• Ratio
• Proporsi
• Rate
krisbantas/ukuran frekwensi/epid 6
Tipe kuantitas matematis
Enumerasi (hitungan)
Rasio
Proporsi
Rate
• Counts
• Ratios
• Proportion
• Rates
Tipe ukuran yang digunakan dalam epidemiologi
Ukuran-ukuran frekuensi penyakit
Ukuran-ukuran asosiasi
Ukuran-ukuran dampak
= 5 / 2 = 2.5 / 1
15
Ukuran-ukuran frekuensi yang digunakan dalam
epidemiologi *
A more typical form of Epidemiological
ratio
• Odds ratio
• Rate ratio
• Prevalence ratio
17
Ukuran-ukuran frekuensi yang digunakan dalam
epidemiologi *
18
Ukuran-ukuran frekuensi yang digunakan dalam
epidemiologi *
Tipe kuantitas matematis
Proporsi
2
--- = 0.5 = 50%
4
20
Ukuran-ukuran frekuensi yang digunakan dalam
epidemiologi *
Proportions
● Persons included in the numerator are
always included in the denominator:
A
Proportion:--------
A+B
● Indicates the magnitude of a part, related to
the total.
Case Fatality =
Number of Deaths due to disease X
Number of New Cases of disease X
Numerator
- number EVENTS observed for a given time
Observed in 1998
34
Ukuran-ukuran frekuensi yang digunakan dalam
epidemiologi *
Rate
• The quotient of 2 numbers
• Speed of occurrence of an event over time
Numerator
- number EVENTS observed for a given time
Denominator
- population in which the events occur
(population at risk)
- includes time
Observed in 1998
2
----- = 0.02 / year
10
35
0
Ukuran-ukuran frekuensi yang digunakan dalam
epidemiologi *
Rates – Example
Calculate crude annual death rate in the US:
Annual death count
Crude death rate = ----------------------- x 1,000
Reference population
(during midpoint of year)
2,148,463
Crude death rate = -------------- x 1,000 = 8.64 per 1,000
248,709,873
Discussion Question 1
2,148,463
Crude death rate = -------------- = 0.0086 x 100 = 0.86%
248,709,873
Rate, Example
39
Ukuran-ukuran frekuensi yang digunakan dalam
epidemiologi *
Tipe ukuran yang digunakan dalam
epidemiologi
Ukuran frekuensi penyakit
DISEASE
FREQUENCY
Define Define
population timeframe
ISSUE DALAM PENGUKURAN FREKUENSI PENYAKIT
• Mendefinisikan “ kasus”
• Baik menghitung prevalens ataupun insidens
diperlukan definisi dari “kasus” 🡪 siapa yang
dianggap sebagai kasus, siapa-siapa yang bukan
Massey University
Defining disease
Massey University
• Pada perhitungan insidens numerator hanya terdiri
dari kasus-kasus baru saja :
• pada kondisi tertentu, suatu kejadian penyakit
dapat terjadi berulang-ulang pada satu pasien
dalam suatu periode (misal diare)
• pada keadaan demikian dari data tersebut
dapat dibuat 2 macam pengukuran insidens
krisbantas/ukuran frekwensi/epid 49
• Insidens yang menggambarkan jumlah kejadian
flue pada periode waktu tertentu
∑ of colds happened
CI = ------------------------- during period of
people at risk time
MEASURING
DISEASE
FREQUENCY
Define Define
population timeframe
Defining timeframe
● Study time
– Period of time over which the study is
conducted
– Usually calendar time
– Sometimes specified by event at
which data collection commenced e.g.
birth to school age
Massey University
Defining time frame
● Risk period
Massey University
Menentukan “time of onset”
DISEASE
FREQUENCY
Define Define
population timeframe
Populations
Target
Study
Defining the population
● Study and target populations may be defined by:
– Geography
– Age
– Sex
– Ethnicity
– Employment
– Combination of factors
Massey University
Defining the population
● Study populations may be open or closed
Massey University
Closed Populations (Cohorts)
● Closed populations
are also called cohorts
● A fixed number of
people w/ no inflow
● Individual followed
Once you are a member
over time (some will of a cohort, you are a
“expire” and some will member for life. – Olli
survive) Miettinen
(c) B. Gerstman
Massey University
Chapter 6 59
Open (Dynamic) Populations
● Open populations
experience inflow
(immigration, births)
and outflow
(emigration, death).
● An open population in
“steady state” (constant
size and age
distribution) is said to
be stationary
(c) B. Gerstman
Massey University
Chapter 6 60
Mendefinisikan populasi studi :
krisbantas/ukuran frekwensi/epid 62
Ukuran-ukuran frekuensi penyakit
Insidens
Incidence Proportion
Population 350,000
New cases 1,250
Cumulative incidence 3.6/1000 per year
70
Ukuran-ukuran frekuensi yang digunakan dalam
epidemiologi *
Cumulative Incidence
Incidence proportion
CI assumes that entire population at risk
followed up for specified time period
x
x
i s k
x
x
R
x
CI = 7/12 per year
• Kalkulasi dari CI
∑ of new cases of disease
CI = --------------------------- during period of
population at risk time
note : hanya kasus baru saja yang termasuk dalam numerator,
kasus-kasus yang sudah terjadi tidak termasuk
krisbantas/ukuran dalam numerator
frekwensi/epid 73
Incidence Proportion (Illustration)
11
1 2*
3*
4
5*
6
7*
8
9
10*
* = kasus baru
krisbantas/ukuran frekwensi/epid 77
• Selamaperiode 1 Jan 1991 - 31 Des 1991 terdapat
5 kasus baru campak (2,3,5,4 dan 10)
krisbantas/ukuran frekwensi/epid 78
CUMULATIVE INCIDENCE
THE PROPORTION OF A DISEASE-FREE
POPULATION THAT BECOMES ILL DURING A
SPECIFIED PERIOD OF TIME:
AVERAGE RISK
RISK:
THE PROBABILITY THAT AN INDIVIDUAL WILL
DEVELOP DISEASE IN A SPECIFIED PERIOD
OF TIME
Ukuran-ukuran frekuensi penyakit
Densitas insidens = Insidens orang-waktu
III Alive 8
34
4
IV Death
4
V Disease
5
VI Lost to Follow-up
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Study starts Study ends
Time (years)
Ukuran-ukuran frekuensi penyakit
Gambar 1
■ Kemudian hitung
0 25 50 75 100
Tahun
* 88
Ukuran-ukuran frekuensi yang digunakan
dalam epidemiologi
Ukuran-ukuran frekuensi penyakit
Latihan menghitung Incindence Rate
Populasi 2
D = permulaan sakit
D
0 25 50 75 100
Tahun
PERSON TIME:
Note: For a rate, the numerator is not included in the denominator. The
denominator
* is a different dimension altogether.
Ukuran-ukuran frekuensi yang 92
digunakan dalam epidemiologi
Person - Time
Person Person-months
1 10
Disease
2 13
3 9Loss to follow-up
4 15
5 10 Disease
6 15
7 7
Disease
* Ukuran-ukuran frekuensi yang 93
Months 1 2 3 4 5 6digunakan
7 8 dalam
9 10 11 12 13 14 15
epidemiologi
Incidence Rate using individual data
= No. of events (x)
person-years (t1 + t2 + . . .+ tN)
10,000
disease 8,000
free disease
people free
people
* Ukuran-ukuran frekuensi yang 95
10 years
digunakan dalam epidemiologi
Incidence density
Rate
Denominator:
- is a measure of time
- the sum of each individual’s time at risk
and free from disease 96
Ukuran-ukuran frekuensi yang digunakan dalam
epidemiologi *
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 Time at risk
A 6.0
B x 6.0
C 11.0
D 9.5
E x 5.0
Because:
• Subjects may be recruited at different times
• Subjects may emigrate
• Subjects may choose to leave study
• Subjects may die
• Subjects may get the disease we are
studying
Person-Time
Each subject contributes a specific person-time of
observation (days, months, years) to the denominator
1 <-------------------------------------> 2
2 <--------------------------------------D 2
3 <-----------------WD 1
4 <-------------------------------------------------------> 3
5 <-------------------------------------> 2
1 <-------------------------------------> 2
2 <--------------------------------------D 2
3 <-----------------WD 1
4 <-------------------------------------------------------> 3
5 <-------------------------------------> 2
1995 1996 1997 1998
Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan.
110
Ukuran-ukuran frekuensi yang digunakan dalam
epidemiologi *
Ukuran-ukuran frekuensi penyakit
Gambar 1
Jawaban: Jawaban:
PT pada T = 2 🡺0/7 PT pada T = 5 🡺2/6
PT pada T = 3 🡺2/7 PT pada T = 6 🡺2/5
PT pada T = 4 🡺2/6 PT pada T = 7 🡺2/5
P=IxD
Prevalens (P) [Prevalens periode] = Insidens (I)
[Densitas Insindens] x rata-rata lama sakit (D)
Kasus Lama
Sembuh
atau meninggal
Bekas-bekas kasus
* Ukuran-ukuran frekuensi yang digunakan 119
dalam epidemiologi
Relationship between
Incidence, Prevalence and Disease Duration
Incidence
Prevalence Deaths,
Duration Cured,
Lost...
• Contoh :
• penggunaan insulin menyebabkan penderita DM
bertahan hidup lama 🡪 durasi sakit menjadi
panjang 🡪 prevalens meningkat
• Contoh :
• pada kasus-kasus yang mudah sembuh,
• atau pada kasus-kasus yang cepat meninggal
Contoh:
Pada tahun 2004, ada 200 kasus baru tuberkulosis paru-paru
yang dilaporkan di suatu wilayah. Pada tahun yang sama ada 15
kematian yang terjadi pada penderita tuberkulosis paru-paru,
maka DTCR = 15/200 🡺 75 kematian per 1000 kasus baru
Insidens
• Merupakan alat ukur untuk penelitian etiologi
suatu penyakit baik akut maupun kronis
● Unit of measurement
» Time-1
– Year-1 Month-1 Day-1 Hour-1 Second-1
● Value: 0--------∞
» Numerical value depends on the units
– Every 24 seconds one car stolen in the US
● 1 car/24 seconds
● 3600 cars/day
● 1,314,000 cars/year
How many New Cases
Expected Daily?
● 5,031 patients were observed for 127,859
patient-days (average length of stay of
127,859/5031=25.4 days)
● 596 patients developed an infection that
met definition of hospital-acquired:
● IR=596/127,859=0.0047/patient-day
● =4.7/1000 patient-day (0.47%)
» On average,0.47% of patients similar to those
studied /day will develop nosocomial infection
over similar time-period
Cumulative Incidence Rate
(CI)
● Numerator: all
● Proportion of the incident cases
population who
developed the D of ● Denominator: Starting
interest during the D-free population (not
study period total person-times)
Chapter 6
Incidence and Prevalence
(c) B. Gerstman Chapter 6 150
If it’s not clear…
• Gordis Leon, M.D., M.P.H., Dr.P.H. 2009.
Epidemiolgy. W.B. Saunders Company.
Philadelphia ,Chapter 3