Bab 4

Pengukuran

©2018 John Wiley & Sons Australia Ltd

Tujuan Pembelajaran

Setelah mempelajari presentasi ini, Anda diharapkan dapat:

4.1 mengkomunikasikan konsep pengukuran dalam konteks pelaporan keuangan saat ini dan
menunjukkan pemahaman tentang banyak manfaat dan keterbatasannya

4.2 merefleksikan pendekatan pembuat standar untuk pengukuran dan mengevaluasi pendekatan
pengukuran yang berbeda

4.3 secara kritis menerapkan metode pengukuran yang berbeda untuk mengevaluasi dampak dari
pilihan pengukuran pada kualitas informasi akuntansi.

4.4 mengomunikasikan dan membenarkan sifat kontroversial nilai wajar sebagai pendekatan
pengukuran mempertimbangkan argumen yang mendukung dan menentang pergeseran ke arah nilai
wajar berdasarkan standar akuntansi

4.5 merefleksikan sifat politik pengukuran akuntansi dengan mengembangkan pemahaman tentang
pemangku kepentingan yang berbeda dalam proses pelaporan keuangan

4.6 mengkomunikasikan isu-isu yang berkontribusi pada sifat kontroversial pengukuran akuntansi

4.7 merefleksikan tantangan pengukuran saat ini yang dihadapi oleh profesi akuntansi dengan
referensi khusus untuk kelestarian lingkungan, aset hijau, aset tidak berwujud, aset warisan dan aset
air.

Ikhtisar presentasi

• Pengukuran dalam akuntansi

Pengukuran adalah tindakan atau sistem pengukuran.

Paragraf 4.54 Kerangka Konseptual Pelaporan Keuangan (Conceptual Framework):

– proses penentuan jumlah moneter di mana unsur-unsur laporan keuangan harus diakui dan dicatat
dalam neraca dan laporan laba rugi.

Pengukuran dalam konteks akuntansi karena itu mengacu pada cara angka-angka pada laporan
keuangan ditentukan.

• Manfaat pengukuran:

– Ini membantu dalam membuat keputusan laporan keuangan berguna.

– Memungkinkan pengguna untuk menilai kinerja keuangan dan posisi keuangan entitas.

– Memungkinkan pengguna untuk membandingkan kinerja dan posisi entitas dari waktu ke waktu.

– Memungkinkan pengguna untuk membandingkan entitas.

• Lima batasan utama pengukuran dalam akuntansi:

– Sedikit atau tidak ada kesepakatan tentang tindakan apa yang harus digunakan.

– Fleksibilitas yang melekat dan sifat pendekatan pengukuran campuran mengurangi

komparabilitas.

- Pengukuran bisa sangat subjektif.

– Dengan fleksibilitas datang pilihan akuntansi oportunistik.

– Pendekatan saat ini untuk hasil pengukuran dalam masalah aditif.

• Pendekatan pengukuran dan standar akuntansi

Pendekatan pengukuran:

– Kerangka Konseptual tidak memberikan panduan tentang dasar pengukuran mana yang harus
digunakan.

– Umpan balik telah diberikan oleh IASB mengenai proposal yang terkait dengan pengukuran.

– Biaya historis adalah dasar pengukuran yang paling dominan digunakan oleh entitas.

Biaya historis:

– Pendekatan pengukuran yang dominan.

– Biaya historis tradisional pada dasarnya membutuhkan item untuk dicatat pada jumlah di mana:

• mereka dibeli

• atau mereka diterima.

– Transaksi didasarkan pada masa lalu.

Biaya saat ini — biaya penggantian:

– Biaya yang harus dikeluarkan untuk mengganti item.

– Biaya saat ini:

• suatu item dinilai dan dicatat sebesar jumlah yang akan dibayarkan pada saat ini untuk
memberikan atau menggantikan manfaat ekonomi masa depan yang diharapkan akan
diperoleh dari item saat ini.

– Biaya penggantian:

• item dinilai dan dicatat pada jumlah yang akan dibayarkan pada saat ini untuk membeli item
yang sama.

Nilai wajar — nilai realisasi atau penyelesaian:

– Menjadi lebih populer karena rilis Pengukuran Nilai Wajar AASB 13/IFRS 13.

– Dianggap lebih relevan dari perspektif kegunaan keputusan.

• • Nilai wajar — nilai realisasi atau penyelesaian:

• - Nilai wajar:

• • harga yang akan diterima untuk menjual suatu aset atau harga yang akan
dibayar untuk mengalihkan suatu liabilitas dalam transaksi teratur antara pelaku
pasar pada tanggal pengukuran.

• • Pengukuran berbasis pasar.

• – Pendekatan pengukuran

• dan standar akuntansi

• • Nilai wajar — nilai realisasi atau penyelesaian:

• – Nilai yang dapat direalisasikan:

• • Nilai keluar yang mewakili jumlah yang diharapkan akan diterima pada saat pelepasan
aset.

• • Pengukuran khusus entitas.

• • Pendekatan pengukuran

• dan standar akuntansi

• • Nilai wajar — nilai realisasi atau penyelesaian:

• - Nilai saat ini:

• • Pendekatan pengukuran subjektif dan melibatkan ketidakpastian.

• • Mengambil arus kas yang diharapkan akan diterima di masa depan dan menguranginya
sehingga mencerminkan nilainya hari ini.

• • Pendekatan pengukuran

• dan standar akuntansi

• • Pengukuran dan standar akuntansi internasional:

– Utilises different measurement bases throughout the preparation of financial

statements and is quite complex.

– Referred to as a mixed measurement model.

• Measurement approaches
and the accounting standards

• Measurement approaches
and the accounting standards

• Measurement approaches
and the accounting standards

• Measurement approaches
and the accounting standards

• Decision criteria and influences on choice of measurement approach:

 – Prominent influences include on which measurement base is most appropriate:

• potential users of the financial statements

• practical considerations

• management’s motivations and objectives.

• Measurement and the quality of

accounting information

• Measurement choices impact:

– relevance

– faithful representation

– understandability

– comparability

– verifiability.

• Measurement and the quality of

accounting information

• Historical cost:

– Less relevant, as it is not necessarily reflective of the value of benefits (present and
future).

– Produces information which is more faithfully represented.

– More neutral as there is very little or no estimation involved.

– Information produced is generally understandable, but may less comparable.

• Measurement and the quality of

accounting information

• Fair value:

– Information produced using fair value as the measurement base is argued to be

more relevant.

– The quoted market price for an item is an objective method for determining the fair
value of an item and is more faithfully represented.

– Information produced using fair value is viewed as being more understandable and
comparable (arguably).

• Measurement and the quality of

accounting information

• Current cost:

– Information is more relevant than the use of historical cost.

– Faithfully represented information due to the use of actual current cost.

 – Information is more difficult to interpret from a decision usefulness perspective
and therefore less understandable.

– Values may be more comparable, but future economic benefits may be less
comparable.

• Measurement and the quality of

accounting information

• Present value:

– Values are more relevant.

– Due to the estimation involved, assumptions and judgement the approach lacks
faithful representation and neutral depiction.

– Less understandable as approach involves complex estimations and formulas.

– Comparable (arguably) as amounts are discounted to the present day and in

current dollars.

• Fair value

• Recently, there has been a distinct move from historical-cost to fair-value accounting.

• Valuation methods:

– Market approach:

• Observable market prices and information generated by market

transactions.

– Cost approach:

• Reflects the current amount required to replace the service capacity of an

asset.

• Fair value

• Valuation methods:

– Income approach:

• Approximation of current market value is made by estimating the future

cash flows or income and expenses.

• Fair value

• Arguments for fair value:

– More relevant as it reflects current market prices.

– Faithfully represents reality where other measurement approaches cannot.

– Neutral depiction as fair values are primarily determined using objective market
prices.

– More comparable as the current value at the same point in time is represented.

– Understandable as it is simple and straightforward.

• Fair value

• Arguments against fair value:

– Amount of subjectivity and judgement involved in forming estimations of market

value in the absence of an objective market price.

– Value recorded is hypothetical in nature.

– Less faithfully represented due to the subjective nature of the valuation process.

– The most controversial measurement approach.

• Stakeholders and the political nature

of accounting measurement

• Financial statements are used to satisfy different needs for information.

• Users have different and sometimes conflicting needs when it comes to accounting
information.

• Measurement choices have an impact on the quality of accounting information produced

via the financial statements.

• Stakeholders and the political nature

of accounting measurement

• Two questions are considered when making choices in relation to measurement

approaches in accounting:

– What do users really need to know?

• Measurement will affect the delivery of information.

– How do users influence the measurement approach?

• Recognise the impact of particular users or stakeholders on measurement

choices.

• Stakeholders and the political nature

of accounting measurement

• Existing and potential investors:

– Concerned with the risk inherent in, and the return provided by, their investments.

– They want accounting information that:

• assists them in deciding whether to buy, hold, or sell their shares

• enables them to assess the entity’s ability to pay dividends.

• Stakeholders and the political nature

of accounting measurement

• Lenders and other creditors:

– Interested in information that enables them to determine whether amounts owing

to them will be paid when due.
 – Particularly interested in the entity’s net position.

• Liabilities compared to assets.

– Measurement becomes very important from a valuation perspective.

• Fair value seems to be the most useful approach.

• Stakeholders and the political nature

of accounting measurement

• Lenders and other creditors:

– The political nature of accounting measurement

• Different interest groups involved in accounting regulation through the

standard‐setting process.

• Each group lobby for a particular accounting treatment or measurement.

• Measurement in accounting, particularly fair value, is under the spotlight.

• Stakeholders and the political nature

of accounting measurement

• Lenders and other creditors:

– The political nature of accounting measurement

• Recent political measurement issues:

– use of fair value in times of economic downturn

– reliability of accounting information prepared using fair value

– recent events blame measurement

– stakeholders’ conflicting interests

– inadequate operation of financial markets.

• Why measurement is a
controversial accounting issue

• Measurement is currently very controversial.

• Key points:

– Potential for inappropriate choices in measurement method or approach.

– Variability in measurement approaches used for similar assets.

– Political influences on measurement decisions.

• Why measurement is a
controversial accounting issue

• Key points:

– Subjectivity and discretion involved in determination of some values.

 – Impact of measurement on achievement of other organisational objectives.

• Current measurement challenges

• Green assets and other sustainability issues:

– Three key issues:

• What needs to be measured and accounted for?

• How can the discretion and subjectivity associated with the estimation of
values be managed?

• What are the consequences associated with accounting for social and
environmental aspects of the entity?

• Current measurement challenges

• Intangible assets:

– Initially measured at cost.

– What constitutes cost is different depending upon:

• whether the intangible was acquired separately

• acquired as part of a business combination

• internally generated.

– Measurement of intangible assets is complex and variation exists.

• Current measurement challenges

• Current measurement challenges

• Heritage assets:

– Considered to be a subset of property, plant and equipment.

– No single definition but definitions follow the same idea:

• these assets are of some sort of historical, artistic, cultural or

environmental significance

• are held and maintained for their contribution to knowledge and for the
benefit of present and future generations.

• Current measurement challenges

• Heritage assets:

– Issues:

• Should heritage assets be treated in the same way as other tangible assets?
Or should they be treated as a liability?

• Are heritage assets capable of financial measurement?

• Should heritage assets be financially measured?

• Current measurement challenges

• Water assets:

– Developing reporting and assurance standards for water resides with the national
Water Accounting Standards Board (WASB).

– Measurement and valuation:

• Number of issues associated with the measurement or valuation of water

as an asset.

• Current measurement challenges

• Water assets:

– Measurement and valuation:

• Wide range of stakeholders:

– All have diverse interests.

– Economic, environmental and social factors need to be considered.

• How should value be determined:

– Issues surrounding determination of value.

• Current measurement challenges

• Water assets:

– Measurement and valuation:

• Water quality and recognition:

– Water is a limited natural resource which needs to be managed.

– It must be given value and accounted for in the same way as any
other asset.

• Summary

• The concept of measurement in the current context of financial reporting and benefits and
limitations.

• Standard setters’ approach to measurement and different measurement approaches.

• Different measurement methods and the impact of measurement choice on the quality of
accounting information.

• The controversial nature of fair value as a measurement approach.

• Summary

• The political nature of accounting measurement.

• The issues which contribute to the controversial nature of accounting measurement.

• Current measurement challenges.