The Cell

Tubuh manusia dewasa mengandungi kira-kira 75 trillion cells. Tubuh trbntuk drp unit-unit kecil dikenali sbg atom. Atom berada pada paras pertama struktur manusia iaitu aras kimia. Atom kemudianya bergabung sesama sendiri untuk membentuk molekul spt CO2 dan H2O. Pengabungan molekul ini akan membentuk molekul makro spt karbihidrat, lipit, protein dan asid nukleik. Struktur bentuk molekul makro menjadi aras sel. Sel pula ialah benda hidup terkecil yang terdapat dlm badan kita. Sel mpunyai plbagai fungsi antaranya mengangkut nutrien dan O2, mnjlnkan tindakbalas metabolisma dan mngeluarkan CO2 drp tubuh.

Aras Kompleksiti Struktur Manusia Sumber: Martini, F (1989)

Nukleus
Merupakan struktur dan organel terbesar di dlm sesuatu sel.hampir semua sel manusia nukleus (Eucaryotic Cells), manakala bakteria (Prokaryotic Cells) tidak mempunyai nukleus. Nukleus di kelilingi oleh selaput dikenali sbg membran nukleus. Membran nukleus terdiri drp dua lapisan yg nipis membentuk liang nukleus.

 Pelbagai bahan, misalnya asid ribonukleik pengutus(mRNA) dan hormon steroid, keluar masuk melalui liang-liang tersebut. Nukleus bukan sahaja penting untuk memelihara kehidupan sel, tetapi ia juga terlibat dlm proses pmbiakan sel.

 CELLS Prokaryotic Cells (bacteria, bluegreen algae) Eucaryotic Cells (protozoa, fungi, plants, animals)

chromosomes
Di dlm nukleus trdpt struktur benang brpntal yg dipnggil kromosom. Sel somatik manusia mengandungi 23 pasang kromosom.setiap kromosom terbentuk dari sepasang rantai pnjang turutan asid deoksiribonukleik (DNA)yg berbelit. Kromosom menentukan jenis serta peranan yg dimainkan oleh setiap sel. Fungsi utama kromosom adalah utk mgkodkan maklumat utk sintesis pelbagai proteinyg berperanan dlm pngurusan metabolisma sel

Samb..
Protein-protein ini umumnya membentuk enzimdan juga pelbagai bahan yg bertanggungjawab mengkhususkan sesuatu sel kepada fungsi tertentu. Gen merujuk kepada bahagian kromosom yg brtanggungjawab untuk mnghasilkan protein. Trdpt kira-kira 50000 100000 gen pada manusia. Gen-gen ini membentuk unit asas sifat turun temurun (unit-unit baka)

Nukleolus
Merupakan satu struktur berbintil yang kaya dgn asid ribonukleik (RNA) Trdpt beberapa jenis asid ribonukleik. Asid ribonukleik pengutus (mRNA) dibina dlm nukleus dari gen trtentu dlm proses dinamakan transcription. mRNA akan keluar ke sitoplasma dan membentuk satu kompleks dgn ribosom. Proses pmbinaan protein(translation) terjadi di kompleks ini. Sel yg aktif atau sdng membesar biasanya mempunyai byk nukleolus.

Nucleoplasm (Nukleoplasma)
Adalah cecair berjeli (koloid/semi fluid substance) yg didapati di luar dan dlm nukleus.90% drp berat sitoplasma dan nukleoplasma adalah air, bahan yg lain adalah karbihidrat, protein, lipit, elektrolit dan lain-lain.

Mitochondria
Adalah organel sel berbentuk sausej. Dindingnya trdiri drp dua lapisan membran nipis. Lapisan luar yg licin, semi telap membenarkan bahan meresap ke dlm atau ke luar mitokondria. Lapisan dlmnya berlipat-lipat dan membentuk satu rangkaian cuaran disebut krista. Krista mengandungi matriks organik dan di permukaanya terletak enzim-enzim yg berkaitan dgn proses metabolisme oksidatif sel. Sel otot rangka dan kardiak mgandungi byk mitokondria.

lysosomes
Adalah organel berbentuk granul yg terisi enzim pencernaan. Fungsi normal lisosom berkaitan dgn pebguraian serta pencernaan molekul besar spt protein dan lipid. Bahan hasil cernaan kemudian meresap ke sitoplasma melalui membran lisosom. Jika kerosakan sel berlaku, membran lisosom akan terurai atau pecah dan enzim yg trkluar akan mghadamkan semua kandungan sel dan membunuhnya. Proses ini disebut autolisis.

Ribosomes
Adalah granul kecil yg terdiri drp RNA (65%) bercampur dgn protein (35%). Ia terdpt di permukaan luar membran jalinan endoplasma kasar (granular or rough endoplasmic reticulum) Fungsi utama berkaitan dgn sintesis protein dlm sel. Sel yg mghasilkan protein dgn byak seperti sel hepar mgandungi byk ribosom

Golgi Complex
Terdiri drp sekumpulan struktur berselaput berbentuk piring yg terlongok brhmpiran dgn nukleus. Mudah dilihat dlm sel merembes. Berfungsi berkaitan dgn pemprosesan dan penyimpanan protein yg telah disentisis di jalinan endoplasma. Protein ini kemudian akan dihantar ke pelbagai tempat di dlm dan diluar sel utk digunakan.

 The common features of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are: 1. DNA, the genetic material contained in one or more chromosomes and located in a nonmembrane bound nucleoid region in prokaryotes and a membrane-bound nucleus in eukaryotes 2. Plasma membrane, a phospholipid bilayer with proteins that separates the cell from the surrounding environment and functions as a selective barrier for the import and export of materials 3. Cytoplasm, the rest of the material of the cell within the plasma membrane, excluding the nucleoid region or nucleus, that consists of a fluid portion called the cytosol and the organelles and other particulates suspended in it 4. Ribosomes, the organelles on which protein synthesis takes place

Features of Prokaryotic Cells

Prokaryotes, which include all bacteria and archaea (archaebacteria), are the simplest cellular organisms. Prokaryotic cells are fundamentally different in their internal organization from eukaryotic cells. Notably, prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus and membranous organelles

 Eukaryotic cells contain a membrane-bound nucleus and numerous membrane-enclosed organelles (e.g., mitochondria, lysosomes, Golgi apparatus) not found in prokaryotes. Features of Eukaryotic Cells Prokaryotic cells are fundamentally different in their internal organization from eukaryotic cells. Notably, prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus and membranous organelles. The nucleus is bounded by the nuclear envelope, a double membrane with many nuclear pores through which material enters and leaves. Animals, plants, fungi, and protists are all eukaryotes. Eukaryotic cells are more complex than prokaryotic cells and are found in a great many different forms.

The Endomembrane System in Eukaryotic Cells

All eukaryotic cells have within them a functionally interrelated membrane system, the endomembrane system consisting of the nuclear envelope, ER and Golgi apparatus, vesicles and other organelles derived from them, and the plasma membrane. Many materials are moved around the cell by the endomembrane system, including some proteins.

Eukaryotic Cells
Eukaryotic cells (from the Greek eu, meaning "true" and karyon, meaning "kernel" or "nucleus") are more complex than prokaryotic cells and are found in both unicellular organisms like the amoeba and multicellular organisms like sunflowers, mushrooms, and humans. They are generally larger than prokaryotic cells, ranging from about 10 to 100 micrometers (.0004 to .004 inch) in size. In multicellular organisms, there are many different types of cells that perform specialized functions. In animals, for instance, pancreatic cells make and secrete hormones, whereas red blood cells are specialized for transporting oxygen throughout the body. Cells with specialized functions such as these are called "differentiated." All eukaryotic cells share specific structural characteristics. These include a true nucleus that is bounded by a double-layered membrane known as the nuclear membrane. Within the nucleus is housed the cell's genetic material in the form of linear chromosomes of DNA contained in thread-like structures called chromatin. All eukaryotic cells have a plasma membrane that encloses the cytoplasm. Cells of plants, fungi, and many protists have an additional outer boundary called a cell wall that differs significantly in structure and composition from that of a prokaryotic cell.

 Eukaryotic cells have many different kinds of small membranebound structures called organelles that, with the exception of ribosomes, are absent from prokaryotic cells. Eukaryotic ribosomes (which are not enclosed by a membrane) float freely in the cytosol or are attached to another organelle known as the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). The ER is a series of membrane-bound, fluid-filled spaces in contact with the nuclear membrane. Its function is to synthesize and/or modify proteins, phospholipids, and cholesterol and to transport substances from the nucleus to the rest of the cell. Both animal and plant cells have mitochondria, power houses that convert energy stored in the chemical bonds of nutrients like carbohydrates, proteins, and fats into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a high-energy chemical compound that is required for many cellular processes. Many plant cells also have chloroplasts, organelles that contain the pigment chlorophyll. Chloroplasts conduct photosynthesis, in which plants use sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide to synthesize the sugar glucose.

 The animal cell is a typical eukaryotic cell. It ranges in size between 1 and 100 micrometers and is surrounded by a plasma membrane, which forms a selective barrier allowing nutrients to enter and waste products to leave. The cytoplasm contains a number of specialized organelles, each of which is surrounded by a membrane. There is only one nucleus and it contains all the genetic information necessary for cell growth and reproduction. The other organelles occur in multiple copies and carry out the various functions of the cell, allowing it to survive and participate in the functioning of the larger organism.

Organelles in Eukaryotic Cells

Structure
Nucleus Ribosomes Endoplasmic reticulum Golgi apparatus Lysosomes

Function
Contains genetic material Protein synthesis Synthesis/modification and transport of proteins and lipids Processing, distribution of proteins, lipids Digestion of substances in cell

Peroxisomes
Chloroplasts Flagella/Cilia Vacuole and vesicle Centriole

Digestion and detoxification

Photosynthesis Cell movement Storage of cellular substances Cytoskeletal organization

Schematic of typical animal cell, showing sub-cellular components. Organelles: (1) nucleolus (2) nucleus (3) ribosome (4) vesicle (5) rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (6) Golgi apparatus (7) Cytoskeleton (8) smooth ER (9) mitochondria (10) vacuole (11) cytoplasm (12) lysosome (13) centrioles