CONSTRUCTION

METHODS

1. STRESSED-SKIN ATTACHMENT.
2. BONDED STRUCTURE
3. MACHINED SKIN / INTEGRAL STRUCTURE
4. Chemical Etching
5. Honeycomb construction
6. Doubler Plates
7. Flanged Lightening Holes

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 Construction Methods
(Metode Konstruksi)
Beberapa metode (cara) me-manufaktur
struktur pesawat – akan dibahas disini
secara singkat.
• Skin (kulit) dari struktur pesawat udara –
mungkin terbuat dari metal (logam) atau
bahan komposit.

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 Construction Methods
(Metode Konstruksi)
Untuk pesawat terbang metal –
 Skin biasanya :
– Dibentuk terlebih dulu (pre-formed) menjadi
kurva/lengkungan yang diperlukan, sebelum
digabungkan ke frames, stringers, dsb.
– Dibuat dari Al alloys (paduan Aluminum) dan kedua
sisinya dilapisi dengan Aluminium (Alclad).
– Pada sebagian pesawat terbang, mungkin dilapisi
dengan paduan Magnesium (Mg-alloy).

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 Construction Methods
(Metode Konstruksi)
• Beberapa bagian dari struktur –mungkin
dibuat dari Ti (titanium) atau Baja tahan karat
(stainless steel).
• Logam-logam (metals) ini lebih berat, akan
tetapi menahan panas lebih baik, sehingga
dapat dipasang dekat jet engine exhaust
(knalpot mesin jet).

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 Construction Methods
(Metode Konstruksi)

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 Construction Methods
(Metode Konstruksi)

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 Construction Methods –
Stressed Skin Attachment
 STRESSED-SKIN ATTACHMENT :
• Pada pesawat udara metal (metal aircraft) – SKIN
dilekatkan ke frames, stringers, dsb. dengan cara:
1) Riveted : Menggunakan rivets, y.i. Biasanya countersunks
atau dimpled – rata (flush) dengan skin di- bagian luar
pesawat untuk mengurangi hambatan aerodinamis
(aerdynamic drag).
2) Bonded : Bonding - adalah suatu proses pelekatan
(adhesive) memakai synthetic resin adhesive dan sering
disebut dengan nama dagang-nya “Redux Bonding”.
Perlekatan (bonding) memerlukan bonding agent
(perekat/lem), heat (panas), dan pressures ( tekanan).
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 Construction Methods (Metode Konstruksi)-
STRESSED-SKIN ATTACHMENT
 Stressed-skin Attachment – (samb) :
• Pada Sebagian parts (bagian-bagian) dari struktur
rangka (airframe) kemungkinan juga di lekatkan
dengan menggunakan bonding.
Untuk pesawat terbang komposit – Perlekatan
(attachment) dengan menggunakan :
– Special fasteners,
– Bonding; atau
– Frame-nya dibangun integral (menyatu)
dengan skin.
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 Construction Methods (Metode Konstruksi)-
STRESSED-SKIN ATTACHMENT

Me-rivet skin ke rib

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 Construction Methods (Metode Konstruksi) :
di -Rivet dan di- Bonding
Riveted stringers Bonded stringers

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 Construction Methods
(Metode Konstruksi)
 BONDED STRUCTURE :
• Adhesive Bonding is a Method of Joining :
– Metal to Metal.
– Metal to Wood.
– Metal to themo-setting Plastic.
• A bonded metal to metal joint – is normally stronger
than a riveted joint because :
– The whole of the faying surfaces are joined.
– There are no holes drilled to weaken the metal.
– There are no stress concentration areas. The
stresses are evenly spaced-out across the joint.
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 Construction Methods
(Metode Konstruksi) - BONDED STRUCTURE :
 BONDED STRUCTURE :
• The process does not cause corrosion and is not
attacked by fungi or other organisms, nor it is
affected by water, gasoline, oil, or other common
solvents.
• Where the process is used on the outside panels of
aircraft :
– It provides protection against leaks (rain water
and floats/hulls on those aircraft that land on
water).
• On pressurized aircraft : - it provides for a pressure
tight joint. It also produces a smoother aeodynamic
finish.
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 Construction Methods
(Metode Konstruksi) - BONDED STRUCTURE:
 Bonding is also used in the construction of :
– Metal stiffeners to wooden floor panels.
– Brake linings to break shoes.
– Honeycomb structures.
– Parts of cars and many other non aircraft
uses.

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 Construction Methods
(Metode Konstruksi)
 MACHINED SKIN / INTEGRAL
STRUCTURE :
• Metal aircraft is made up of several parts
riveted / bonded together.
• For Large aircraft – the separate parts run into
their thousands with rivets running into their
tens of thousands.
Q : Each joint is a potential corrosion hazard.
Why ?
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 Construction Methods (Metode Konstruksi) -
MACHINED SKIN / INTEGRAL STRUCTURE:
 MACHINED SKIN / INTEGRAL STRUCTURE :
ANSWER: Each joint is a potential corrosion
hazard, BECAUSE :
Galvanic corrosion – when two metals are joined
together there is a possibility of galvanic
corrosion, particularly when the metals are
different or have had different heat treatments.
Another hazard is crevice corrosion.
If the whole of the aircraft skin, . . . 
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 Construction Methods (Metode Konstruksi) -
MACHINED SKIN / INTEGRAL STRUCTURE :
 MACHINED SKIN / INTEGRAL STRUCTURE :
If the whole of the aircraft skin, including the
stringers, frames, longerons, brackets, window
cut-outs, etc., were manufactured from one
piece of metal, then this would eliminate these
two corrosion problems.
This type of construction kown as MACHINED
SKIN OR INTEGRAL CONSTRUCTION -

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 Construction Methods (Metode Konstruksi) -
MACHINED SKIN / INTEGRAL STRUCTURE :

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 Construction Methods (Metode Konstruksi) -
MACHINED SKIN / INTEGRAL STRUCTURE :
 MACHINED SKIN OR INTEGRAL CONSTRUCTION – also
eliminates many of the problems associated with riveting
– i.e. Weakening the structure by drilling and producing
stress concentration areas.
• Integral construction is expensive.
Example:
Large slab (1,5m x 0,3m x20m) of Alum. Alloy – are milled
into shape by a computer controlled milling head, - working
in a similar way to a sculpture. Milling most of the metal
away to produce skin, say no more than 4 or 6 mm thick
with all the “attachments” part of the skin.

• This milling is carried out on a milling bed 40 or 50m long

using a moving gantry up to 5m high.
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 First wing skin machining of the Bombardier Global
7000 / Global 8000

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 Construction Methods (Metode Konstruksi) -
MACHINED SKIN / INTEGRAL STRUCTURE :
• The process – gives a structure with a higher
strength /weight ratio than before - with all the
advantageous relating to corrosion, stress
concentration, ...etc. That had been discussed
already.
• It also produces a “perfect “ external aerodynamic
skin.
• It is expensive, using large milling beds with
computer controlled milling heads and with 90 % of
the original metal being milled away.
[ At a large manufacturer this “ Alum. waste” is returned to the
supplier for recycling or returning back to the melting plant].
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 Construction Methods (Metode Konstruksi) -
MACHINED SKIN / INTEGRAL STRUCTURE :

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 Construction Methods (Metode Konstruksi) -
MACHINED SKIN / INTEGRAL STRUCTURE :

Milled Wing Skins – give :

Maximum Strength and Rigidity with Minimum
13/10/2016 Weight. 22
 Construction Methods (Metode Konstruksi) -
MACHINED SKIN / INTEGRAL STRUCTURE :

Figure 1-35. The skin is an integral load carrying part of

a stressed skin design.
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Construction Methods (Metode Konstruksi)
 Chemical Etching :
• The “machining” may be done by chemical
etching.
• For small amounts of metal removal the metal
may be removed by chemicals.
• The parts that do not require metal removal - are
protected by an applied protective process and the
complete part is then dipped into a bath of acid
solution.
• The solution will “eat away” at the metal it can get
at, leaving the protected metal area untouched.

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Construction Methods (Metode Konstruksi)
 Chemical Etching –(cont’d):
• At the appropriate time, the metal is removed,
the etched areas neutralized, the protection on
the protected areas removed, and the metal is
ready for its anti-corrosive treatments.
• By repeating the process several times with
different areas treated with the protective
coating, complex shapes can be produced.

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 Construction Methods
(Metode Konstruksi)
 Honeycomb construction :
• This type of construction may be used in the
manufacture of aircraft structures including
flooring and flying control surfaces.
• When a panel bends the high stresses are felt on
the outside surfaces, with little or none felt in the
middle – the same as in beam bending theory – so
why not have all the metal on the outside where it
matters.
• Having a skin made up of several layers is called
Sancwich Construction and like most things it is
not new.
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Construction Methods (Metode Konstruksi) -
Honeycomb construction
 Honeycomb construction – (cont’d):
• It was used in the construction of wooden
aircraft.
• The Mosquito (2nd World War fighter
bomber) had a fuselage skin made up of
plywood – balsa wood – plywood, all glued
together with wood glue.
*) Plywood facings with balsa
wood core.
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 Construction Methods (Metode Konstruksi) -
Honeycomb construction

DeHavilland Mosquito (2nd World War fighter bomber)

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Construction Methods (Metode Konstruksi)
- Honeycomb Construction:
• Modern sandwich construction methods
usually have:
– The outside skins of Al alloy or carbon fiber
with
– The “filling” of Aluminium or composite
honeycomb.
• These are all bonded together using the
Redux or other bonding process.

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 Construction Methods (Metode Konstruksi) -
Honeycomb construction

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 Construction Methods (Metode Konstruksi) -
Honeycomb construction

13/10/2016 Figure 7-17. Honeycomb sandwich construction. 31

Construction Methods (Metode Konstruksi) -
Honeycomb Construction:

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 Construction Methods (Metode Konstruksi) -
Honeycomb Construction:

Figure 1-37. The honeycomb panel is a staple in aircraft construction. Cores can be either
constant thickness (A) or tapered (B). Tapered core honeycomb panels are frequently used as
flight control surfaces and wing trailing edges.
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Construction Mehods (Metode Konstruksi) -
Honeycomb Construction:

Honeycomb Structure – Wing Leading Edge

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Construction Methods (Metode Konstruksi) -
Honeycomb Construction:

Honeycomb Structure – Wing Leading Edge

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 Construction Methods
(Metode Konstruksi)
 Doubler Plates :
• A Doubler Plate may be used in the aircraft
structure where there are extra stresses to be
allowed for.
• They may, of course, be milled into the structure
but they may also be riveted or bolted into
position.
• They may also be used as extra strengthening
around lightening holes in place of flanging.
• A fitted doubler plate will also provide a fail safe
type of construction.
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 Construction Methods
(Metode Konstruksi) - Doubler Plates

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 Construction Methods (Metode Konstruksi) -
Doubler Plates

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 Construction Methods (Metode Konstruksi) -
Doubler Plates

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 Construction Methods (Metode Konstruksi) -
Doubler Plates

doubler

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 Construction Methods (Metode Konstruksi) -
Doubler Plates

Doubler is used as extra strengthening around holes / openings

(e.g. lightening holes in place of flanging).
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 Fail-safe Spar Construction

Failsafe Spar: should one member of a complex structure fail,

some other member would assume the load of the failed member.
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 Construction Methods (Metode Konstruksi) -
Doubler Plates

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 Construction Methods
(Metode Konstruksi)
 Lightening Holes :
• Are Holes cut in Rib sections, Fuselage Frames,
and other Structural Parts inside the aircraft, by
the manufacturer, to decrease weight.
• To keep from weakening the member by
removal of the material, flanges are often
pressed around the holes to strengthen the
area from which the material was removed.

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 Construction Methods
(Metode Konstruksi)
 Flanged Lightening Holes :
• A flange (a small lip) – formed around the edge of
the hole, so that the whole structure is stronger
and more rigid.

 Flanged Lightening Holes :

– Reduce the weight of the structure.
– Increase the strength and rigidity.
– Allow for inspection access.
– Allow for the routing of pipelines, cables, etc.
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 Construction Methods
(Metode Konstruksi)
• Lightening Holes - should never be cut in any
structural part unless authorized.
• The Size of the Lightening Hole and the Width
of the Flange formed around the hole – are
determined by Design Specifications.
• M.S. (margins of safety) – are considered in
the specs so that the weight of the part can
be decreased and still retain the necessary
strength.

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 Construction Methods
(Metode Konstruksi) - Flanged Lightening Holes

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 Construction Methods
(Tetode Konstruksi) - Flanged Lightening Holes

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 Construction Methods
(Metode Konstruksi) - Flanged Lightening Holes
Lightening Holes – may be cut by one of the
following Methods:
(1) Punching out, if the correct size punch die* is available.
(2) Cutting out with a fly cutter mounted on a drill.
(3) Scribbling the circumference of a hole with dividers,
and drilling around the entire circumference with a
small drill, allowing enough clearance to file smooth.
(4) Scribbling the circumference of the hole with dividers,
drilling the hole inside the circumference large enough
to insert aviation snips, cutting out excess metal, and
filing smooth.

13/10/2016 *die: a machine tool for stamping 49

 Construction Methods
(Metode Konstruksi) - Flanged Lightening Holes

Flanging Lightening Holes :

a. Form the flange by using a flanging die, or
hard wood or metal form blocks.
b. Flanging die consists of two matching parts, a
female and a male die.
c. For flanging soft metal, dies can be of
hardwood, such as maple.
d. For hard metal or for more permanent use,
they should be made of steel.
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 Construction Methods
(Metode Konstruksi) - Flanged Lightening Holes

e. The pilot guide should be the same size as

the hole to be flanged, and
f. the shoulder should be the same width and
angles as the desired flange.

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 Construction Methods
(Metode Konstruksi) - Flanged Lightening Holes

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 Construction Methods
(Metode Konstruksi) - Flanged Lightening Holes
• When flanging lightening holes,
– place the material between the mating
parts of the die and
– form it by hammering or squeezing the
parts together in a vise or in an arbor press.
• The dies will work more smoothly if they are
coated with light machine oil. [Figure 4-166]

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 Construction Methods
(Metode Konstruksi) - Flanged Lightening Holes
• When flanging lightening holes,

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Figure 4-166. Lightening hole die set. 54
 Miscellaneous Infos

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Dehavilland Mosquito
• The famous British Mosquito--known to many as "Mossie"--was a
versatile aircraft used extensively during World War II.
• Constructed primarily of plywood with a balsa wood core, it had
excellent speed, altitude and range.
• First flown on November 25, 1940, the Mosquito entered
production in Mid-1941 and was produced until well after the end
of the war.
• Almost 8,000 Mossies were built in Great Britain, Canada and
Australia. Although best known for their service with the Royal Air
Force, Mosquitos were also used by several U.S. Army Air Forces
units for photo and weather reconnaissance, and as night fighters.
• It served in Europe, the Middle and Far east and on the Russian
front. In fact the Mosquito reigned supreme among General
Purpose types; and of the grand total of 7,781 Mosquitos built,
6,710 were delivered during the war years.

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