Combinepdf PDF
Combinepdf PDF
OLEH:
CHRISTA GISELLA PIRSOUW
2018-84-048
PEMBIMBING
dr. ONY ANGKEJAYA, Sp.An
dr. FAHMI MARUAPEY, Sp.An
Puji syukur penulis panjatkan ke hadirat Tuhan Yang Maha Esa karena atas
berkat dan anugerah-Nya, penulis dapat menyelesaikan jurnal dengan judul “Acute
Postoperative Pain Management”. Jurnal ini disusun sebagai salah satu syarat
untuk menyelesaikan tugas kepaniteraan klinik pada bagian ilmu anestesi dan
reanimasi RSUD dr. M. Haulussy.
Penyusunan jurnal ini dapat diselesaikan dengan baik karena adanya
bantuan, bimbingan dan dorongan dari berbagai pihak. Untuk itu, pada kesempatan
ini penulis ingin mengucapkan terima kasih kepada dr. Ony Angkejaya, Sp.An dan
dr. Fahmi Maruapey, Sp.An selaku pembimbing uang telah bersedia meluangkan
waktu, pikiran, dan tenaga untuk membantu penulis dalam menyelesaikan jurnal
ini.
Penulis menyadari bahwa dalam penulisan jurnal ini masih belum
sempurna. Oleh karena itu, saram dam kritik yang bersifat membangan dari
berbagai pihak sangat penulis harapkan demi perbaikan penulisan jurnal ini
kedepannya. Semoga junal ini dapat memberikan manfaat ilmiah bagi semua pihak
yang membutuhkan.
Penulis
MANAJEMEN NYERI AKUT PASCA OPERASI
Latar belakang: Nyeri akut pasca operasi sering terjadi. Hampir 20 persen pasien
mengalami nyeri hebat dalam 24 jam pertama setelah operasi, angka yang sebagian
besar tetap tidak berubah dalam 30 tahun terakhir. Ulasan ini bertujuan untuk
menyajikan pertimbangan utama untuk manajemen nyeri pasca operasi.
Metode: Tinjauan naratif strategi nyeri pasca operasi telah dilakukan. Pencarian
dari Cochrane Database Perpustakaan, PubMed, dan Google Cendekia dilakukan
menggunakan istilah perawatan pasca operasi, faktor psikologis, manajemen nyeri,
layanan nyeri akut, analgesia, nyeri akut dan penilaian nyeri.
Hasil: Informasi tentang penyediaan layanan, perencanaan pra operasi, penilaian
nyeri, dan farmakologis dan strategi non-farmakologis yang relevan dengan
manajemen nyeri pasca operasi akut pada orang dewasa disajikan dengan fokus
pada peningkatan pemulihan setelah operasi.
Kesimpulan: Manajemen nyeri perioperatif yang adekuat merupakan bagian
integral dari perawatan dan hasil pasien. Setiap dari dimensi biologis, psikologis
dan sosial dari pengalaman nyeri harus dipertimbangkan dan dipahami untuk
memberikan manajemen nyeri yang optimal dalam pengaturan pasca operasi.
Latar Belakang
Nyeri akut terjadi setelah cedera jaringan yang terkait dengan pembedahan dan
harus diselesaikan selama proses penyembuhan. Ini biasanya memakan waktu
hingga 3 bulan, setelah itu rasa sakit dianggap kronis atau persisten. Nyeri adalah
pengalaman multidimensi, dipersonalisasi untuk setiap pasien. Perbedaan dalam
pengalaman nyeri dipengaruhi oleh respon biologis, keadaan psikologis dan sifat-
sifat, dan konteks sosial. Etiologi nyeri pasca operasi akut bersifat multifaktorial.
Prosedur bedah menyebabkan cedera pada jaringan. Cedera bedah memicu
segudang respons dalam matriks nyeri, mulai dari kepekaan jalur nyeri perifer dan
sentral hingga perasaan takut, cemas, dan frustrasi. Meskipun rasa sakit berkurang
selama beberapa hari pertama setelah operasi di sebagian besar pasien, beberapa
mengalami lintasan statis atau naik dalam rasa sakit dan persyaratan analgesik.
Pencegahan dan pengurangan rasa sakit pasca operasi adalah tanggung
jawab inti bagi para profesional kesehatan. Namun, sebagian besar pasien
mengalami tingkat rasa sakit pasca operasi yang tidak diinginkan. Dalam sebuah
studi observasional cross-sectional 20168 dari lebih dari 15.000 pasien UK yang
menjalani operasi, 11 persen melaporkan nyeri parah dan 37 persen melaporkan
nyeri sedang dalam 24 jam pertama. Program Peningkatan Kualitas Perioperatif
(PQIP) 2017–2018 laporan tahunan termasuk data dari 79 lokasi rumah sakit di
Inggris. Itu menyoroti bahwa 48 dan 19 persen pasien melaporkan nyeri sedang atau
berat masing-masing di lokasi bedah dalam 24 jam operasi, dan data ini direplikasi
dalam publikasi 2018-2019 terbaru. Data ini tidak terbatas di Inggris. Sebuah studi
kohort prospektif Jerman11 dari 50 523 pasien melaporkan bahwa hingga 47/2
persen pasien mengalami nyeri parah (skor skala nilai numerik setidaknya 8) dalam
24 jam pertama setelah operasi; Namun, ini bervariasi tergantung pada jenis operasi
yang dilakukan. Lebih lanjut, nyeri sedang-berat berlanjut selama fase pemulihan
pasca operasi yang diperpanjang. Ini terlepas dari layanan nyeri rawat inap (IPS),
dan peningkatan dalam pilihan kesadaran dan manajemen tersedia untuk nyeri
pasca operasi. Data terbaru menunjukkan sedikit perubahan dari yang dilaporkan
pada tahun 1990 oleh kelompok kerja bersama Royal College of Surgeons dan
College of Anesthetists dalam sebuah dokumen berjudul Pain after Surgery.
Pasien melaporkan kekhawatiran tentang rasa sakit yang terjadi setelah
operasi. Intensitas dan durasi nyeri yang dialami meningkatkan kemungkinan
pasien mengembangkan nyeri posturgis kronis atau persisten (PPSP), yang
menghasilkan kesulitan psikologis, sosial dan ekonomi jangka panjang.
Pencegahan dan pemulihan nyeri pasca operasi yang optimal sangat penting baik
untuk alasan kemanusiaan maupun untuk pemberian layanan kesehatan yang
efisien.
Ulasan naratif ini menyajikan pertimbangan utama dan pendekatan dalam
manajemen nyeri pasca operasi pada orang dewasa.
Metode
Database Cochrane Library, PubMed, dan Google Cendekia dicari literatur tentang
penilaian dan pengobatan nyeri pasca operasi setelah payudara, gastrointestinal
atas, operasi gastrointestinal bagian bawah dan endokrin menggunakan kombinasi
istilah Medical Subject Heading (MeSH) berikut: perawatan pasca operasi, faktor
psikologis, faktor psikologis , manajemen nyeri, layanan nyeri akut, analgesia, nyeri
akut dan penilaian nyeri. Artikel yang disaring termasuk semua yang
menggambarkan populasi rawat inap rumah sakit akut dewasa dan diterbitkan
dalam bahasa Inggris. Sebanyak 1.162 judul penelitian dan abstrak diputar, dengan
64 dipilih untuk ditinjau lebih lanjut. Artikel yang terkait dengan jantung, toraks,
transplantasi, ortopedi, trauma dan bedah saraf tidak dimasukkan, kecuali mereka
menggambarkan novel atau prinsip unik yang tidak tercakup dalam populasi
penelitian yang dimasukkan. Artikel tambahan yang diidentifikasi oleh ulasan
daftar referensi artikel asli dimasukkan.
Penyediaan layanan
Publikasi dari laporan bersama kelompok kerja ini adalah Pain after Surgery oleh
Royal College of Surgeons dan College of Anesthetists yang mendorong ekspansi
IPS multidisiplin di Inggris. Ini sebagai tanggapan terhadap pengakuan bahwa
manajemen nyeri pasca operasi tidak memadai, setelah ‘tidak berkembang secara
signifikan selama bertahun-tahun. Meningkatnya keunggulan manajemen nyeri
perioperatif tercermin secara global dengan kampanye termasuk 'Nyeri sebagai
tanda vital ke-528. Standar untuk penyediaan layanan ditetapkan oleh Fakultas
Kedokteran Nyeri dalam Standar Inti untuk Layanan Manajemen Nyeri di UK29
dan oleh Royal College of Anesthetists dalam Pedoman Penyediaan Layanan
Anestesi untuk Manajemen Sakit Pasien Rawat Inap 201930. Peran IPS meliputi:
pengawasan intervensi manajemen nyeri pasca operasi, seperti anestesi regional
berkelanjutan; manajemen pasien dengan nyeri yang tidak terkontrol; pendidikan;
penelitian; dan peningkatan kualitas. Perumusan setiap IPS bervariasi antara pusat.
Data Inggris menunjukkan bahwa banyak layanan gagal memenuhi standar inti
yang ditetapkan dan ini merupakan area untuk pengembangan untuk meningkatkan
manajemen nyeri.
Opioid
Opioid telah lama menjadi pengobatan utama untuk nyeri akut sedang dan berat.
Namun, ada ketegangan antara manfaat dan ancaman terhadap pemulihan pasca
operasi yang optimal. Pada fase pasca operasi langsung, efek samping terkait opioid
(ORADE) dilaporkan pada 10 persen dari kelompok bedah dari 135.379 pasien, dan
lebih umum pada pria yang lebih tua dengan tingkat kebugaran ASA yang lebih
tinggi, mereka yang memiliki beberapa komorbiditas, dan pasien dengan riwayat
penyalahgunaan alkohol atau narkoba. ORADE dikaitkan dengan peningkatan
durasi tinggal di rumah sakit 1-6 hari. Kelanjutan opioid di luar masa rawat inap
rumah sakit merupakan risiko. Di AS, survei terhadap pasien yang menerima terapi
opioid kronis mengungkapkan bahwa 27 persen pertama kali memulai opioid
setelah operasi dan tinjauan sistematis terbaru menemukan bahwa kurang dari
setengah dari resep opioid yang dikeluarkan setelah operasi digunakan oleh pasien
setelah keluar, menyoroti sumber potensial untuk pengalihan dan penyalahgunaan
pasokan opioid. Pasien yang sudah menggunakan opioid atau benzodiazepin, atau
didiagnosis dengan penggunaan zat atau gangguan kesehatan mental lainnya,
berada pada risiko terbesar dari penggunaan pasca operasi yang berkepanjangan.
Pasien yang menggunakan opiat sebelum operasi tidak hanya berisiko tinggi
mengalami nyeri yang tidak terkontrol, tetapi juga memiliki beban ORADE yang
lebih tinggi, terutama depresi pernapasan dan sedasi. Dalam kelompok ini, strategi
analgesik multimodal sangat penting untuk membantu analgesia yang efektif,
meminimalkan peningkatan penggunaan opioid dan menipiskan hiperalgesia yang
diinduksi opioid. Namun, pasien-pasien ini beresiko menarik diri jika dosis opioid
normalnya tidak dilanjutkan pada tingkat awal, sehingga catatan yang akurat dari
dosis opioid pra-kiriman mereka sangat penting. Dalam keadaan ini, opioid IVPCA
dapat membantu, tetapi pasien sering memerlukan infus latar belakang dan
mungkin memerlukan dosis bolus yang lebih tinggi daripada pasien naif opioid
karena toleransi opioid. Strategi lain untuk mengurangi bahaya termasuk rotasi /
switching opioid, penggunaan teknik tambahan seperti analgesia regional, dan
memastikan bahwa 'tangga analgesik terbalik' digunakan pada saat keluar untuk
mengembalikan pasien ke rejimen opioid pra-kiriman mereka secara bertahap.
Ketamin
Ulasan Cochrane terbaru tentang penggunaan ketamin perioperatif untuk nyeri akut
pasca operasi di lebih dari 130 uji coba yang sebagian besar kecil, kebanyakan
mengandung kurang dari 50 pasien, menemukan bahwa penggunaannya dikaitkan
dengan penurunan konsumsi morfin pasca operasi pada 24 dan 48 jam, bersama
dengan penurunan intensitas nyeri. Meskipun manfaatnya dianggap agak diimbangi
oleh efek samping yang tergantung pada dosis, termasuk hipersalivasi, mual dan
muntah, dan efek psikotomimetik seperti mimpi hidup, penglihatan kabur,
halusinasi, mimpi buruk dan delirium, ada pengurangan mual yang signifikan
secara klinis. dan muntah dan sedikit perbedaan dibandingkan dengan kontrol
dalam hal efek samping sistem saraf pusat. Ketamin juga dianggap mengurangi
kemungkinan transisi ke PPSP. Saat ini tidak direkomendasikan sebagai bagian
rutin dari sebagian besar strategi nyeri pasca operasi ERAS. Namun,
dimasukkannya dalam strategi multimodal mungkin efektif pada pasien dengan
peningkatan kebutuhan opioid.
Gabapentinoid
Gabapentinoid adalah analgesik yang efektif pada sebagian besar model hewan
peradangan dan nyeri pasca operasi, tetapi efeknya pada model manusia tampak
bervariasi. Gabapentinoid bekerja pada jalur naik dan turun, mempengaruhi
komponen nyeri nosiseptif dan afektif. Paling umum digunakan untuk mengelola
nyeri neuropatik kronis, penggunaannya dalam fase perioperatif meningkat menjadi
menarik menyusul minat penggunaan preemptive mereka untuk mencegah PPSP.
Sintesis uji coba kecil menunjukkan bahwa mereka mungkin melindungi terhadap
pengembangan PPSP. Bukti mengenai kejadian nyeri neuropatik akut pasca operasi
dan manajemen farmakologis jarang ditemukan; penggunaan gabapentinoid dalam
keadaan ini tampaknya masuk akal berdasarkan data nyeri kronis. Namun, tinjauan
sistematis yang diterbitkan pada 2007 melaporkan bahwa gabapentin dan
pregabalin mengurangi konsumsi opioid pada periode awal pasca operasi, yang
mengarah pada inklusi mereka dalam strategi untuk mengelola rasa sakit pasca
operasi umum. Penelitian selanjutnya berfokus pada penggunaan gabapentin
perioperatif atau penggunaan pregabalin untuk nyeri pasca operasi setelah prosedur
bedah tertentu. Bukti juga bervariasi berdasarkan pada apakah obat ini diberikan
sebelum atau setelah operasi, membuat keputusan mengenai penggunaannya sulit.
Meskipun gabapentin dan pregabalin direkomendasikan dalam pedoman praktik
klinis dari American Pain Society untuk digunakan sebagai bagian dari strategi
multimodal untuk nyeri pasca operasi, ulasan sistematis dan meta-analisis untuk
setiap obat menemukan bahwa penggunaannya dikaitkan dengan efek hemat opioid
minimal dan peningkatan risiko kejadian buruk. Ada kekhawatiran yang
berkembang tentang risiko yang terkait, khususnya penyalahgunaan, kematian
masyarakat dan pengalihan. Pada bulan April 2019, mereka dikategorikan kembali
sebagai obat kelas C di Inggris, dan kehati-hatian harus digunakan dalam
penggunaannya, terutama pada pasien dengan penyalahgunaan obat yang sudah ada
sebelumnya.
𝛂-2 agonis
Agonis reseptor α-2 clonidine dan dexmedetomidine dapat diberikan secara oral
(hanya clonidine), secara intravena, intratekal, perineural atau melalui patch
transdermal, dan telah digunakan selama dan setelah operasi. Meskipun mereka
dikaitkan dengan pengurangan penggunaan opiat dan durasi blok saraf, manfaatnya
diimbangi dengan sedasi dan hipotensi82-84. Mengingat efek hemodinamik, infus
agonis α-2 pasca operasi akan mengharuskan masuk ke daerah ketergantungan
tinggi di sebagian besar pusat UK.
Magnesium
Ada bukti level 1 bahwa magnesium intravena, sebagai tambahan analgesia morfin,
memiliki efek hemat opioid dan mengurangi skor nyeri. Studi-studi yang termasuk
dalam tinjauan sistematis dan meta-analisis ini menggunakan dosis bolus (sebagian
besar 30-50 mg / kg) bersama dosis rendah intraoperatif atau infus magnesium
pasca operasi pendek (hingga 48 jam setelah operasi). Selain itu, dua RCT kecil
menunjukkan bahwa magnesium intravena memperpanjang durasi blok sensorik
dengan anestesi spinal, dan mengurangi nyeri pasca operasi dan kebutuhan opioid
berikutnya.
Lidokain intravena
Hasil pemulihan dalam paradigma DrEaMing telah diperiksa dalam ulasan
Cochrane baru-baru ini tentang infus lidokain perioperatif intravena terus menerus
untuk nyeri pascaoperasi dan pemulihan pada orang dewasa. Dari 68 termasuk
RCT, 42 melibatkan operasi perut dan dievaluasi sebagai kualitas rendah dengan
berbagai rejimen dosis (antara 1 dan 5 mg per kg per jam). Para penulis
menyimpulkan bahwa tidak ada bukti yang cukup untuk menunjukkan perbaikan
pada nyeri pasca operasi, atau resolusi ileus, mual, muntah atau efek samping
dibandingkan dengan plasebo, perawatan biasa atau anestesi epidural toraks (EA).
Pedoman ERAS saat ini untuk operasi kolorektal elektif termasuk infus lidokain
perioperatif. Namun, pedoman ini didasarkan pada ulasan Cochrane sebelumnya,
yang sekarang digantikan, 89 yang disimpulkan lebih banyak manfaat dari lidokain
intravena. Saat ini ada ketidakpastian mengenai penggunaan lidokain intravena
untuk membantu analgesia pasca operasi. Ada sejumlah studi yang sedang
berlangsung dan publikasi yang dapat mengubah kesimpulan ini ditunggu.
Agen lainnya
Baru-baru ini ada minat dalam penggunaan obat berbasis kanabis dalam manajemen
nyeri akut maupun kronis. Meskipun ada kekurangan bukti, meta-analisis terbaru
mempertimbangkan tiga RCT memeriksa penggunaan cannabinoid untuk nyeri
pasca operasi akut disukai plasebo dibandingkan tetrahydrocannabinol atau
nabilone dalam semua uji coba.
Analgesia regional
Anestesi regional menghasilkan obat analgesik, biasanya anestesi lokal, dengan
atau tanpa tambahan, langsung ke saraf perifer. Tabel 1 menguraikan teknik
analgesia regional yang umum digunakan. Penggunaan anestesi regional
mengurangi risiko PPSP dibandingkan dengan analgesia konvensional. Untuk
analgesia epidural toraks setelah torakotomi, rasio odds adalah 0⋅52 (95 persen c.i.
0⋅32 hingga 0⋅84; P = 0008); untuk berbagai teknik analgesia regional, termasuk
paravertebral, blok saraf, dan infiltrasi lokal dalam operasi payudara, rasio odds
adalah 0⋅34 (0⋅19 hingga 0⋅60).
Analgesia intratekal
Teknik ini melibatkan penggunaan anestesi lokal yang bekerja selama operasi untuk
mengurangi respons stres, dan pemberian bersama opioid yang bekerja lama,
seperti morfin atau diamorfin, yang terus memberikan efek analgesik hingga 24
jam. Anestesi spinal / analgesia memiliki kemanjuran tinggi dan tingkat komplikasi
yang rendah, dengan perkiraan pesimistis 2⋅2 (95 persen ci 1 hingga 4⋅4) per
100.000 untuk kerusakan permanen dan 1⋅2 (1 hingga 3⋅2) per 100.000 untuk
paraplegia atau kematian. Ketika digunakan sebagai bagian dari program ERAS,
analgesia intratekal dikaitkan dengan berkurangnya konsumsi opioid setelah reseksi
kolon laparoskopi dan operasi perut untuk keganasan ginekologis, dan skor nyeri
yang lebih rendah100. Namun, dampaknya pada durasi tinggal di rumah sakit
tampaknya tidak meyakinkan. Kekhawatiran utama mengelilingi risiko depresi
pernapasan tertunda di hari pertama setelah operasi. Namun, teknik ini
direkomendasikan dalam pedoman ERAS terbaru untuk operasi kolorektal
laparoskopi.
Teknik non-farmakologis
Intervensi non-farmakologis untuk membantu manajemen nyeri pasca operasi dapat
digunakan sepanjang fase perioperatif. Ini seringkali murah dan mudah
diimplementasikan. Strategi pra operasi termasuk edukasi pasien dan intervensi
psikologis, seperti terapi perilaku kognitif. Teknik gangguan, termasuk musik,
aromaterapi, terapi anjing dan realitas virtual telah digunakan selama dan setelah
operasi, dan telah menunjukkan manfaat terbesar pada pasien dengan kecemasan.
Dalam pengaturan pasca operasi mereka dapat digunakan sebagai bagian dari
program manajemen diri, meningkatkan kemandirian dan otonomi pasien. Banyak
terapi semacam itu telah dikembangkan dalam pengobatan nyeri kronis. Karena
kekhawatiran tentang beban efek samping farmakoterapi tradisional, mereka
menjadi semakin diselidiki di semua pengaturan termasuk nyeri akut pasca operasi.
Gambaran
Manajemen nyeri pasca operasi yang adekuat merupakan penentu inti pasien yang
mencapai status DrEaMing. Setiap dimensi biologis, psikologis dan sosial dari
pengalaman nyeri harus dipertimbangkan dan dipahami untuk memberikan
manajemen nyeri yang optimal dalam pengaturan pasca operasi. Pengakuan fenotip
biopsikososial dengan peningkatan risiko nyeri pasca operasi yang sulit dikelola
dan pengembangan PPSP akan meningkatkan stratifikasi penggunaan sumber daya
dan bantuan dalam pengambilan keputusan seputar keseimbangan manfaat dan
risiko farmakologis.
Review
Background: Acute postoperative pain is common. Nearly 20 per cent of patients experience severe pain
in the first 24 h after surgery, a figure that has remained largely unchanged in the past 30 years. This
review aims to present key considerations for postoperative pain management.
Methods: A narrative review of postoperative pain strategies was undertaken. Searches of the Cochrane
Library, PubMed and Google Scholar databases were performed using the terms postoperative care,
psychological factor, pain management, acute pain service, analgesia, acute pain and pain assessment.
Results: Information on service provision, preoperative planning, pain assessment, and pharmacological
and non-pharmacological strategies relevant to acute postoperative pain management in adults is
presented, with a focus on enhanced recovery after surgery pathways.
Conclusion: Adequate perioperative pain management is integral to patient care and outcomes. Each
of the biological, psychological and social dimensions of the pain experience should be considered and
understood in order to provide optimum pain management in the postoperative setting.
Paper accepted 22 November 2019
Published online in Wiley Online Library (www.bjs.co.uk). DOI: 10.1002/bjs.11477
This narrative review presents key considerations and of Anaesthetists propelled an expansion in multidisci-
approaches in the management of postoperative pain in plinary IPSs across the UK. This was in response to an
adults. acknowledgement that postoperative pain management
was inadequate, having ‘not advanced significantly for
Methods
many years’12 . The rising prominence of perioperative
Th Cochrane Library, PubMed and Google Scholar pain management was mirrored globally with campaigns
databases were searched for literature on the assessment including ‘Pain as the 5th vital sign’28 . Standards for ser-
and treatment of postoperative pain after breast, upper vice provision are set out by the Faculty of Pain Medicine
gastrointestinal, lower gastrointestinal and endocrine in Core Standards for Pain Management Services in the UK 29
surgery using combinations of the following Medical and by the Royal College of Anaesthetists in Guidelines
Subject Heading (MeSH) terms: postoperative care, psy- for the Provision of Anaesthesia Services for Inpatient Pain
chological factor, pain management, acute pain service, Management 201930 . Roles of the IPS include: supervision
analgesia, acute pain and pain assessment. Screened articles of postoperative pain management interventions, such as
included all those describing adult acute hospital inpatient continuous regional anaesthesia; management of patients
populations and published in the English language. A total with uncontrolled pain; education; research; and quality
of 1162 study titles and abstracts were screened, with 64 improvement. The formulation of each IPS varies between
selected for further review. Articles related to cardiac, tho- centres. UK data suggest that many services fail to meet
racic, transplant, orthopaedic, trauma and neurosurgery the core standards set and this represents an area for
were not included, unless they described novel or unique development to improve pain management31 .
principles not covered in the included study populations.
Additional articles identified by review of original article
Preassessment and planning
reference lists were included.
Optimum pain management should start before surgery.
Pain as a priority in health services research
All patients should undergo a preoperative assessment that
Improving quality of care is a strategic priority for health- includes a section on pain management. This allows plan-
care services. Quality performance indicators measure a ning of optimal pain management techniques and facilitates
myriad of outcomes that extend beyond simply evaluating early discussions to help alleviate fear of postoperative
survival23 , with a burgeoning understanding of the impact pain13,14 . It also identifies patients with preexisting com-
that poorly managed acute pain has on health resource plex pain, allowing implementation of patient education,
use22 . Pain management is part of the complete perioper- preoperative interventions, early specialist management
ative care package and is a core component of enhanced and allocation of resources, as such patients present partic-
recovery programmes24,25 . In the UK, data regarding ular challenges, especially those already taking high-dose
postoperative pain are routinely collected and analysed, opioids in the community. It also enables forward plan-
for example the National Audit Project26 reported com- ning for patients with existing co-morbidities who may
plications related to neuraxial blocks, and the PQIP9,10 be unsuitable for traditional pharmacological approaches
reports pain scores in postanaesthetic recovery. Individ- owing to an increased risk of side-effects32 . Discussion
ualized pain management is listed as one of the top five of postoperative pain management at preoperative assess-
national improvement opportunities to influence the care ment aims to optimize patient satisfaction and reduce
of surgical patients in both the 2017–2018 and 2018–2019 adverse effects33 . Common phenotypes and conditions
reports. Pain management was highlighted as critical to predict poor postoperative pain control and increased opi-
achieve DrEaMing (Drinking, Eating and Mobilizing) on oid intake, including: younger age; female sex; smoking;
day 1 after surgery9,10 . Adequate perioperative pain man- depression; anxiety; sleep disorders; negative affectivity;
agement is therefore core to patient care and outcomes. preoperative pain; use of preoperative analgesia; and sur-
It is hoped that large, prospective epidemiological studies gical factors including type of surgery (major, emergency
can demonstrate the effectiveness of pain management or abdominal) and its duration4,34 . Many of these factors
techniques and provide insight into rare complications27 are also associated with the development of PPSP16 .
to help guide practice.
Publication of the joint working party report Pain after Effective pain management is underpinned by assessment
Surgery12 by the Royal College of Surgeons and College and timely response. Self-reporting subjective pain scales
represent the standard of acute pain assessment, allow- and is an acceptable target for patients40,41 . Severe pain
ing patients to report pain using a unidimensional scale should be responded to as a matter of urgency, using a
of numbers or words. Commonly used to evaluate pain structured, multimodal analgesic approach, with frequent
intensity, the visual analogue scale, verbal rating scale and reassessments until comfort is attained.
numerical rating scale are valid, reliable and appropriate
for use in monitoring postoperative pain in patients who Pharmacological management of postoperative
are able to self-report35 . However, unidimensional scales pain
fail to describe the patient experience fully, for example,
ability to tolerate pain or its impact on functional recovery. No perfect analgesic drug exists. Evidence supporting the
Postoperative pain is often not isolated to the surgical site, use of drugs with a low number needed to treat (NNT)
but includes other locations, such as a sore throat following is limited by data that pertain to specific patient popula-
tracheal intubation or at injection sites8 . The whole pain tions, using a single-dose study design in the initial few
experience should be evaluated. Although one approach is hours of postoperative recovery42,43 . Postoperative pain
for patients to mark pain locations on body maps, reporting management should represent more than pharmacolog-
individual pain intensity scores for each site, this is imprac- ical therapies. For major abdominal surgery, traditional
tical for regular pain assessments required in the postop- approaches such as epidural analgesia or opioid based
erative environment. Multidimensional tools validated for intravenous patient controlled analgesia (IVPCA) are
use with chronic pain, such as the Brief Pain Inventory, associated with superior pain control, however fail to
lack validation in the postoperative setting. Newer tools, translate into improved recovery or reduced morbid-
such as the Clinically Aligned Pain Assessment (CAPA) ity when compared with pain management strategies
tool36 , which guides clinical conversations to cover com- used within an enhanced recovery after surgery (ERAS)
fort, change in pain, pain control, functioning and sleep, pathway24 . The requirement for delivery systems and
may improve assessment of pain in the perioperative period co-administration of intravenous fluids and oxygen with
but require further evaluation. IVPCA and epidurals is thought to impede patients
Pain in patient groups unable to self-report is often reaching the desired state of DrEaMing23 . Postoperative
underestimated. For patients with severe dementia or those analgesia is an essential component of most ERAS path-
unable to verbalize, standardized objective assessment tools ways; when implemented effectively they are successful in
have been designed and validated. The Pain in Advanced improving patient outcomes44 . They advocate the use of
Dementia (PAINAD) and Dolopus-2 tools are recom- multimodal analgesia and encourage use of opiate-sparing
mended for individuals with severe cognitive impairment37 , techniques including regional analgesia where possible45 .
and the Critical Care Pain Observation Tool (CPOT) or Multimodal analgesia involves choosing drugs that act on
Behavioural Pain Scale (BPS) for patients unable to verbal- different parts of the anatomical pain pathways. In general,
ize in critical care38 . In rare circumstances where even these analgesic medications act by inhibiting ascending pain sig-
measures are unsuitable, surrogate measures of pain can be nals, either in the periphery or centrally in the spinal cord
used, such as opiate consumption. It is now recognized that and brain, and facilitating descending inhibitory spinal
cardiorespiratory parameters are unreliable for evaluation pathways. This leads to decreased nociceptive transmission
of pain in any setting, so their use in the immediate recov- and interpretation of these signals as pain by higher neuro-
ery phase, when patients may be unable to verbalize during logical centres. Drugs with different mechanisms of action
recovery from general anaesthesia, is not recommended39 . are then combined to produce synergistic effects, allowing
Trends in pain assessment scores over time and the use of lower doses, thus reducing the burden of side-effects
relationship between pain and activity or immobility from single-drug strategies46 . The combinations have core
are more helpful than isolated pain scores. Additional components according to the type of surgery performed.
information regarding the nature of the pain, whether Publications from the PROSPECT (PROcedure-SPECific
visceral, nociceptive or neuropathic, can also help guide Pain ManagemenT)47 collaboration of surgeons and anaes-
treatment. The context surrounding surgery can influence thetists provide practical evidence-based summaries on
acceptable pain levels for patients, such as whether the procedure-specific pain management. However, these need
procedure was emergency or elective. The perioperative to be tailored to each patient, accounting for additional
journey requires regular discussions to set appropriate factors such as preexisting analgesic use, co-morbidities,
pain goals, which may change over time. However, there pharmacogenomics, epigenetics, drug interactions and
is some evidence that a target of ‘no worse than mild pain’ tolerance32,48 . Evidence regarding drugs useful in multi-
reduces the occurrence of severe pain in the trauma setting modal strategies is outlined below.
predominantly small trials, mostly containing fewer than caution should be employed in their use, particularly in
50 patients, found that its use was associated with decreased patients with preexisting drug abuse81 .
postoperative morphine consumption at 24 and 48 h, along
with decreased pain intensity. Although the benefits are 𝛂-2 agonists
thought to be somewhat offset by dose-dependent adverse The α-2 receptor agonists clonidine and dexmedetomidine
effects, including hypersalivation, nausea and vomiting, can be administered orally (clonidine only), intravenously,
and psychotomimetic effects such as vivid dreams, blurred intrathecally, perineurally or via a transdermal patch, and
vision, hallucinations, nightmares and delirium72 , there have been used both during and after operation. Although
was a non-clinically significant reduction in nausea and they are associated with reduced opiate use and duration
vomiting and little difference compared with controls in of nerve blocks, their benefit is offset by sedation and
terms of central nervous system side-effects71 . Ketamine hypotension82 – 84 . In view of the haemodynamic effects,
is also thought to reduce the likelihood of transition to postoperative α-2 agonist infusion would necessitate
PPSP73 . Currently it is not recommended as a routine part admission to a high-dependency area in most UK centres.
of most ERAS postoperative pain strategies. However,
its inclusion in a multimodal strategy may be effective in Magnesium
patients with escalating opioid requirements. There is level 1 evidence that intravenous magnesium, as
an adjunct to morphine analgesia, has an opioid-sparing
Gabapentinoids effect and reduces pain scores85 . The studies included in
this systematic review and meta-analysis used bolus doses
Gabapentinoids are effective analgesics in most inflam- (mostly 30–50 mg/kg) alongside an intraoperative lower
matory and postoperative pain animal models, but their dose or short postoperative infusions of magnesium (up to
effects in human models appear variable74 . Gabapentinoids 48 h after surgery). In addition, two small RCTs86,87 sug-
act on ascending and descending pathways, influencing gested that intravenous magnesium extends the duration
both the nociceptive and affective components of pain. of sensory block with spinal anaesthesia, and reduces sub-
Most commonly used to manage chronic neuropathic pain, sequent postoperative pain and opioid requirements.
their use in the perioperative phase rose to prominence
following interest in their preemptive use to prevent PPSP. Intravenous lidocaine
Synthesis of small trials suggested that they may be pro-
tective against the development of PPSP73,75 . Evidence Recovery outcomes within the DrEaMing paradigm have
regarding the incidence of acute neuropathic postoperative been examined in the recent Cochrane review88 of con-
pain and pharmacological management is scarce; use of tinuous intravenous perioperative lidocaine infusion for
gabapentinoids in these circumstances appears sensible postoperative pain and recovery in adults. Of 68 included
based on chronic pain data. However, a systematic review76 RCTs, 42 involved abdominal surgery and were evaluated
published in 2007 reported that gabapentin and pregabalin as low quality with varying dosing regimens (between 1
reduced opioid consumption in the early postoperative and 5 mg per kg per h). The authors concluded that there
period, leading to their inclusion in strategies to manage was insufficient evidence to demonstrate improvements in
generalized postoperative pain. Subsequent studies have postoperative pain, or resolution of ileus, nausea, vomiting
focused on either perioperative gabapentin or pregabalin or side-effects compared with placebo, usual care or tho-
use for postoperative pain after specific surgical proce- racic epidural anaesthesia (EA). Current ERAS guidelines
dures. Evidence also varies based on whether these drugs for elective colorectal surgery include perioperative lido-
are given before or after operation, making decisions caine infusions. However, these guidelines are based on
the previous, now superseded, Cochrane review89 which
regarding their use difficult. Although gabapentin and
inferred more benefit from intravenous lidocaine. There
pregabalin are recommended in the clinical practice guide-
is currently uncertainty regarding the use of intravenous
lines of the American Pain Society48 for use as part of
lidocaine to aid postoperative analgesia. There are a num-
a multimodal strategy for postoperative pain, systematic
ber of studies ongoing and publications that may change
reviews and meta-analyses77,78 for each drug found that
this conclusion are awaited.
their use was associated with minimal opioid-sparing
effects and an increased risk of adverse events. There are
Other agents
growing concerns about their associated risks, in particular
abuse, community fatalities and diversion79 . In April 2019, There has been recent interest in the use of cannabis-based
they were recategorized as class C drugs in the UK80 , and drugs in acute as well as chronic pain management.
Epidural Reduced pain and requirement for co-analgesics Technique-related: backache, postdural puncture
Improved respiratory function headache, neurological injury, epidural haematoma,
Reduced pulmonary, thromboembolic, failure
cardiovascular, ileus and surgical stress response Epidural local anaesthetic-related: hypotension,
sensory deficits, motor weakness, urinary retention,
Can be continued after operation
toxicity
Epidural opioids: nausea, vomiting, pruritus, respiratory
depression
Attachment to drug delivery equipment
Intrathecal (spinal) Reduced pain and systemic opioid requirements Nausea and vomiting
Pruritus and respiratory depression if opioids used
Peripheral trunk blocks (e.g. Reduced pain and systemic opioid requirements in Fails to address visceral pain
transversus abdominis the immediate postoperative period Local anaesthetic toxicity
plane and rectus sheath) Catheter insertion allows continued block in Risk of perforation of the peritoneum with possible
postoperative phase damage to visceral structures on insertion
Paravertebral Reduced pain and systemic opioid requirements Hypotension possible
Lower risk of pulmonary complications for patients Vascular or pleural puncture on insertion
undergoing thoracotomy
Catheter insertion allows continued block in
postoperative phase
Levels of analgesia comparable to those of epidural
analgesia, with reduced incidence of hypotension
Wound infiltration Reduced pain and systemic opioid requirements in Short-term efficacy
immediate postoperative phase
Easily administered
Although there is a paucity of evidence, the most recent are opiates, including morphine, buprenorphine, diamor-
meta-analysis90 considering three RCTs examining the phine, hydromorphone, tramadol and fentanyl, the former
use of cannabinoids for acute postoperative pain favoured causing greater respiratory depression. Less common
placebo over tetrahydrocannabinol or nabilone in all trials. adjuncts include clonidine which, when used in neurax-
ial blocks, blocks the sympathetic outflow93 . Compared
Regional analgesia with IVPCA opioids, pain is modestly improved with EA
following intra-abdominal surgery, with a statistically,
Regional anaesthesia delivers analgesic drugs, usually
but non-clinically, significant reduction in pain scores at
local anaesthetic, with or without an adjunct, directly to
rest94 . However, use of EA may enhance the trajectory
the peripheral nerves. Table 1 outlines commonly used
towards DrEaMing. The combination of tolerance of
regional analgesia techniques. Use of regional anaesthesia
solid food plus defaecation predicts recovery of gastroin-
reduces the risk of PPSP compared with conventional
testinal transit95 , and EA reduces paralytic ileus while
analgesia. For thoracic epidural analgesia after thora-
increasing food tolerance by reducing nausea, vomiting
cotomy, the odds ratio is 0⋅52 (95 per cent c.i. 0⋅32 to
and pain96 . The analgesic failure rate is higher for EA
0⋅84; P = 0⋅008); for various regional analgesia techniques,
including paravertebral, nerve blocks and local infiltration than IVPCA opioids (120 versus 34 in 1000 respectively),
in breast surgery, the odds ratio is 0⋅34 (0⋅19 to 0⋅60)91 . and EA is more likely to be associated with need for
interventions for hypotension (120 versus 17 per 1000)94 .
Continuous central neuraxial block The technique has a risk of complications. The pessimistic
Continuous central neuraxial block or EA has many ben- estimate of permanent harm associated with all EA is
efits across a range of surgical procedures. There is level 17⋅4 (95 per cent c.i. 7⋅2 to 27⋅8) per 100 000 and that
1 evidence for improved analgesia at rest, and reduced of paraplegia or death is 6⋅1 (2⋅2 to 13⋅3) per 100 00026 .
incidence of ileus, pulmonary complications, surgical Furthermore, although the risk of developing an epidu-
stress response, negative nitrogen balance and other anal- ral haematoma remains small, appropriate precautions
gesic requirements92 . Most epidural formulations include should be taken in patients taking antiplatelets and/or
a local anaesthetic infusion. Commonly used adjuncts anticoagulant medication97 . Current ERAS guidelines53
for elective colorectal surgery recommend thoracic EA resulted in significantly less postoperative requirement for
for open surgery but not for laparoscopic procedures. morphine at 24 h. A more recent meta-analysis104 of 310
Recommendations appear surgery-specific, as thoracic EA adult patients identified that pain scores at rest in the first
is recommended as first line in ERAS pathways for patients 24 h were the same as those for EA (mean difference 0⋅5, 95
undergoing oesophagectomy55 . However, local anaesthetic per cent c.i. 0⋅1 to 1⋅0; P = 0⋅10), with a reduced incidence
infiltration of wounds has higher-level evidence reported of hypotension and shorter hospital stay. Different surgical
for gynaecological ERAS pathways54 . specialties vary in their ERAS guidelines with respect to
truncal blocks; for example, ERAS guidelines for periop-
Intrathecal analgesia erative care in gynaecological/oncological surgery recom-
This technique involves use of a local anaesthetic which mend incisional local anaesthetic injection over TAP blocks
acts during surgery to decrease stress responses, and or thoracic EA54 , whereas TAP blocks are strongly rec-
co-administration of a long-acting opioid, such as mor- ommended as part of multimodal analgesia in minimally
phine or diamorphine, which has continued analgesic invasive colorectal surgery53 .
effects for up to 24 h. Spinal anaesthesia/analgesia has high
Non-pharmacological techniques
efficacy and a low complication rate, with a pessimistic
estimate of 2⋅2 (95 per cent c.i. 1 to 4⋅4) per 100 000 Non-pharmacological interventions to aid the manage-
for permanent harm and 1⋅2 (1 to 3⋅2) per 100 000 for ment of postoperative pain can be used throughout the
paraplegia or death26 . When used as part of an ERAS pro- perioperative phase. These are often cheap and easy
gramme, intrathecal analgesia is associated with reduced to implement. Preoperative strategies include patient
opioid consumption after laparoscopic colonic resection98 education and psychological interventions105 , such as
and abdominal surgery for gynaecological malignancy99 , cognitive behavioural therapy. Distraction techniques,
and lower pain scores100 . However, its impact on dura- including music, aromatherapy, canine therapy and virtual
tion of hospital stay appears inconclusive98,99 . The main reality have been used during and after operation, and have
concerns surround risk of delayed respiratory depression shown greatest benefit in patients with anxiety106 – 110 . In
in the first day after operation. However, the technique is the postoperative setting they can be used as part of a
recommended in the most recent ERAS guidelines53 for self-management programme, increasing patient indepen-
laparoscopic colorectal surgery53 . dence and autonomy111 . Many such therapies have been
established in the treatment of chronic pain. Owing to
Abdominal wall blocks concerns over the side-effect burden of tradition pharma-
In the past decade, new abdominal truncal blocks, includ- cotherapies, they are becoming increasingly investigated
ing transversus abdominis plane (TAP) and rectus sheath in all settings including acute postoperative pain.
blocks, have grown in popularity101 . The TAP block pro-
vides analgesia by blocking the seventh to 11th intercostal Overview
nerves (T7–T11), the subcostal nerve (T12), and the ilioin- Adequate management of postoperative pain is a core
guinal and iliohypogastric nerves (L1–L2). These blocks determinant of the patient achieving DrEaMing status.
can be administered as a single dose, or as an infusion Each of the biological, psychological and social dimensions
for more long-lasting benefit. They can be placed under of the pain experience should be considered and under-
direct vision using ultrasound imaging or laparoscopically. stood in order to provide optimum pain management in the
Truncal blocks generally contain a local anaesthetic, with postoperative setting. Recognition of the biopsychosocial
or without an adjunct. The majority of research evaluat- phenotypes at increased risk of difficult-to-manage postop-
ing adjuncts originates from limb blocks, and details are erative pain and development of PPSP will enhance strati-
beyond the scope of this article. However, in general, mor- fication of resource use and aid in decision-making around
phine and fentanyl do not improve the quality of analgesia balance of pharmacological benefit and risk.
but increase side-effects, whereas dexamethasone, cloni-
dine and ketamine can prolong the duration of analgesia Acknowledgements
but are all associated with unwanted side-effects owing to
systemic absorption93 . C.S. is currently a National Institute for Health Research
Equivalence or superiority in terms of analgesic provision Academic Clinical Lecturer. H.L. is a Clinical Lecturer
has been shown, but variation in techniques limits ability funded partly by a Horizon 2020 project grant from the
to synthesize study data in a meta-analysis102 . A 2010 European Union and Health Education England.
Cochrane review103 concluded that single-shot TAP blocks Disclosure: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
opioid addiction and cancer surgery. Best Pract Res Clin 47 Lee B, Schug SA, Joshi GP, Kehlet H; PROSPECT
Anaesthesiol 2017; 31: 547–560. Working Group. Procedure-specific pain management
33 Tumber PS. Optimizing perioperative analgesia for the (PROSPECT) – an update. Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol
complex pain patient: medical and interventional strategies. 2018; 32: 101–111.
Can J Anaesth 2014; 61: 131–140. 48 Chou R, Gordon DB, de Leon-Casasola OA, Rosenberg
34 Ip HYV, Abrishami A, Peng PWH, Wong J, Chung F. JM, Bickler S, Brennan T et al. Management of
Predictors of postoperative pain and analgesic consumption: postoperative pain: a clinical practice guideline from the
a qualitative systematic review. Anesthesiology 2009; 111: American Pain Society, the American Society of Regional
657–677. Anesthesia and Pain Medicine, and the American Society of
35 Breivik H, Borchgrevink PC, Allen SM, Rosseland LA, Anesthesiologists’ Committee on Regional Anesthesia,
Romundstad L, Hals EKB et al. Assessment of pain. Br Executive Committee, and Administrative Council. J Pain
J Anaesth 2008; 101: 17–24. 2016; 17: 131–157.
36 Twining J, Padula C. Pilot testing the clinically aligned pain 49 Maund E, McDaid C, Rice S, Wright K, Jenkins B,
assessment (CAPA) measure. Pain Manag Nurs 2019; 20: Woolacott N. Paracetamol and selective and non-selective
462–467. non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs for the reduction in
37 Schofield P. The assessment of pain in older people: UK morphine-related side-effects after major surgery: a
national guidelines. Age Ageing 2018; 47(Suppl 1): i1–i22. systematic review. Br J Anaesth 2011; 106: 292–297.
38 Devlin JW, Skrobik Y, Gélinas C, Needham DM, Slooter 50 Moore RA, Derry S, Aldington D, Wiffen PJ. Single dose
AJC, Pandharipande PP et al. Clinical practice guidelines oral analgesics for acute postoperative pain in adults – an
for the prevention and management of pain, agitation/- overview of Cochrane reviews. Cochrane Database Syst Rev
sedation, delirium, immobility, and sleep disruption in adult 2015; (9)CD008659.
patients in the ICU. Crit Care Med 2018; 49: e825–e873.
51 Apfel CC, Turan A, Souza K, Pergolizzi J, Hornuss C.
39 Pereira-Morales S, Arroyo-Novoa CM, Wysocki A, Sanzero
Intravenous acetaminophen reduces postoperative nausea
Eller L. Acute pain assessment in sedated patients in the
and vomiting: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Pain
postanesthesia care unit. Clin J Pain 2018; 34: 700–706.
2013; 154: 677–689.
40 Moore RA, Straube S, Aldington D. Pain measures and
52 Dart RC, Bailey E. Does therapeutic use of acetaminophen
cut-offs – ‘no worse than mild pain’ as a simple, universal
cause acute liver failure? Pharmacotherapy 2007; 27:
outcome. Anaesthesia 2013; 68: 400–412.
1219–1230.
41 Aldington DJ, McQuay HJ, Moore RA. End-to-end
53 Gustafsson UO, Scott MJ, Hubner M, Nygren J,
military pain management. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci
Demartines N, Francis N et al. Guidelines for perioperative
2011; 366: 268–275.
care in elective colorectal surgery: Enhanced Recovery
42 Gray A, Kehlet H, Bonnet F, Rawal N. Predicting
After Surgery (ERAS®) Society recommendations: 2018.
postoperative analgesia outcomes: NNT league tables or
World J Surg 2019; 43: 659–695.
procedure-specific evidence? Br J Anaesth 2005; 94:
54 Nelson G, Bakkum-Gamez J, Kalogera E, Glaser G,
710–714.
43 Moore RA, Derry S, Wiffen PJ, Banerjee S, Karan R, Altman A, Meyer LA et al. Guidelines for perioperative care
Glimm E et al. Estimating relative efficacy in acute in gynecologic/oncology: Enhanced Recovery After
postoperative pain: network meta-analysis is consistent with Surgery (ERAS) Society recommendations – 2019 update.
indirect comparison to placebo alone. Pain 2018; 159: Int J Gynecol Cancer 2019; 29: 651–668.
2234–2244. 55 Low DE, Allum W, De Manzoni G, Ferri L, Immanuel A,
44 Ripollés-Melchor J, Ramírez-Rodríguez JM, Kuppusamy M et al. Guidelines for perioperative care in
Casans-Francés R, Aldecoa C, Abad-Motos A, esophagectomy: Enhanced Recovery After Surgery
Logroño-Egea M et al.; POWER Study Investigators (ERAS®) Society recommendations. World J Surg 2019; 43:
Group for the Spanish Perioperative Audit and Research 299–330.
Network (REDGERM). Association between use of 56 Thorell A, MacCormick AD, Awad S, Reynolds N,
enhanced recovery after surgery protocol and postoperative Roulin D, Demartines N et al. Guidelines for perioperative
complications in colorectal surgery: the Postoperative care in bariatric surgery: Enhanced Recovery After Surgery
Outcomes Within Enhanced Recovery After Surgery (ERAS) Society recommendations. World J Surg 2016; 40:
Protocol (POWER) Study. JAMA Surg 2019; 154: 2065–2083.
725–736. 57 Temple-Oberle C, Shea-Budgell MA, Tan M, Semple JL,
45 Wick EC, Grant MC, Wu CL. Postoperative multimodal Schrag C, Barreto M et al. Consensus review of optimal
analgesia pain management with nonopioid analgesics and perioperative care in breast reconstruction: Enhanced
techniques. JAMA Surg 2017; 152: 691–697. Recovery After Surgery (ERAS) Society recommendations.
46 Kehlet H, Dahl JB. The value of ‘multimodal’ or ‘balanced Plast Reconstr Surg 2017; 139: 1056e–1071e.
analgesia’ in postoperative pain treatment. Anesth Analg 58 STARSurg Collaborative. Impact of postoperative
1993; 77: 1048–1056. non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs on adverse events
after gastrointestinal surgery. Br J Surg 2014; 101: applications of ketamine: reevaluation of an old drug. J Clin
1413–1423. Pharmacol 2009; 49: 957–964.
59 STARSurg Collaborative. Safety of nonsteroidal 73 Chaparro LE, Smith SA, Moore RA, Wiffen PJ, Gilron I.
anti-inflammatory drugs in major gastrointestinal surgery: a Pharmacotherapy for the prevention of chronic pain after
prospective, multicenter cohort study. World J Surg 2017; surgery in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013;
41: 47–55. (7)CD008307.
60 Bell S, Rennie T, Marwick CA, Davey P. Effects of 74 Chincholkar M. Analgesic mechanisms of gabapentinoids
peri-operative nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs on and effects in experimental pain models: a narrative review.
post-operative kidney function for adults with normal Br J Anaesth 2018; 120: 1315–1334.
kidney function. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2018; 75 Clarke H, Bonin RP, Orser BA, Englesakis M,
(11)CD011274. Wijeysundera DN, Katz J. The prevention of chronic
61 Kverneng Hultberg D, Angenete E, Lydrup M-L, postsurgical pain using gabapentin and pregabalin: a
Rutegård J, Matthiessen P, Rutegård M. Nonsteroidal combined systematic review and meta-analysis. Anesth
anti-inflammatory drugs and the risk of anastomotic leakage Analg 2012; 115: 428–442.
after anterior resection for rectal cancer. Eur J Surg Oncol 76 Tiippana EM, Hamunen K, Kontinen VK, Kalso E. Do
2017; 43: 1908–1914. surgical patients benefit from perioperative
62 Huang Y, Tang SR, Young CJ. Nonsteroidal gabapentin/pregabalin? A systematic review of efficacy and
anti-inflammatory drugs and anastomotic dehiscence after safety. Anesth Analg 2007; 104: 1545–1556.
colorectal surgery: a meta-analysis. ANZ J Surg 2018; 88: 77 Fabritius ML, Geisler A, Petersen PL, Nikolajsen L,
959–965. Hansen MS, Kontinen V et al. Gabapentin for
63 Modasi A, Pace D, Godwin M, Smith C, Curtis B. NSAID post-operative pain management – a systematic review with
administration post colorectal surgery increases meta-analyses and trial sequential analyses. Acta Anaesthesiol
anastomotic leak rate: systematic review/meta-analysis. Surg Scand 2016; 60: 1188–1208.
Endosc 2019; 33: 879–885. 78 Fabritius ML, Strøm C, Koyuncu S, Jæger P, Petersen PL,
64 Shafi S, Collinsworth AW, Copeland LA, Ogola GO, Geisler A et al. Benefit and harm of pregabalin in acute pain
Qiu T, Kouznetsova M et al. Association of opioid-related treatment: a systematic review with meta-analyses and trial
adverse drug events with clinical and cost outcomes among sequential analyses. Br J Anaesth 2017; 119: 775–791.
surgical patients in a large integrated health care delivery 79 Office for National Statistics. Number of Drug-Related
system. JAMA Surg 2018; 153: 757–763. Deaths Involving Gabapentin or Pregabalin With or Without An
65 Callinan CE, Neuman MD, Lacy KE, Gabison C, Ashburn Opioid Drug, England and Wales, 2017; 2018. https://www.
MA. The initiation of chronic opioids: a survey of chronic ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/birthsdeaths
pain patients. J Pain 2017; 18: 360–365. andmarriages/deaths/adhocs/009142numberofdrugrelated
66 Bicket MC, Long JJ, Pronovost PJ, Alexander GC, Wu CL. deathsinvolvinggabapentinorpregabalinwithorwithoutano
Prescription opioid analgesics commonly unused after pioiddrugenglandandwales2017 [accessed 6 October 2019].
surgery: a systematic review. JAMA Surg 2017; 152: 80 Mayor S. Pregabalin and gabapentin become controlled
1066–1071. drugs to cut deaths from misuse. BMJ 2018; 363: k4364.
67 Lanzillotta JA, Clark A, Starbuck E, Kean EB, 81 Evoy KE, Morrison MD, Saklad SR. Abuse and misuse of
Kalarchian M. The impact of patient characteristics and pregabalin and gabapentin. Drugs 2017; 77: 403–426.
postoperative opioid exposure on prolonged postoperative 82 Grape S, Kirkham KR, Frauenknecht J, Albrecht E.
opioid use: an integrative review. Pain Manag Nurs 2018; Intra-operative analgesia with remifentanil vs.
19: 535–548. dexmedetomidine: a systematic review and meta-analysis
68 Quinlan J, Cox F. Acute pain management in patients with with trial sequential analysis. Anaesthesia 2019; 74:
drug dependence syndrome. Pain Rep 2017; 2: e611. 793–800.
69 Huxtable C, Roberts L, Somogyi A, Macintyres P. Acute 83 Jessen Lundorf L, Korvenius Nedergaard H, Møller AM.
pain management in opioid tolerant patients: a growing Perioperative dexmedetomidine for acute pain after
challenge. Anaesth Intensive Care 2011; 39: 804–823. abdominal surgery in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev
70 Kumar K, Kirksey MA, Duong S, Wu CL. A review of 2016; (2)CD010358.
opioid-sparing modalities in perioperative pain 84 McEvoy MD, Scott MJ, Gordon DB, Grant SA, Thacker
management. Anesth Analg 2017; 125: 1749–1760. JKM, Wu CL et al.; Perioperative Quality Initiative (POQI)
71 Brinck E, Tiippana E, Heesen M, Bell RF, Straube S, I Workgroup. American Society for Enhanced Recovery
Moore RA et al. Perioperative intravenous ketamine for (ASER) and Perioperative Quality Initiative (POQI) joint
acute postoperative pain in adults. Cochrane Database Syst consensus statement on optimal analgesia within an
Rev 2018; (12)CD012033. enhanced recovery pathway for colorectal surgery: part
72 Aroni F, Iacovidou N, Dontas I, Pourzitaki C, Xanthos T. 1 – from the preoperative period to PACU. Perioper Med
Pharmacological aspects and potential new clinical 2017; 6: 8.
85 De Oliveira GS, Castro-Alves LJ, Khan JH, McCarthy RJ. 98 Wongyingsinn M, Baldini G, Stein B, Charlebois P,
Perioperative systemic magnesium to minimize Liberman S, Carli F. Spinal analgesia for laparoscopic
postoperative pain. Anesthesiology 2013; 119: 178–190. colonic resection using an enhanced recovery after surgery
86 Kahraman F, Eroglu A. The effect of intravenous programme: better analgesia, but no benefits on
magnesium sulfate infusion on sensory spinal block and postoperative recovery: a randomized controlled trial. Br
postoperative pain score in abdominal hysterectomy. Biomed J Anaesth 2012; 108: 850–856.
Res Int 2014; 2014: 236024. 99 Kjølhede P, Bergdahl O, Borendal Wodlin N, Nilsson L.
87 Kumar M, Dayal N, Rautela RS, Sethi AK. Effect of Effect of intrathecal morphine and epidural analgesia on
intravenous magnesium sulphate on postoperative pain postoperative recovery after abdominal surgery for
following spinal anesthesia. A randomized double blind gynecologic malignancy: an open-label randomised trial.
controlled study. Middle East J Anaesthesiol 2013; 22: BMJ Open 2019; 9: e024484.
251–256. 100 Koning MV, Teunissen AJW, Van Der Harst E, Ruijgrok
88 Weibel S, Jelting Y, Pace NL, Helf A, Eberhart LH, EJ, Stolker RJ. Intrathecal morphine for laparoscopic
Hahnenkamp K et al. Continuous intravenous perioperative segmental colonic resection as part of an enhanced recovery
lidocaine infusion for postoperative pain and recovery in protocol: a randomized controlled trial. Reg Anesth Pain Med
adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2018; (6)CD009642. 2018; 43: 166–173.
89 Kranke P, Jokinen J, Pace NL, Schnabel A, Hollmann 101 Chakraborty A, Khemka R, Datta T. Ultrasound-guided
MW, Hahnenkamp K et al. Continuous intravenous truncal blocks: a new frontier in regional anaesthesia. Indian
perioperative lidocaine infusion for postoperative pain and J Anaesth 2016; 60: 703–711.
recovery. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2015; (7)CD009642. 102 Sanderson BJ, Doane MA. Transversus abdominis plane
90 Aviram J, Samuelly-Leichtag G. Efficacy of cannabis-based catheters for analgesia following abdominal surgery in
medicines for pain management: a systematic review and adults. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2018; 43: 5–13.
meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Pain Physician 103 Charlton S, Cyna AM, Middleton P, Griffiths JD.
2017; 20: E755–E796. Perioperative transversus abdominis plane (TAP) blocks for
91 Weinstein EJ, Levene JL, Cohen MS, Andreae DA, Chao analgesia after abdominal surgery. Cochrane Database Syst
JY, Johnson M et al. Local anaesthetics and regional Rev 2010; (12)CD007705.
anaesthesia versus conventional analgesia for preventing 104 Baeriswyl M, Zeiter F, Piubellini D, Kirkham KR,
persistent postoperative pain in adults and children. Albrecht E. The analgesic efficacy of transverse abdominis
Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2018; (6)CD007105. plane block versus epidural analgesia. Medicine (Baltimore)
92 Nimmo SM, Harrington LS. What is the role of epidural 2018; 97: e11261.
analgesia in abdominal surgery? Contin Educ Anaesth Crit 105 Powell R, Scott NW, Manyande A, Bruce J, Vögele C,
Care Pain 2014; 14: 224–229. Byrne-Davis LM et al. Psychological preparation and
93 Emelife PI, Eng MR, Menard BL, Myers AS, Cornett EM, postoperative outcomes for adults undergoing surgery
Urman RD et al. Adjunct medications for peripheral and under general anaesthesia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2016;
neuraxial anesthesia. Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol 2018; (5)CD008646.
32: 83–99. 106 Poulsen MJ, Coto J. Nursing music protocol and
94 Salicath JH, Yeoh EC, Bennett MH. Epidural analgesia postoperative pain. Pain Manag Nurs 2018; 19: 172–176.
versus patient-controlled intravenous analgesia for pain 107 Cepeda MS, Carr DB, Lau J, Alvarez H. Music for pain
following intra-abdominal surgery in adults. Cochrane relief. Cochrane Database Syst Rev (2)CD004843.
Database Syst Rev 2018; (8)CD010434. 108 Dimitriou V, Mavridou P, Manataki A, Damigos D. The
95 van Bree SHW, Bemelman WA, Hollmann MW, use of aromatherapy for postoperative pain management: a
Zwinderman AH, Matteoli G, El Temna S et al. systematic review of randomized controlled trials.
Identification of clinical outcome measures for recovery of J Perianesth Nurs 2017; 32: 530–541.
gastrointestinal motility in postoperative ileus. Ann Surg 109 Cooley LF, Barker SB. Canine-assisted therapy as an
2014; 259: 708–714. adjunct tool in the care of the surgical patient: a literature
96 Guay J, Nishimori M, Kopp S. Epidural local anaesthetics review and opportunity for research. Altern Ther Health
versus opioid-based analgesic regimens for postoperative Med 2018; 24: 48–51.
gastrointestinal paralysis, vomiting and pain after abdominal 110 Mosso Vázquez JL, Mosso Lara D, Mosso Lara JL, Miller I,
surgery. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2016; (7)CD001893. Wiederhold MD, Wiederhold BK. Pain distraction during
97 Horlocker TT, Wedel DJ, Rowlingson JC, Enneking FK, ambulatory surgery: virtual reality and mobile devices.
Kopp SL, Benzon HT et al. Regional anesthesia in the Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw 2019; 22: 15–21.
patient receiving antithrombotic or thrombolytic therapy: 111 Mordecai L, Leung FHL, Carvalho CYM, Reddi D,
American Society of Regional Anesthesia and Pain Lees M, Cone S et al. Self-managing postoperative pain
Medicine evidence-based guidelines (third edition). Reg with the use of a novel, interactive device: a proof of
Anesth Pain Med 2010; 35: 64–101. concept study. Pain Res Manag 2016; 2016: 9704185.
Disusun oleh:
Christa Gisella Pirsouw
(2018-83-048)
Pembimbing:
dr. Fahmi Maruapey, Sp.An
dr. Ony W. Angkejaya, Sp.An
Metode
Penyediaan layanan
Pertimbangan utama dan pendekatan dalam manajemen nyeri pasca op pada orang dewasa
Database Cochrane, PubMed, Google cendekia
Peran :
- Pengawasan intervensi manajemen nyeri post op
(anesthesia regional berkelanjutan)
- Manajemen ps dgn nyeri tak terkontrol
- Pendidikan; penelitian
- Peningkatan kualitas
- Ps dgn nyeri kompleks yg sdh ada sebelumnya, - Diskusi awal membantu mngurangi rasa takut
- Riwayat penggunaan opioid tinggi di msyrkt; nyeri post op
- Prediksi control nyeri post op yg buruk (usia muda, - Optimalkan kepuasan pasien
JK perempuan, merokok, depresi, gelisah, ggn tidur, - Mengurangi efek samping
nyeri pra op, penggunaan analgesic pra op, faktor
pembedahan (jenis pembedahan dan durasi)). - Peningkatan konsumsi opioid
Manajemen nyeri yg efektif
penilaian dan respon tepat waktu Skala nyeri subjektif
- Kenyamanan
- Perubahan nyeri
- Kontrol nyeri
- Fungsi; tidur
• Efek hemat opioid
• PCT 1 gr kombinasi dgn analgesic lain (ibuprofen 400mg, kodein 60mg, oxycodone 10mg)
• Penurunan mual dan muntah post op yg disebabkan oleh control nyeri superior
• Hepatotoksisitas
• ERAS Society strategi analgesic multimodal
• Mengurangi konsumsi morfin post op
• Komplikasi AKI, kebocoran anastomosis
• Studi 1 1503 ps reseksi GI elektif/CITO ↑ insiden komplikasi post op dgn
penggunaan OAINS (Odds ratio 0,72; 95% dari 0,52-0,99)
• Studi 2 cohort observational dari 9264 ps op GI elektif/CITO tidak ada hub
penggunaan OAINS dgn komplikasi utama AKI, perdarahan postop (bias seleksi, OAINS
diberikan pada ps dgn KU yg lebih sehat)
• Ulasan Cochrane OAINS periop efek pada fungsi ginjal tidak pasti
• Efek samping perlu dipertimbangkan dan dievaluasi (Peningkatan risiko
tromboemboli, perdarahan GI, gagal jantung)
• ES terkait opioid 10% dari 135.379 ps pria yg lebih tua, komorbiditas, riwayat
konsumsi alcohol/narkoba
• Survei di AS terhadap ps dgn terapi opioid kronis, 27% pertama kali mulai terapi
opioid setelah op, < setengah resep opioid yg dikeluarkan setelah op digunakan ps
• Ps dgn riw. Penggunaan opioid/benzodiazepine/didiagnosis penggunaan zat/ggn
kesehatan mental lainnya risiko terbesar penggunaan opioid pasca op
• Ulasan Cochrane penggunaan ketamine periop untuk nyeri akut pasca op dikaitkan dgn
penurunan konsumsi morfin pasca op, dan penurunan intensitas nyeri
• Manfaat diimbangi dgn ES hipersalivasi, mual muntah, efek psikomimetik (mimpi hidup,
penglihatan kabur, halusinasi, mimpi buruk, delirium)
• Tidak direkomendasi bagian rutin dari strategi nyeri pasca op
• Gabapentinoid mempengaruhi komponen nyeri nosiseptor dan afektif
• Paling umum digunakan untuk mengelola nyeri neuropatik kronis; penggunaan periop
mencegah nyeri postop yg menetap
• Dikhawatirkan penyalahgunaan obat
• Reseptor agonis a-2 clonidine dan dexmedetomidine oral, iv, intratekal, perineural atau
melalui patch transdermal
• Maanfaat diimbangi dgn efek sedasi, hipotensi
• Magnesium IV sbg tambahan analgesic morfin efek hemat opioid dan mengurangi skor nyeri
• Menggunakan dosis bolus 30-50mg/kgBB dgn dosis rendah intraop/ infus magnesium pasca op
• Magnesium IV memperpanjang durasi blok sensorik dgn anestesi spinal, mengurangi nyeri
pasca op dan kebutuhan opioid berikutnya
• Ulasan Cochrane tidak ada bukti yg cukup untuk menunjukan perbaikan pada
nyeri pasca op atau ES
• Tidak ada kepastian penggunaan lidokain IV untuk membantu analgesic pasca op
Penggunaan obat berbasis kanabis dalam manajemen nyeri akut maupun kronik
Masih kekurangan bukti
Penggunaan anestesi regional mengurangi risiko nyeri postop yg menetap
dibandingkan dengan analgesic konvensional
Analgesik epidural toraks setelah torakotomi, odds rasio 0,52
Blok truncal umumnya mengandung anestesi lokal dengan atau tanpa tambahan
DrEaMing.
Setiap dimensi biologis, psikologis dan sosial dari pengalaman nyeri harus
NYERI KRONIK
OLEH:
CHRISTA GISELLA PIRSOUW
2018-84-048
PEMBIMBING
dr. ONY ANGKEJAYA, Sp.An
dr. FAHMI MARUAPEY, Sp.An
II.5.1 Anamnesis
Anamnesis nyeri kronik mencakup beberapa komponen penting, misalnya
informasi tentang lokasi, onset, kualitas nyeri, serta faktor yang mengurangi dan
menambah nyeri. Informasi tentang penatalaksanaan yang telah dilakukan,
termasuk efektifitas dan efek sampingnya, serta perubahan gejala dari waktu ke
waktu juga perlu dicari. Informasi tentang bagaimana nyeri tersebut mempengaruhi
kondisi psikologis pasien, dan pada akhirnya mempengaruhi kualitas hidup pasien,
juga perlu diperoleh. Gambar 2 menunjukkan algoritma yang dapat digunakan
sebagai kerangka anamnesis nyeri kronik.
NRS mirip dengan VAS, namun pada garis tersebut terdapat angka 1-10. Dengan
skala ini, pasien diminta untuk menilai intensitas nyeri pada suatu skala nyeri, yang
mana 0 berarti “tidak nyeri” (no pain) sementara ujung yang lain bertuliskan “nyeri
yang terburuk yang dapat dibayangkan” (worst pain imaginable). NRS dapat dilihat
di Gambar 3.
FACES rating scales adalah suatu instrumen yang lebih mudah dan tidak abstrak
dibandingkan dengan VAS dan NRS. FACES rating scale dapat digunakan untuk
anak usia 4-12 tahun, atau yang lebih tua. Ada beberapa versi FACES Rating Scale.
Gambar 6 menunjukkan Wong-Baker FACES Rating Scale. Yang membedakan
instrumen ini dengan skala FACES lainnya adalah jangkar bawah skala adalah 0
yang digambarkan dengan orang yang sedang tersenyum sedangkan skala tertinggi
digambarkan dengan orang menangis.
4) Antikonvulsan
Antikonvulsan dapat meredakan nyeri neuropatik dengan menstabilkan
aktivitas ektopik dari neuron yang cedera atau disfungsi. Antikonvulsan
dapat mempengaruhi sensitiasi perifer, sensitisasi sentral, atau keduanya,
tergantung pada obat spesifik mana yang dipilih. Karena obat-obatan ini
tidak spesifik, efek samping termasuk sedasi, pusing, pemikiran kabur, dan
retensi air sering terjadi dan sering membatasi manfaat terapinya dan sering
membatasi manfaat terapinya. Karbamazepin, okskarbazepin, fenitoin,
topiramat, dan lamotrigine semuanya bekerja dengan cara menghambat
kanal natrium. Ketika terjadi cedera saraf tepi, kerapatan saluran natrium
meningkat dan diyakini memfasilitasi perkembangan ektopi yang
menyebabkan nyeri neuropatik. Antikonvulsan efektif sebagai terapi nyeri
neuropatik karena mampu mencegah aktivitas ektopik saraf berlebihan pada
saraf yang cedera pada konsentrasi yang lebih rendah dari yang diperlukan
untuk memblokir pembentukan dan konduksi impuls normal.
Antikonvulsan dapat menyebabkan terjadinya ruam. Ruam parah pernah
dilaporkan pada penggunaan karbamzepin, fenitoin, dan lamotrigine.
5) Relaksan otot
Sebagian besar relaksan otot disetujui oleh FDA untuk terapi spastisitas
(baclofen, dantrolen, dan tizanidin) maupun kondisi musculoskeletal lain
(karisoprodol, klorzoxazon, siklobenzaprin, metaxalon, metocarbamol atau
orphenadrin). Mekanisme kerja obat ini tidak jelas, tetapi efek relaksasinya
diduga mungkin akibat efek sedatifnya. Siklobenzaprin secara structural
sangat mirip dengan amitriptilin dan mungkin memiliki mekanisme kerja
serupa. Siklobenzaprin adalah agen relaksan otot terbaik pada gangguan
musculoskeletal, menghilangkan rasa nyeri, kejang otot, dan status
fungsional pada gangguan lain. Siklobenzaprin 5mg tiga kali per hari sama
efektifnya dengan 10 mg tiga kali per hari tetapi dengan efek samping yang
lebih sedikit.
III.1 Kesimpulan
Nyeri kronik adalah salah satu masalah kesehatan yang dapat menurunkan
kualitas hidup penderitanya. Nyeri kronis merupakan nyeri dengan durasi melebihi
penyakit akut atau nyeri yang masih terjadi setelah masa penyembuhan. Nyeri ini
dapat berlangsung selama 1-6 bulan. Nyeri kronik sering digolongkan menjadi
nyeri maligna dan nonmaligna. Nyeri kanker dapat berasal dari invasi tumor ke
jaringan atau berhubungan dengan terapi kanker, seperti radiasi atau kemoterapi.
Sedangkan nyeri kronik nonmaligna, rasa nyeri jenis ini umumnya lebih mudah
dikendalikan dan stabilitasnya tinggi, serta membutuhkan obat pereda rasa sakit
yang lebih sedikit. Tidak banyak bukti yang menunjukkan bahwa mekanisme dasar
terjadinya nyeri kanker berbeda dengan nyeri kronik nonmaligna. Mekanisme dasar
terjadinya nyeri terdiri dari empat proses, yaitu transduksi, transmisi, modulasi, dan
persepsi. Keempat proses ini terjadi pada nyeri akut maupun nyeri kronik. Fisiologi
yang membedakan nyeri akut dan nyeri kronik adalah proses gabungan sensitisasi
sentral dan perifer serta faktor psikologis pada nyeri kronik.
Nyeri kronik memiliki dampak yang besar terhadap kehidupan pasien. Oleh
karena itu, pengkajian nyeri kronik harus merupakan proses yang komprehensif
yang tidak hanya melihat proses biologis nyeri, namun juga mengevaluasi
hubungan timbal balik antara kondisi fungsional dan psikososial pasien dengan
fenomena nyeri yang dialaminya. Seperti halnya prosedur diagnosis yang lain,
proses pengkajian nyeri kronik ini mencakup tiga tahapan, yaitu anamnesis,
pemeriksaan fisis dan pemeriksaan penunjang.
Dalam meningkatkan kualitas hidup pasien nyeri kronis, diperlukan
penanganan untuk mengurangi nyeri yang dirasakan. Secara umum,
penatalaksanaan optimal pasien dengan nyeri kronis memerlukan kombinasi terapi
farmakologi dan nonfarmakologi.
REFERENSI
NYERI KRONIK
Disusun oleh:
Christa Gisella Pirsouw
(2018-83-048)
Pembimbing:
dr. Fahmi Maruapey, Sp.An
dr. Ony W. Angkejaya, Sp.An
Nyeri kronik nyeri dengan durasi melebihi penyakit akut atau nyeri yang masih
terjadi setelah masa penyembuhan; selama 1-6 bulan. 2
1. Swleboda P et.al. Assessment of Pain: Types, Mechanism, and Treatment. Ann Agric Environ Med. 2013 December 29; Special Issue 1:2-7
2. Setiadi B. Neurobiologi nyeri kronik [Tinjauan Pustaka]. [Jakarta]: Universitas Indonesia; 2014.
EPIDEMIOLOGI NYERI KRONIK
Global Burden of Disease
Study 2016 menonjolnya Prevalensi bervariasi; nyeri
nyeri dan penyakit terkait kronis mempengaruhi 13-
nyeri merupakan penyebab 50% orang dewasa di Inggris;
utama kecacatan dan 10,4-14,3% nyeri kronis
masalah penyakit secara sedang sampai berat.
global.
Mills Sarah E, Nicolson KP, Smith BH. Chronic pain: a review of its epidemiology and associated factors in population-based studies. [internet]. 2019 May. Available from:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6676152/
Mills Sarah E, Nicolson KP, Smith BH. Chronic pain: a review of its epidemiology and associated factors in population-based studies. [internet]. 2019 May. Available from:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6676152/
KLASIFIKASI NYERI KRONIK
Nyeri akut
Durasi Maligna
Nyeri kronik
Nonmaligna
Nyeri Nyeri
fisiologis
Nyeri
Patofisiologi
nosiseptif
Nyeri
neuropatik
RS Hongkong. Gugus Tugas Manajemen Nyeri Komprehensif Lintas Bidang. [internet] 2018. Available from: https://www21.ha.org.hk/smartpatient/EM/MediaLibraries/SPW/SPWMedia/Indonesian-
Chronic-Pain.pdf?ext=.pdf
Stanos S, Brodsky M, Argoff C, Clauw DJ, D’Arcy Y, Donevan S, et al. Rethinking chronic pain in a primary care setting. Postgrad Med. 2016;128:502–15.
Marandina A. M. Pengkajian Skala Nyeri Di Ruang Perawatan Intensive Literatur Review. 2014. Vol 1 p. 18-26.
Swleboda P et.al. Assessment of Pain: Types, Mechanism, and Treatment. Ann Agric Environ Med. 2013 December 29; Special Issue 1:2-7
Sarafino EP, Smith TW. Health Psychology: Biopsychosocial Interactions. 7th ed. USA; John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2011.
MEKANISME DASAR NYERI
Transduksi
Transmisi
Modulasi
Persepsi
Vadivelu N, Whitney C, Sinatra R. Pain pathways and acute pain processing. In: Pain pathways and acute pain processing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2009. p. 3–11
Nyeri kronik
Rosequit R, Vrooman B. Chronic pain management. Dalam: Butterworth JF, Mackey DC, Wasnick JD, editors. Morgan & Mickhail’s clinical anesthesiology. 5th ed. United States; 2013. p. 1023–85.
DIAGNOSIS NYERI
ANAMNESIS
DIAGNOSIS
PEMERIKSAAN PEMERIKSAAN
PENUNJANG FISIK
Gulve A. Pain assessment. In: Hughes, editor. Pain management: from basics to clnical practice. 1st ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier; 2008. p. 213–29.
Gulve A. Pain assessment. In: Hughes, editor. Pain management: from basics to clnical practice. 1st ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier; 2008. p. 213–29.
PENATALAKSANAAN NYERI KRONIK
Rehatta NM, Hanindito E. Tantri AR. Anestesiologi dan terapi intensif: buku teks KATI-PERDATIN. 1st ed. Jakarta: PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama Anggota IKAPI, 2019.
Rehatta NM, Hanindito E. Tantri AR. Anestesiologi dan terapi intensif: buku teks KATI-PERDATIN. 1st ed. Jakarta: PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama Anggota IKAPI, 2019.
- Pemeriksaan medis lengkap (termasuk pemeriksaan fisik) dan
penilaian psikososial termasuk penapisan risiko adiksi
- Menjalankan lebih detail pemeriksaan lain yang diperlukan
- Menegakkan diagnosis kerja dari nyeri kronis
- Terapi terhadap penyakit spesifik apabila diperlukan
- Penyusunan rencana penanganan nyeri
- Menentukan obat-obatan analgesia yg dibutuhkan apabila pelru
Rehatta NM, Hanindito E. Tantri AR. Anestesiologi dan terapi intensif: buku teks KATI-PERDATIN. 1st ed. Jakarta: PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama Anggota IKAPI, 2019.
TINDAKAN INTERVENSI
Intervensi
Akupuntur
psikologis
TERAPI MULTIDISIPLIN
Terapi
fisik
Rehatta NM, Hanindito E. Tantri AR. Anestesiologi dan terapi intensif: buku teks KATI-PERDATIN. 1st ed. Jakarta: PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama Anggota IKAPI, 2019.
PENUTUP - KESIMPULAN
Nyeri kronik nyeri dengan durasi melebihi penyakit akut atau nyeri yang
masih terjadi setelah masa penyembuhan; selama 1-6 bulan. Banyak faktor
fisik, psikologis, dan sosial yang terkait.
OLEH:
CHRISTA GISELLA PIRSOUW
2018-84-048
PEMBIMBING
dr. ONY ANGKEJAYA, Sp.An
dr. FAHMI MARUAPEY, Sp.An
IHN adalah saraf sensorimotor campuran dan berasal dari ramus ventral L1
yang muncul dari batas lateral atas psoas mayor.
IIN adalah saraf sensorimotor campuran yang timbul dari lumbar ramus
ventral pertama.
GFN adalah saraf sensorimotor campuran yang berasal dari rami ventral L1
dan L2 dan terbentuk di dalam otot psoas [1].
Distribusi saraf yang disebutkan di atas (dalam distribusi yang paling
umum) di daerah inguinal dapat dilihat pada (Gambar 1).
Neurolisis adalah solusi ekstrem untuk meredakan rasa sakit yang tak
tertahankan dengan cara lain seperti obat. Saat ini neurolisis biasanya ditawarkan
kepada pasien yang sakit parah dengan rasa sakit yang tak tertahankan.
Menggunakan neurolisis untuk nyeri pascabedah yang sulit diatasi pada pasien
yang sehat tetap tidak jelas tentang rasio manfaat / risiko [6].
Jika akhirnya keputusan untuk neurolisis diambil, itu harus didahului oleh
blok saraf perifer yang dipandu USG "diagnostik" untuk menentukan cabang saraf
yang menyebabkan masalah.
Dalam kasus kami menggambarkan pasien dirujuk ke departemen anestesi
dengan permintaan neurolisis karena nyeri yang tak tertahankan setelah perbaikan
hernia inguinalis. Rasa sakit itu mempengaruhi aktivitasnya sehari-hari.
DESKRIPSI KASUS
Kami menggambarkan kasus seorang pasien pria berusia 48 tahun yang telah
menjalani perbaikan hernia inguinalis 8 bulan yang lalu. Setelah beberapa kali
kunjungan ke dokter bedah, kami menerima rujukan untuk melakukan neurolisis
pada cabang-cabang yang terpengaruh.
Membahas kasus dengan ahli bedah dan pasien kami menjelaskan
kemungkinan komplikasi neurolisis dan rasio manfaat / risiko yang lebih kecil pada
pasien yang sehat. Setelah saran dan penjelasan kami, pasien dan ahli bedah setuju
untuk melakukan "diagnostik dan merawat blok saraf" untuk menilai asal rasa sakit
dan menindaklanjuti dengan pasien selama 20 hari sebelum melanjutkan ke
tindakan yang lebih invasif.
Pasien adalah orang dewasa yang sehat, berat badan 106 kg dan tinggi 1,73
m.
Untuk memiliki efek hidrodiseksi dan blok saraf yang lebih kuat, kami
biasanya lebih suka melakukan blok saraf individu. Karena kegemukannya dan
mungkin karena operasi sebelumnya, lokalisasi saraf individu sangat buruk.
Alih-alih membidik blok cabang terpisah, kami memutuskan untuk
melakukan blok TAP yang diketahui menutupi neurotom yang diinginkan.
Rencananya adalah jika mungkin untuk memiliki "efek hidrodiseksi" dengan
melebarkan bidang abdominis transversal, menghilangkan kemungkinan saraf yang
terperangkap. Untuk memaksimalkan potensi kami, kami memutuskan untuk
menggunakan volume suntikan yang relatif besar (40 ml). Campuran akan termasuk
konsentrasi analgesik ropivacaine (0,2%) ditambah steroid kuat (deksametason)
untuk sifat anti-inflamasi.
Pada hari prosedur pasien berpuasa selama 6 jam.
Skor nyeri awal diperiksa dan dicatat menggunakan skala peringkat numerik
(NRS) dengan pasien berbaring terlentang dan selama upaya latihan untuk
melakukan "sit-up" Skor nyeri adalah 2 saat istirahat dan naik hingga 6 selama
aktivitas. Kami juga menerapkan kuesioner DN 4 untuk nyeri neuropatik. Pasien
mendapat skor 5/10 di DN4 (positif untuk nyeri neuropatik). Pemeriksaan sensorik
dengan uji dingin dan tusukan jarum menunjukkan area hipestesia di seluruh area
inguinalis kanan.
Semua pemantauan standar sesuai ASA diterapkan dan pasien diberi sedasi
ringan agar tetap tenang dan nyaman selama prosedur. Teknik aseptik digunakan.
Kami memindai area subkostal dan memutuskan pesawat terbaik di mana landmark
kami (lapisan otot / oblik eksternal-internal dan abdominis transversal)
diidentifikasi dengan mudah.
Kami menggunakan jarum 100 mm 22 g, dan menggunakan teknik bidang.
Ketika jarum berada di pesawat antara oblique interna dan abdominis
transversa total 40 ml 0,2 ropivacaine (mengandung 4 mg deksametason sebagai
aditif) diberikan dengan semua tindakan pencegahan (peningkatan kecil,
pengamatan AS, tekanan injeksi, dan aspirasi yang sering).
Setelah prosedur, pasien disimpan selama 2 jam dalam pemulihan untuk
observasi pasca prosedur.
Skor nyeri diperiksa dengan skor NRS setiap 15 menit (waktu nol ditransfer
ke pemulihan).
KESIMPULAN
Skor nyeri selama dua jam dalam pemulihan dapat dilihat di bawah pada
Tabel 1.
*Corresponding author: Dr. Dimosthenis Petsas, MD, Pg.Dip PhD(c), Department of Anaesthetics, Consultant Anaesthe-
tist General Hospital of Thessaloniki “G. Papanicolaou”, Greece, Tel: 00306972008383
Citation: Pogiatzi V, Petsas D, Efthymiou E, Drogouti M, Ntonas A, et al. (2019) Transversus Abdominis Plane
(TAP) Block as a Potential Diagnostic and Therapeutic Tool for Treatment of Chronic Post Herniorrhaphy
Pain: A Case Report. Int J Anesthetic Anesthesiol 6:091. doi.org/10.23937/2377-4630/1410091
Accepted: July 25, 2019: Published: July 27, 2019
Copyright: © 2019 Pogiatzi V, et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction
in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Psoas muscle
Ilioinguinal nerve
Primary ventral rami of L1 and L2
Femoral nerve
innervation
psoas muscle [1]. who had undergone inguinal hernia repair 8 months
ago. After multiple visits to the surgeon we received a
The distribution of the abovementioned nerves (in
referral to perform a neurolysis of the affected branch-
the commonest distribution) in the inguinal area can be
es.
seen in (Figure 1).
Discussing the case with the surgeon and the patient
Neurolysis is an extreme solution to relieve pain
we explained the possible complications of a neurolysis
intractable by other means like medication. Nowadays
and the smaller benefit/risk ratio in an otherwise
neurolysis is usually offered to terminally ill patients
healthy patient. After our suggestions and explanations
with intractable pain. Using neurolysis for intractable
patient and surgeon agreed to perform a “diagnostic
postsurgical pain in otherwise healthy patients remains
and treating nerve block” to initially assess the pain
unclear regarding benefit/risk ratio [6].
origin and follow up with the patient for a period of 20
If finally a decision for neurolysis is taken, it should days before proceeding to more invasive measures.
be preceded by a “diagnostic” ultrasound guided
Patient was an otherwise healthy adult, 106 kg body
peripheral nerve block to specify the nerve branch
weight and 1.73 m height.
causing the problem.
in order to have a more robust effect of hydrodissec-
In the case we describe the patient was referred to
tion and nerve block, we usually prefer to do individual
anaesthesia department with request for neurolysis
nerve block. Due to his obesity and maybe because of
because of intractable pain after inguinal hernia repair.
preceded surgery, the localization of individual nerves
The pain was affecting his everyday activities.
was very poor.
Case Description Instead of aiming on separate branches block we de-
We describe the case of a 48-year-old male patient cided to perform a TAP block which is known to cover
the desired neurotomes. The plan was if-possible- to was used. We scanned the subcostal area and decided
have a “hydrodissecting effect” by dilating the trans- the best plane where our landmarks (muscle layers/
verse abdominis plane, relieving possible entrapped external-internal oblique and transverse abdominis)
nerves. To maximize our potentials, we decided to use a were identified easily.
relatively large volume of injectate (40 ml). The mixture
We used a 100 mm 22 g needle, and in plane
would include analgesic concentration of ropivacaine
technique.
(0.2%) plus a potent steroid (dexamethasone) for its an-
ti-inflammatory properties. When the needle was in plane between internal
oblique and transverse abdominis a total of 40 ml 0.2
On the day of procedure patient was fasted for 6 h.
ropivacaine (containing 4 mg dexamethasone as addi-
The initial pain score was checked and recorded tive) were given with all precautions (small increments,
using the numerical rating scale (NRS) with patient lying US observation, injection pressure and frequent aspira-
supine and during exercise effort to perform a “sit-up” tions).
The pain score was 2 on resting and going up to 6 during
After the procedure, patient was kept for 2 h in
activity. We also applied the DN 4 questionnaire for
recovery for post procedure observation.
neuropathic pain. Patient scored 5/10 in DN4 (positive
for neuropathic pain). Sensory checking with cold test Pain score was checked with NRS score every 15 min
and pinprick showed an area of hypesthesia over the (time zero being time transferred to recovery).
entire right inguinal area. Conclusions
All standard monitoring as per ASA was applied and The pain scores for the two hours in recovery can be
patient was given a mild sedation to remain calm and seen below in Table 1.
comfortable during the procedure. Aseptic technique
Femoral triangle
Femoral triangle
Sartorius Sartorius
Adductores Adductores
Patella Patella
A detailed physical examination with sensory testing Our approach with the TAP block probably did not
(cold test/pinprick) and patient reporting revealed achieve blocking the genitofemoral completely. This
patient had pain relief on the majority of the inguinal conclusion is based on the persistence of residual pain
area with a small area medially that was slightly painful (although decreased compared to baseline) in a small
(Figure 2). area of the medial inguinal area.
The patient was released home after 2 hours in More research is necessary to evaluate the feasibility
recovery and informed about possible complications. and effectiveness of a simple block like TAP block to
He was given all communication details of the two treat patients with chronic postsurgical pain.
anaesthetists who performed the block. It is very important to clarify the possibility of
We informed the patient to communicate for feed- achieving some pain relief of patients with post
back after every 5 days for 20 days. He was informed herniorrhaphy chronic pain, especially if this can be
how to describe his symptoms in rest and activity before done with minimally invasive and easy to perform
communication. procedures like a TAP block. Ideally, we would aim
for individual nerves. The localization of these nerves
The patient communicated 3 times. He mentioned
though can be challenging in cases of distorted anatomy
having relief at rest (NRS 0-1) and a NRS score of 2-3
on activity but limited to the medial part of the inguinal due to surgery or obesity. Although in our case it is not
area. Unfortunately follow up was lost due to lack of clear if the analgesic effect is due to space opening
further patient feedback. (“hydrodissection effect”) or due to anti-inflammatory
effect of dexamethasone, the fact of patient pain relief
In this case report the interesting part is we achieved is a positive outcome.
a partial pain relief (only a small area probably innervat-
ed by the genitofemoral nerve did not respond). References
1. Schug SA, Lavandʼhomme P, Barke A, Korwisi B, Rief W,
The question in this case is if this effect of relief et al. (2019) The IASP classification of chronic pain for ICD-
was due to a “hydrodissection” effect or the effect of 11: Chronic postsurgical or posttraumatic pain. Pain 160:
dexamethasone (since duration of action of ropivacaine 45-52.
is much shorter than 15 days in which we had a relatively 2. Graham DS, Mac Queen IT, Chen DC (2018) Inguinal
beneficial effect). neuroanatomy: Implications for prevention of chronic post
inguinal hernia pain. Int J Abdom Wall Hernia Surg 1: 1-8.
The biological half -life time of Dexamethasone is up
to 72 h. This reflects the duration of influence on target 3. Piraccini E, Biondi G, Byrne H, Calli M, Bellantonio D, et
al. (2018) Ultrasound Guided Transversus Thoracic Plane
tissues and roughly correlates with anti-inflammatory block, Parasternal block and fascial planes hydrodissection
activity. for internal mammary post thoracotomy pain syndrome. Eur
J Pain 22: 1673-1677.
In this case report there are some possible benefits
and advantages shown in treating patients with chron- 4. Dan Sebastian Dîrzu, Theodor Bot, Constantin Ciuce
(2018) Saphenous nerve block as a diagnosis tool for
ic postherniorraphy pain. The possibility of providing
chronic postsurgical pain of the left medial calf. Clinical
some pain relief with a relatively easy to perform block Case Reports 6: 454-455.
like the TAP block (individual nerve blocks may be trou-
5. DeLea SL, Chavez-Chiang NR, Poole JL, Norton HE, Sibbitt
blesome to localize in obese patients), seems promis- WL Jr, et al. (2011) Sonographically guided hydrodissection
ing. Ofcourse there are details to be clarified like if this and corticosteroid injection for scleroderma hand. Clin
effect lasting for 15 days was due to the anti-inflam- Rheumatol 30: 805-813.
matory effect of dexamethasone on nerves or due to 6. Zechlinski JJ, Hieb RA (2016) Lumbar Sympathetic
some kind of “hydrodissection effect” opening spaces Neurolysis: How to and When to Use?. Tech Vasc Interv
of nerve entrapment of the inguinal area. Radiol 19: 163-168.
BLOK PADA BIDANG TRANSVERSUS ABDOMINIS SEBAGAI POTENSIAL DIAGNOSTIK & ALAT
TERAPI UNTUK PENANGANAN NYERI KRONIK POST HERNIORAFI
Disusun oleh:
Christa Gisella Pirsouw
(2018-83-048)
Pembimbing:
dr. Fahmi Maruapey, Sp.An
dr. Ony W. Angkejaya, Sp.An
• DESKRIPSI KASUS
• DISKUSI
• PENUTUP - KESIMPULAN
PENDAHULUAN
Nyeri kronik postop komplikasi pembedahan
Prevalensi nyeri kronik 50-60% (tergantung jenis op); frek. Nyeri post op hernia, sedang –
berat 10-12%; prevalensi nyeri neuropatik lebih tinggi 30%.
Nyeri kronik postop sifat ganda (nosiseptif dan neuropatik); modalitas pengobatan di
klinik, op revisi/ prosedur invasive (neurolisis, blok saraf)
Saraf di daerah inguinal yg biasanya terlibat komplikasi herniorafi IHN, IIN, GFN
DESKRIPSI KASUS
Pria 48 th mengalami nyeri yg tak Dokter bedah membuat konsul TAP block; kombinasi analgesic
tertahankan setelah menjalani rujukan untuk melakukan neurolisis; ropivacaine (0,2%) + steroid kuat
perbaikan hernia inguinalis 8 bulan Dokter anestesi & dokter bedah dexamethasone 4mg = 40ml;
yang lalu. Nyeri mempengaruhi memberikan penjelasan kepada Jarum 100mm 22G; Pasien puasa
aktivitas sehari-harinya; KU pasien pasien terkait tindakan yg akan 6 jam.
baik; BB 106 kg; TB 1,73m dilakukan.
Efek yg mengurangi nyeri ini disebabkan oleh efek hidrodiseksi atau dexamethasone?
DISKUSI
TAP Ruang potensial diantara
fascia m. obliqus internus dan m.
transversus abdominis
Rehatta NM, Hanindito E. Tantri AR. Anestesiologi dan terapi intensif: buku teks KATI-PERDATIN. 1st ed. Jakarta: PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama Anggota IKAPI, 2019.
IIN saraf sensorimotor
campuran yg timbul dari lumbar
ramus ventral pertama.
Kontraindikasi absolut ps menolak tindakan, infeksi tempat injeksi, alergi agen neurolitik kimia
PENUTUP - KESIMPULAN
Efek analgesic
kasus ini perlu
dievaluasi lebih
lanjut
DANK
TUGAS INDIVIDU CHRISTA GISELLA PIRSOUW
LOCAL ANESTHETIC SYSTEMIC TOXICITY
Sekumpulan gejala dan tanda neurologi yang memburuk secara progresif yang
segera terjadi setelah injeksi obat anestesi local dan disertai dengan peningkatan
kosentrasi anestesi local dalam darah, dengan kondisi puncak dapat menjadi
kejang dan koma.
Gejala toksisitas pada
Anestesi local yang bersifat berbagai lokasi termasuk Otak anestesi local
lipofilik secara cepat melewati ionotropik, metabotropic, dan mempengaruhi keseimbangan
sel membran target lainnya. antara jalur inhibisi dan eksitasi.
re-evaluasi
Terapi toksisitas SSP
Terapi konservatif
kelompok benzodiazepine,
barbiturate, dan propofol dalam dosis
kecil (midazolam 2-4mg, propofol
0,5-1 mg/kg).
Terapi toksisitas jantung