setelah penyembuhan luka
• Penyebabnya sering tidak teridentifikasi
• Nyeri berlangsung > 3 bulan

P5VS: Doctors’ training module


Nyeri KANKER vs NON
KANKER

Nyeri Kanker
•Berkelanjutan
•Bisa merupakan percampuran antara akut dan
kronik

Nyeri Non Kanker


•Penyebabnya bisa berbeda-beda
•Akut atau kronik
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
NYERI NOCICEPTIVE vs
NEUROPATHIC
NYERI NOCICEPTIVE NYERI NEUROPATHIC
terlokalisir Tidak terlokalisir
terbakar
Tajam Tembakan
Dengan gerakan lebih sakit Kebas
Pin dan jarum
Luka /sakit yg jelas
Jaringan yg terluka mungkin
tidak jelas
Nerve injury
Changes in
Inflamasi
wiring Abnormal
firing
Loss modulation
Nyeri fisiologis * Nyeri patologis
*perlu diperlakukan berbeda
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
NYERI
NEUROPATHIC
• Definisi:
• Nyeri yang disebabkan oleh lesi atau penyakit
somatosensoris (PNS or CNS)(IASP 2011)

• Peripheral nerves
• Traumatic brachial plexus injury
• Diabetes Mellitus
• Carpel tunnel syndrome
• Post herpetic neuralgia

• Central nervous system


• Central post stroke pain
• Neuropathic yang diasosiasikan dengan spinal cord
injury
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
SPECTRUM OF PAIN
Healing
ACUTE NO PAIN
PAIN

Insidious onset

CHRONIC
PAIN

post-surgical, post-trauma syndromes


cancer
ACUTE CHRONIC
PAIN PAIN
P5VS: Doc5tothrsV’ tiratainlinSgigmno:dDuleoctors’ training module:
Pain Physiology
Perbedaan antara nyeri AkUT & Kronik

Nyeri Akut Nyeri Kronik

Tiba2,durasi nyeri pendek Onset tiba2


Waktu &Onset saat luka sembuh Nyeri tetap walau luka
sembuh

merupakan tanda dari Bukan tanda dari kerusakan


Sinyal
kerusakan jaringan secara jaringan
nyata atau potensial False
alarm
Dikorelasikan dengan Tidak berkorelasi dengan
Berat nyeri
besarnya kerusakan
kerusakan jaringan
jaringan
Keterl CNS intact- acute pain CNS kemungkinan
ibata merupakan dysfunctional- chronic
n CNS gejala pain adalah penyakit
sedikit, tetapi nyeri tidak
Sering berhubungan dengan
efek fisiologis hilang à gelisah dan
depresi, kemarahan,
tidak bisa tidur (membaik
ketakutan, menarik diri dll.
saat nyeri sembuh)

P5VS: Doctors’ training module


PENYEBAB UMUM

Nyeri Akut Nyeri Kronik

Trauma/fraktur/Pembedahan Nyeri Kepala


Kronis Luka Bakar Nyeri
punggung Kronik Nyeri Arthritis
abominal kronik nyeri abses
Nyeri pelvis kronik Myocardial infarction
Nyeri kanker
Nyeri pada saat partus
Nyeri
NEUROPATHIC
Acute shingles Post herpetic neuralgia
Post spinal cord injury Diabetic peripheral
neuropathy
Brachial plexus injury Post stroke pain
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
Perjalanan Nyeri

5.6 P5VS: Doctors’ training module


KENAPA NYERI FISIOLOGIS PENTING?

• banyak factor yang menyebabkan rasa


snyeri
• Faktor fisiologis sangat penting

• Perlakuan yang berbeda menyebabkan


perbedaan perjalanan nyeri
• Lebih dari satu perlakuan mungkin diperlukan
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
NOCICEPTION IS TIDAK SAMA DENGAN
NYERI!

Luka

kepercayaan/pe
Penyakit
mahaman
lainnya
terhadap
nyeri

Coping strategies
Psychol. factors
anxiety/anger/depression

Faktor sosial
Cth. Keluarga,
Factor budaya pekerjaan
Bahasa, harapan

Nyeri
Apa yg pasien katakan
sakit.
Apa yg harus dirawat.

P5VS: Doctors’ training module


FISIOLOGI NYERI

• 4 tahap:
• Periphery
• Spinal cord
• Otak
• Modulasi

Mari kita lihat tiap2 tahapnya :

P5VS: Doctors’ training module


PERIPHERY (1ST STEP)

Luka pada
jaringan
ê
Pelepasan reaksi
kimiawi
ê
Stimulasi dari
reseptor rangsang
nyeri ( nociceptors)
ê
Signal travels in Aδ or C
nerve fibres to spinal
cord

P5VS: Doctors’ training module


SPINAL CORD ( 2ND STEP)

Dorsal horn:
1st relay station
2nd
nerve Aδ or C nerve fibres
synapse (connect)
with second nerve
ê
Second nerve travels
up opposite side of
spinal cord
Aδ or C
nerve fibres

P5VS: Doctors’ training module


BRAIN (3RD STEP)

• Thalamus is the 2nd relay


station

• Connections to many
parts of brain
• Cortex
• Limbic system
• Brainstem

2nd relay • Pain perception occurs at


station
the cortex

P5VS: Doctors’ training module


MODULATION (4TH STEP)

• Perjalanan menurun
dari otak ke dorsal
horn

• Biasanya mengurangi
rangsang nyeri

P5VS: Doctors’ training module


KESIMPUL
AN :

• Banyak faktor yg mengkibatkan bagaimana kita


merasakan nyeri

• Perlakuan yg berbeda bekerja pada bagian yang


berbeda di penjalaran nyeri

• Penting untuk membedakan antara tipe nyeri

• Nyeri Neuropathic & nyeri nociceptive itu


berbeda maka diperlakukan berbeda
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
KESIMPUL
AN

• Nyeri akut & Kronik itu tidak sama;


• Nyeri akut adalah gejala
• Nyeri kronik adalah penyakit
• Perlakuan untuk mereka berbeda

• Nyeri kronik harus ditangani dengan pendekatan


multidisiplin dan multimodal yang lebih viable
pada jangka waktu yang lama
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
PENILAIAN NYERI

P5VS: Doctors’ training module


Mengapa nyeri harus diukur?

• Sebagai dasar untuk menilai intervensi terapetik


karena obat anestesi yang dimasukkan

• Memfasilitasi komunikasi antara staff yang


mrawat pasien

• Untuk dokumentasi

P5VS: Doctors’ training module


Bagaimana cara menilai
Nyeri:

• Penting untuk
• Mendengarkan dan percaya pada pasien

• Mengetahui riwayat nyeri


• “tolong beritahukan tentang rasa nyerimu…….”
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
BAGAIMANA CARA
MENILAI NYERI

P: Place or site of pain


“dimana sakitnya?”
catat dalam status
pasien

A: Aggravating factors
“apa yg membuat sakitmu tambah berat?”

I: Intensity
“seberapa berat nyerimu?”

N: Nature and neutralising factors


“seperti apa rasa nyerinya‟
“apa yg membuat rasa sakitmu berkurang?”
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
TEKNIK KLINIS UNTUK
MENGUKUR NYERI

• Laporan langsung dari pasien


• Gold standard
• metode terbaik

• P e n i l a i a n Observer
• Observasi sikap dan vital sign pasien
• Functional assessment

P5VS: Doctors’ training module


MOH PAIN SCALE

Dari skala „0‟ to ‟10‟ (menunjukkan skala nyeri).


jika „0‟ = tidak nyeri, and 10 = nyeri terparah yg dapat
kamu bayangkan, berapa skala nyeri anda?

Pasien disuruh untuk menunjuk di indikator untuk


menunjukkan seberapa berat tingkat nyerinya, yg direkam
sebagai angka ( 0 sampai 10)
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
PAIN
MEASUREMENT

• Skala yang digunakan pada anak2/ bayi dan


kelainan kognitif pasien

• Wong Baker Faces scale (self report scale)


• FLACC scale (behavioural pain scale)
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
WONG BAKER FACES PAIN
RATING SCALE

P5VS: Doctors’ training module


FLACC SCALE

F C

C
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
KAPAN NYERI SEBAIKNYA
DIPERIKSA

1. Saat interval reguler


• Sebagai tanda vital ke 5pada pemeriksaan rutin pada
TD,HR,RR, dan temperatur
• Bisa dilakukan tiap 4,6,atau 8 jam
2. Saat pasien diterima
3. Saat transfer pasien
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
4. Saat di luar observasi terjadwal:
• ½ sampai 1 jam setelah pemasukan dari obat
analgesic untuk meredakan nyeri
• Selama dan setelah prosedur yg menimbulkan nyeri
di bangsal, c.o. perawatan luka
• Kapanpun pasien mengeluh kesakitan

P5VS: Doctors’ training module


WHO SHOULD BE
ASSESSED?

ALL patients
•Patient in labour room
•Operating theatre (recovery room)
•ICU/ HDU/CCU
•Ambulatory day care units
•Clinics
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
WHO DOES PAIN
ASSESSMENT?

EVERYONE
•All nurses/ paramedics
•All doctors
•All student nurses
•All medical students
•All allied health personnel
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
SELECTION OF PAIN ASSESSMENT
TOOL

• Use the standard tool for pain assessment


• Use appropriate scale
• Appropriate for age, learning, development

*Always use the same tool for the same


patient
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
SELECTION OF ASSESSMENT
TOOL

• Recommendations by Ministry of Health,


Malaysia

Age Scale

Adult MOH scale

Paediatrics

1 month-3 years FLACC scale

3 -7 years Wong Baker faces scale

> 7 years MOH pain scale


P5VS: Doctors’ training module
UNABLE TO
ASSESS

• Sedated patients
• Unconscious patient

• Record „unable to assess/score‟


P5VS: Doctors’ training module
NURSING OBSERVATION CHART (VITAL
SIGNS CHART)
PS.KKM1/2014

Patient’s Name :
Age : Pain Score
Ward :

DATE TIME BP PR RR T°C PS NURSING


INTERVENTION
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
ACUTE PAIN
MANAGEMENT
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
OVERVIEW OF PAIN
MANAGEMENT

• Aims:
• To discuss non drug and drug treatment where
you work
• To classify pain treatments
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
NON- DRUG
TREATMENT:

• Physical :
• Rest, Ice, Compression, Elevation
• Surgery
• physiotherapy
• Acupuncture, massage,

• Psychological
• Explanation
• Reassurance
• Counselling
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
MEDICATIONS: NON
OPIOIDS

• Acetaminophen
• Paracetamol

• NSAIDS
• Non specific COX • Cox 2 inhibitors
inhibitor • Celecoxib
• Diclofenac • Etoricoxib
• Ibuprofen • Parecoxib
• Naproxyn
• Mefenamic acid
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
MEDICATIONS: OPIOIDS

• Opioids • Opioids
• Weak opioids: antagonist:
• DF 118 • Naloxone
• Tramadol

• Strong
Opioids:
• Morphine
• Pethidine
• Oxycodone
• Fentanyl
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
ANTINEUROPATHIC AGENTS

• • Anticonvulsants
Antidepressants: • Gabapentin
• Tricyclic • Pregabalin
antidepressants • Carbamazepine
• Phenytoin
(TCA)
• Amitryptyline
• Nortriptyline • Others
• Ketamine
• SNRI • Clonidine
• Duloxetine • Entonox ( O2/N2O)
• Venlafaxine • Local anaesthetics

P5VS: Doctors’ training module


TREATMENT - PERIPHERY

• Non drug treatment


(RICE)
• Rest
• Immobilisation
• Cold compression
• Elevation

• Drug treatment:
• Anti-inflammatory drugs
• NSAIDS/ COX 2
inhibitors
• Local anaesthetic agents
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
Treatment – spinal cord

• Non drug
treatment:
• Acupuncture
• Massage

• Medications:
• Local anaesthetics
• Opioids
• Ketamine
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
TREATMENT - BRAIN

• Non drug
treatment
• Psychological

• Drug
treatment:
• Paracetamol
• Opioids
• Amitriptyline
• Clonidine
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
ANALGESIC
STRATEGIE
S:

ENHANCING
• Inhibit BLOCKING
• ascending pain
signal

• Enhance
• descending
inhibition
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
Analgesic Ladder for SEVERE UNCONTROLLED

Acute Pain Management 7 - 10


To refer to APS
for:
Regular PR N PCA or Epidural or
MODERATE IV/SC IV/SC other forms of
Morphine Morphine analgesia
4-6 5-10mg 4H 5-10mg
Regular P RN or or
MILD
Opioid Additional
Tramadol Tramadol Aqueous Aqueous
1-3 Morphine Morphine
50- 50-100mg
Regular PRN 100mg (max total 5-10mg 4H 5-10mg
tds-qid dose: or or
No PCM
medication &/or 400mg/day)
IR IR
Or NSAID/ +PCM 1g
PCM 1g COX2 QID Oxycodone Oxycodone
5-10mg 5-10mg
QID Inhibitor +NSAID/
COX2 4-6 H
Inhibitor
+ PCM 1g
QID
+NSAID/
COX2
Inhibitor
!
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
MORPHINE PAIN
PROTOCOL

• Use for rapid control of severe acute pain


• Route: IV
• Morphine dilution: 10 mg/10 ml (1mg/ml)
• Monitoring (every 5 minutes)
• Pain score
• Sedation score
• Respiratory rate
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
I
n
f

PAIN AS o
r
m

THE 5TH
e
d

VITAL y

n
u

SIGN: r
s
e

G
r
e
e
t
p
a
t
i
e
n
t

Pain
Asse
ssm
ent

FLOW C H A
RT Acut
e
pain
Chronic
Pain

FOR Manage
as
U

DOCTOR Y
e
n
d
Chronic
Pain
Refer
e

S
Appendix
r 2
A .
P 6
S
No

Check
Cal Notes
Speciali
t/ Refe
APS

A
n
a
l
g
e
s
i
a

o
r
d
e
r
e
d

No Yes Reco
rd

O analgesics (Refer A
R
D
E
R
REVIEW analgesics (Refer Appendix 2.3 analgesic ladder)

Infor
m
Pai n Score > 6 nurse
to
serve
medic
ation

Reass
after Pain Score > 4-6
30m
!
1hour Pain Score < 4

P5VS:
Doctors’
training
module
Acute pain
Flow
Under chart for
APS
Yes No DOCTOR
S
Call
Specialist/ Check
Refer APS Notes

Analgesia
ordered
Chronic Pain
No Yes Record

ORDER analgesics REVIEW analgesics Manage as


(Refer Appendix 2.3 (Refer Appendix 2.3 Chronic Pain
analgesic ladder) analgesic ladder) Refer Appendix
2.6

Inform nurse to
serve medication
Pain Score > 6

Reassess
after 30min- Pain Score > 4-6
!
1hour
Pain Score < 4

P5VS: Doctors’ training module


MANAGEMENT
OF OPIOID SIDE
EFFECTS
5th Vital Sign: Doctors’ training module: Pharmacology
NAUSEA & VOMITING

• A common side effect of opioids


• Treat nausea and vomiting and continue
giving opioids
Drug Route Dose
interval
Metoclopramide IV 10-20 mg Stat & 6 hourly

Ondansetron IV 4-8 mg Stat & 8 hourly if


necessary
Granisetron IV 2 mg Stat & 8hourly if
necessary
Haloperidol IV 1 mg BD

Oral 1.5mg BD

Dexamethasone IV 4mg Stat


P5VS: Doctors’ training module
RESPIRATORY
DEPRESSION
• Very uncommon
• May occur with overdose of opioids, always associated
with
sedation
• Risk of respiratory depression is minimal
• If strong opioids are titrated to effect
• Only used to relieve pain ( ie not to help patients to sleep
or to calm down agitated patients)
• Risk of respiratory depression also minimal in patients
on chronic opioids use (e.g. patients on morphine for
cancer pain)
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
MANAGEMENT OF
RESPIRATORY DEPRESSION
• Confirm diagnosis
• Respiratory rate < 8/minute & sedation score=2
(difficult to arouse)
• Or Sedation score = 3 (unarousable)
• Pin Point pupils

• Sedation score
• 0 = none (patient is alert)
• 1 = mild (patient is sometimes drowsy)
• 2 = moderate (patient is often drowsy but easily
arousable)
• 3 = unarousable
• S = patient is sleeping, easily arousable
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
MANAGEMENT OF
RESPIRATORY DEPRESSION:
1. Stop the drug and call for help
2. Administer oxygen – face mask or nasal prongs
3. Stimulate the patient- tell him/her to breathe
4. Dilute naloxone 0.4mg/mg in 4 mls
• Give 0.1 mg (1ml) every 1-2 minutes until the patient wakes
up or respiratory rate >10/min
5. Monitor RR, sedation score hourly for 4 hours
6. Give another dose of naloxone if respiratory
depression recurs
7. Refer to ICH/HDU for close monitoring (patient
may require naloxone infusion)

P5VS: Doctors’ training module


KEY points…..in
MANAGEMENT OF AC
UTE PAIN
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
KEY
POINTS

• For pain as the 5th vital signs to have an impact


in
improving pain management in our
hospitals:

• Good understanding of analgesic medications


• How to use
• When to use
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
KEY
POINTS

• Important points to note on the


pharmacology of
drugs:

• Onset and duration of action


• (how often to prescribe the drug)

• Side effects
• (so one can anticipate and treat side effects)
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
KEY
POINTS

• During and after administrations of analgesic


medications, we must monitor:
• Pain score
• Sedation score
• Respiratory rate

Aim:
• Achieve reasonable pain relief
without unacceptable side
effects
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
PAIN IN PAEDIATRIC
PATIENTS
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
FACTS WE KNOW
TODAY

• Neonates and even premature babies can and


DO
feel pain
• Pain experienced by children is NO less and may
even be more than that experienced by adults
• Children react to and report pain in different
ways e.g. becomes quiet or withdrawn instead
of crying
• Pain in children is still under-recognised
and undertreated
• Lots of unwarranted fears on the use of
pain medication in children especially
opioids

P5VS: Doctors’ training module


ASSESSING PAIN IN
CHILDREN

Q Question the child

U Use pain rating scales


Evaluate behavioural and
E physiological changes

S Secure the parents’ involvement

T Take the cause of pain into account


T Take action and evaluate results
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
1. QUESTION THE
CHILD

• Important to listen and believe the child


• Taking a pain history:
P: Place or site of pain
“where does it hurt?”
A: Aggravating factors
“what makes your pain worse?”
I: Intensity
“How bad is the pain?”
N: Nature and neutralising factors
“what does it feel like‟
(a body chart might help children describe their pain)
“What makes the pain better?”
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
2. USE PAIN RATING
SCALES

• The tool chosen to assess must be


individualised
• Children >4 years can reliably self report pain
• In younger children or infants, assess
behavioural
and physiological changes
• Children >7 years can use a visual analogue
scale
• These tools should never be used singly
but in conjunction with parent‟s and
physician‟s assessment.
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
3. EVALUATE BEHAVIOURAL
AND PHYSIOLOGICAL
CHANGES
• These can be used as proxy measures for pain in
younger children, infants and neonates who are
not able to self report
• They should never be used singly

• Behavioural:
• E.g: Facial expression, crying, body posture, activity

• Physiological:
• E.g. heart rate, respiratory rate, blood pressure, Oxygen
saturation, palmar sweating
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
4. SECURE THE
PARENTS
INVOLVEMEN
T
• Get parents involvement in management of their
child‟s plan

• Parents are often good judges of their child‟s


pain

• However, if there is a discrepancy between the


child and parents‟ report, do not over rule a
child‟s response
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
5. TAKE THE CAUSE OF PAIN
INTO ACCOUNT
• Search for any possible simple reversible causes
of
pain
• e.g. A tissued line

• Anxiety may also be a cause of pain


• Sometimes a child might cry due to separation anxiety
and
not pain
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
6. TAKE ACTION AND EVALUATE
THE RESULTS
• Do not ignore any complaints

• If pain is present, check with patient/care giver


if
intervention required

• Intervention is not necessarily a medication, it


can just be touching, gentle massage or hot or
cold packs

• Always evaluate response after any intervention


P5VS: Doctors’ training module
KEY CONCEPTS IN PAIN
MANAGEMENT

• 1.‟By the ladder‟


Enabling stepwise approach to treatment (refer WHO
analgesic ladder)
• 2. „By the clock‟
Regular scheduling ensures a steady blood
concentration, reducing the peaks and trough of pro re
nata (prn) dosing
• 3. „By the appropriate route‟
Use the least invasive route of administration. The oral
route is convenient, non invasive and cost effective
• 4. „By the child‟
Individualise treatment according to the child‟s pain
and response to a treatment
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
WHO ANALGESIC LADDER

Strong opiod
+ non-opiod
+ adjuvants

Weak opiod Step 3


+ non-opiod
+ adjuvants

Non-opiod Step 2
+ adjuvants

Step 1

Increasing pain intensity

P5VS: Doctors’ training module


METHODS OF PAIN
RELIEF

• Pharmacological

• Non
pharmacological
• Suitable environment
• Distraction
• Guided imagery
• Information before a painful procedure
• Music
• Heat and cold packs
• Massage and physical therapy
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
PHARMACOLOGICAL

Non Opioid analgesics:


•Paracetamol
•NSAIDS
• Ibuprofen, Naproxen, Diclofenac, Meloxicam

Opioid analgesics:
•Weak opioids: Tramadol
•Strong Opioids: Pethidine, Morphine

P5VS: Doctors’ training module


PARACETAMOL

• The most commonly used analgesic in children


• Excellent safety profile and lack of significant side
effects
• Used for mild to moderate pain
• For more severe pain, can be combined with an
opioid analgesic
• Total daily dose not to exceed
• 90 mg/kg/day in children and
• 60 mg/kg/day in infants
• Avoid more frequently than 4 hourly dosing
• Oral better than rectal
• absorption of rectal paracetamol slow
• somewhat variable
• comparatively inefficient

P5VS: Doctors’ training module


NSAID
S

• Ibuprofen
• Indicated for mild to moderate pain

• Children appear to have a lower incidence of


renal and gastrointestinal side effects when
compared to adults even with chronic
administration
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
OPIOIDS

• Very useful for treatment of pain in patients of


all
ages
• Provide excellent analgesia with a side margin
of
safety for a vast majority of children
• Routes of administration: oral , IV,
rectal, transdermal or transmucosal
• Oral and IV route preferable
• Avoid intramuscular injections unless
absolutely necessary as children will deny they
are in pain to avoid a shot.
P5VS: Doctors’ training module
CONCLUSION

• Infants and young children can and do feel pain


• Untreated pain can have a negative impact and
long term consequences
• Pain in paediatric patient needs to be recognised
and managed
• Tools for assessment is dependent not only on
age
of the child but also other factors
• We need to treat children in a more humane
manner and be responsible to eliminate or
assuage pain

P5VS: Doctors’ training module


THANK YOU FOR
YOUR
ATTENTIO
N
P5VS: Doctors’ training module

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