Eksperimen biasanya
mencakup kontrol , yang
dirancang untuk
meminimalkan efek
variabel selain variabel
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Dalam metode ilmiah ,
j percobaan
u adalah prosedur empiris ya
ng
g
menengahi model atau hipo
a tesis yang bersaing . [2] [3]
Catatan Para peneliti juga
B menggunakan eksperimen
a untuk menguji teori
yang ada atau hipotesis
c baru untuk mendukung
a atau membantahnya . [3] [4]
a
n Eksperimen biasanya
menguji hipotesis , yang
l merupakan harapan
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tentang bagaimana proses atau fenomena tertentu bekerja. Namun, percobaan juga "Kita harus, yaitu,
dapat bertujuan untuk menjawab pertanyaan "bagaimana-jika", tanpa harapan memulai kembali
spesifik tentang apa yang diungkapkan percobaan, atau untuk mengkonfirmasi hasil penyelidikan terhadap
sebelumnya. Jika percobaan dilakukan dengan hati-hati, hasilnya biasanya prinsip-prinsip dan
mendukung atau menyangkal hipotesis. Menurut beberapa filosofi sains , percobaan premis-premisnya,
tidak pernah bisa "membuktikan" sebuah hipotesis, itu hanya dapat menambah memulai penyelidikan
dukungan. Di sisi lain, percobaan yang memberikan contoh tandingan dapat kami dengan memeriksa
membantah teori atau hipotesis, tetapi sebuah teori selalu dapat diselamatkan hal-hal yang ada dan
dengan modifikasi ad hoc yang tepat dengan mengorbankan menyurvei kondisi benda-
kesederhanaan. Eksperimen juga harus mengendalikan faktor perancu benda yang terlihat. Kita
yang mungkin terjadi — berbagai faktor yang akan merusak keakuratan atau harus membedakan sifat-
keterulangan percobaan atau kemampuan untuk menafsirkan hasil. Perancu sifat rincian, dan
umumnya dihilangkan melalui kontrol ilmiah dan / atau, dalam percobaan acak , mengumpulkan dengan
melalui penugasan acak . induksi apa berkaitan
dengan mata ketika
Dalam teknik dan ilmu fisika, eksperimen adalah komponen utama dari metode penglihatan terjadi dan
ilmiah. Mereka digunakan untuk menguji teori dan hipotesis tentang bagaimana apa yang ditemukan dalam
proses fisik bekerja dalam kondisi tertentu (misalnya, apakah proses rekayasa cara sensasi menjadi
tertentu dapat menghasilkan senyawa kimia yang diinginkan). Biasanya, percobaan seragam, tidak berubah,
di bidang ini fokus pada replikasi prosedur yang identik dengan harapan nyata dan tidak perlu
menghasilkan hasil yang identik di setiap replikasi. Tugas acak jarang terjadi. diragukan lagi. Setelah itu
Dalam kedokteran dan ilmu sosial , prevalensi penelitian eksperimental sangat kita harus naik ke
bervariasi antar disiplin ilmu. Namun ketika digunakan, eksperimen biasanya pertanyaan dan
pertimbangan kita, secara
mengikuti bentuk uji klinis , di mana unit eksperimental (biasanya manusia
bertahap dan teratur,
individu) secara acak ditugaskan untuk kondisi perawatan atau kontrol di mana satu
mengkritik premis dan
atau lebih hasil dinilai. [5] Berbeda dengan norma-norma dalam ilmu fisika, berolahraga dengan hati-
fokusnya biasanya pada efek pengobatan rata - rata (perbedaan hasil antara hati sehubungan dengan
kelompok perlakuan dan kontrol) atau statistik uji lain yang dihasilkan oleh kesimpulan — tujuan kami
percobaan. [6] Sebuah studi tunggal biasanya tidak melibatkan replikasi percobaan, dalam semua hal yang
tetapi studi terpisah dapat dikumpulkan melalui peninjauan sistematis dan meta- kami lakukan untuk
analisis . diperiksa dan ditinjau
adalah untuk
menggunakan keadilan,
Ada berbagai perbedaan dalam praktik eksperimental di masing-masing cabang
tidak untuk mengikuti
ilmu pengetahuan . Misalnya, penelitian pertanian sering menggunakan percobaan
prasangka, dan untuk
acak (misalnya, untuk menguji efektivitas komparatif dari berbagai pupuk),
berhati-hati dalam semua
sementara ekonomi eksperimental sering melibatkan tes eksperimental perilaku
hal yang kami nilai dan
manusia berteori tanpa bergantung pada penugasan acak individu untuk kondisi
kritikkan bahwa kami
pengobatan dan kontrol.
mencari kebenaran dan
tidak terpengaruh oleh
opini Kita mungkin dengan
Sejarah cara ini akhirnya sampai
Salah satu pendekatan metodis pertama untuk eksperimen dalam arti modern pada kebenaran yang
memuaskan hati dan
terlihat dalam karya-karya ahli matematika dan sarjana Arab Ibn al-Haytham . Dia
secara bertahap dan hati-
melakukan eksperimennya di bidang optik — kembali ke masalah optik dan
hati mencapai akhir di
matematika dalam karya Ptolemy — dengan mengendalikan eksperimennya karena mana kepastian muncul;
faktor-faktor seperti kekritisan diri, ketergantungan pada hasil percobaan yang sementara melalui kritik
terlihat serta kekritisan dalam hal hasil sebelumnya. Dia dianggap sebagai salah satu dan perhatian kita dapat
cendekiawan pertama yang menggunakan metode induktif-eksperimental untuk meraih kebenaran
mencapai hasil. [7] Dalam bukunya "Optik" ia menggambarkan pendekatan baru yang menghalau
yang fundamental untuk pengetahuan dan penelitian dalam arti eksperimental:
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n aksioma [teori], dan dari aksioma yang mapan lagi eksperimen dapat dibuang sebagai hasil
baru. [11]: 101 dari kesalahan
eksperimental (beberapa
langkah prosedur pengujian
Pada abad-abad berikutnya, orang-orang yang menerapkan metode ilmiah di mungkin telah keliru
berbagai bidang membuat kemajuan dan penemuan penting. Sebagai dihilangkan untuk sampel
contoh, Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) secara akurat mengukur waktu dan itu). Paling sering, tes
bereksperimen untuk membuat pengukuran dan kesimpulan yang akurat tentang dilakukan dalam rangkap
dua atau rangkap
kecepatan benda yang jatuh. Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794), seorang ahli kimia
tiga. Kontrol positif adalah
Perancis, menggunakan eksperimen untuk menggambarkan area baru,
prosedur yang mirip
seperti pembakaran dan biokimia dan untuk mengembangkan teori konservasi dengan tes eksperimental
massa (materi). [12] Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) menggunakan metode ilmiah untuk yang sebenarnya tetapi
menyangkal teori generasi spontan yang berlaku dan untuk mengembangkan teori diketahui dari pengalaman
penyakit kuman . [13] Karena pentingnya mengendalikan variabel yang berpotensi sebelumnya untuk
mengacaukan, penggunaan percobaan laboratorium yang dirancang dengan memberikan hasil
baik lebih disukai bila memungkinkan. positif. Kontrol negatif
diketahui memberikan hasil
negatif. Kontrol positif
Sejumlah besar kemajuan dalam desain dan analisis eksperimen terjadi pada awal
menegaskan bahwa kondisi
abad ke-20, dengan kontribusi dari ahli statistik seperti Ronald Fisher (1890–
dasar percobaan dapat
1962), Jerzy Neyman (1894–1981), Oscar Kempthorne (1919–2000), Gertrude Mary
menghasilkan hasil positif,
Cox (1900–1978), dan William Gemmell Cochran (1909–1980), antara lain.
bahkan jika tidak ada
sampel eksperimental yang
Jenis percobaan sebenarnya menghasilkan
hasil positif. Kontrol negatif
menunjukkan hasil garis
dasar yang diperoleh ketika
tes tidak menghasilkan
hasil positif yang
Eksperimen dapat dikategorikan berdasarkan sejumlah dimensi, tergantung pada terukur. Paling sering nilai
norma dan standar profesional di berbagai bidang studi. Dalam beberapa disiplin kontrol negatif
ilmu (misalnya, psikologi atau ilmu politik ), 'eksperimen sejati' adalah metode diperlakukan sebagai nilai
penelitian sosial di mana ada dua jenis variabel . The variabel "latar belakang" untuk
dikurangkan dari hasil
independen dimanipulasi oleh eksperimen, dan variabel
sampel uji. Terkadang
dependen diukur. Karakteristik yang menandakan dari eksperimen yang sebenarnya
kontrol positif mengambil
adalah bahwa ia secara acak mengalokasikan subyek untuk menetralkan bias kuadran
eksperimen, dan memastikan, lebih banyak iterasi percobaan, yang dikontrolnya dari kurva standar .
untuk semua faktor pembaur . [14]
Contoh yang sering
digunakan dalam
Eksperimen terkontrol laboratorium pengajaran
adalah uji protein terkontro
Eksperimen terkontrol sering membandingkan hasil yang diperoleh dari sampel l . Siswa mungkin diberikan
eksperimental dengan sampel kontrol , yang praktis identik dengan sampel sampel cairan yang
eksperimental kecuali untuk satu aspek yang efeknya sedang diuji ( variabel mengandung jumlah
independen ). Contoh yang baik adalah uji coba narkoba. Sampel atau kelompok protein yang tidak
yang menerima obat adalah kelompok eksperimen ( kelompok perlakuan ); dan yang diketahui (untuk
menerima plasebo atau perawatan reguler akan menjadi kontrol . Dalam banyak siswa). Adalah tugas
percobaan laboratorium adalah praktik yang baik untuk memiliki mereka untuk melakukan
beberapa sampel ulangan untuk pengujian yang dilakukan dan memiliki kontrol percobaan terkontrol
positif dan kontrol negatif . Hasil dari sampel replikat sering dapat dirata-ratakan, dengan benar di mana
atau jika salah satu replikat jelas tidak konsisten dengan hasil dari sampel lain, itu mereka menentukan
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konsentrasi protein dalam sampel cairan (biasanya disebut "sampel tidak bahwa "jika saya
dikenal"). Laboratorium pengajaran akan dilengkapi dengan solusi standar protein melepaskan bola ini, itu
dengan konsentrasi protein yang diketahui. Siswa dapat membuat beberapa sampel akan jatuh ke lantai": saran
kontrol positif yang mengandung berbagai pengenceran standar protein. Sampel ini kemudian dapat diuji
kontrol negatif akan mengandung semua reagen untuk pengujian protein tetapi dengan melakukan
tidak ada protein. Dalam contoh ini, semua sampel dilakukan dalam rangkap percobaan melepaskan bola,
dua. Uji ini adalah uji kolorimetri di mana spektrofotometer dapat mengukur dan mengamati
jumlah protein dalam sampel dengan mendeteksi kompleks berwarna yang dibentuk hasilnya. Secara formal,
oleh interaksi molekul protein dan molekul zat warna yang ditambahkan. Dalam sebuah hipotesis
ilustrasi, hasil untuk sampel uji encer dapat dibandingkan dengan hasil kurva dibandingkan
standar (garis biru pada ilustrasi) untuk memperkirakan jumlah protein dalam dengan hipotesis lawannya
sampel yang tidak diketahui. atau nol ("jika saya
melepaskan bola ini, itu
Eksperimen terkontrol dapat dilakukan ketika sulit untuk secara tepat mengontrol tidak akan jatuh ke
semua kondisi dalam eksperimen. Dalam hal ini, percobaan dimulai dengan lantai"). Hipotesis nol bahwa
membuat dua atau lebih kelompok sampel yang secara probabilistik setara, yang tidak ada penjelasan atau
berarti bahwa pengukuran sifat harus serupa di antara kelompok dan bahwa daya prediksi dari fenomena
kelompok harus merespons dengan cara yang sama jika diberi perlakuan yang tersebut melalui penalaran
sama. Kesetaraan ini ditentukan oleh metode statistik yang memperhitungkan yang menjadi
jumlah variasi antara individu dan jumlah individu dalam setiap kelompok. Di
bidang-bidang seperti mikrobiologi dan kimia , di mana ada sangat sedikit variasi
antara individu dan ukuran kelompok dengan mudah dalam jutaan, metode statistik
ini sering dilewati dan hanya memecah solusi menjadi bagian yang sama
diasumsikan menghasilkan kelompok sampel yang identik.
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Eksperimen juga dapat dirancang untuk memperkirakan efek limpahan ke unit diamati dalam pengaturan
terdekat yang tidak diobati.
alami daripada di
lingkungan laboratorium
yang dibuat-buat. Karena
Eksperimen alami alasan ini, eksperimen
Istilah "eksperimen" biasanya menyiratkan eksperimen terkontrol, tetapi terkadang lapangan terkadang
eksperimen terkontrol sulit atau tidak mungkin dilakukan. Dalam hal ini para dianggap memiliki validitas
peneliti menggunakan eksperimen alami atau eksperimen semu . [15] Eksperimen eksternal yang lebih
tinggi daripada eksperimen
alami hanya mengandalkan pengamatan variabel sistem yang diteliti, bukan
laboratorium. Namun,
manipulasi hanya satu atau beberapa variabel seperti yang terjadi dalam eksperimen
seperti eksperimen alami,
terkontrol. Sedapat mungkin, mereka berusaha untuk mengumpulkan data untuk percobaan lapangan
sistem sedemikian rupa sehingga kontribusi dari semua variabel dapat ditentukan, menderita dari
dan di mana efek variasi dalam variabel tertentu tetap mendekati konstan sehingga kemungkinan kontaminasi:
efek dari variabel lain dapat dilihat. Sejauh mana hal ini dimungkinkan tergantung kondisi eksperimental
pada korelasi yang diamati antara variabel penjelas dalam data yang diamati. Ketika dapat dikontrol dengan
variabel-variabel ini tidak berkorelasi dengan baik, eksperimen alami dapat lebih presisi dan kepastian
mendekati kekuatan percobaan terkontrol. Namun, biasanya, ada beberapa korelasi di laboratorium. Namun
beberapa fenomena
antara variabel-variabel ini, yang mengurangi keandalan eksperimen alami relatif
(misalnya, partisipasi
terhadap apa yang dapat disimpulkan jika percobaan terkontrol dilakukan. Juga,
pemilih dalam pemilihan)
karena eksperimen alami biasanya terjadi di lingkungan yang tidak terkendali, tidak dapat dengan mudah
variabel dari sumber yang tidak terdeteksi tidak diukur atau dianggap konstan, dan dipelajari di laboratorium.
ini dapat menghasilkan korelasi ilusi dalam variabel yang diteliti.
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pisahkan efek perawatan (paparan) dari efek kovariat lainnya, yang sebagian besar r
belum diukur. Model matematika yang digunakan untuk menganalisis data tersebut i
harus mempertimbangkan masing-masing kovariat yang berbeda (jika diukur), dan m
e
hasilnya tidak bermakna jika kovariat tidak diacak atau dimasukkan dalam model.
n
Untuk menghindari kondisi yang membuat percobaan jauh lebih tidak berguna,
k
dokter yang melakukan uji coba medis - misalnya untuk persetujuan Administrasi
o
Makanan dan Obat-obatan AS - menghitung dan mengacak kovariat yang dapat t
diidentifikasi. Para peneliti berusaha untuk mengurangi bias penelitian a
observasional dengan metode statistik yang rumit seperti metode pencocokan skor k
kecenderungan , yang membutuhkan populasi besar subyek dan informasi luas
tentang kovariat. Hasil juga diukur bila memungkinkan (kepadatan tulang, jumlah h
beberapa sel atau zat dalam darah, kekuatan fisik atau daya tahan, dll.) Dan tidak i
didasarkan pada pendapat subjek atau pengamat profesional. Dengan cara ini, t
a
desain penelitian observasional dapat membuat hasil lebih objektif dan karenanya,
m
lebih meyakinkan.
D
e
Etika s
a
Dengan menempatkan distribusi variabel independen di bawah kendali peneliti, i
sebuah eksperimen — terutama ketika melibatkan subyek manusia — n
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109. Bibcode : 1996JR
D ScT..33..101S (https:
a //ui.adsabs.harv ard.ed
f u/abs/1996JRScT..33..
t 101S) . doi : 10.1002 /
a (SICI) 1098-2736
r (199601) 33: 1 <101 ::
AID-TEA6> 3.0.CO; 2-
p Z (http s:
e //doi.org/10.1002%2F
r %28SICI%291098-
c
2736 % 28199601%
o
2933% 3A1% 3C101%
b
3A% 3AAID-TEA6%
a
3E3.0.CO% 3B2-Z) .
a
n
P
e
r
c
o 2. Cooperstock, Fred I.
b (2009). Dinamika
a relativistik umum:
a memperluas warisan
n Einstein ke seluruh alam
semesta
j (Online-Ausg.
a Ed.). Singapura: World
Scientific. hal. 12. ISBN
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978-981-4271-16-5 .
g
k 3. Griffith, W. Thomas
a (2001). Fisika dari
fenomena sehari-hari:
p pengantar konseptual
a untuk fisika (https: //
n arc hive.org/details/phy
j sicsofeveryda00grif_0/
a page/3) (edisi ke-
n 3). Boston: McGraw-
g Hill. hlm. 3–4
(https://archive.org/det
ails /
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_0 / halaman /
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dan
1.
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en Bias 4. Wilczek,
kesetiaa Frank; Devine, Betsy
n (2006). Realitas yang
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perjalanan pikiran dan
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1. Stohr-Hunt, Patricia (1996). "Analisis Frekuensi Pengalaman Langsung dan 62. ISBN 978-981-
Prestasi Sains". Jurnal Penelitian dalam Pengajaran Sains . 33 (1): 101– 256-649-2 .
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5. Holland, Paul W. (Desember 1986). "Statistik dan Inferensial Shadish, William R
Kausal". Jurnal Asosiasi Statistik Amerika . 81 (396): 945–960. doi : 10.2307 / .; Cook, Thomas
2289064 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2289064) . JSTOR 2289064 (htt ps: D.; Campbell, Donald
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//www.jstor.org/stable/2289064) .
(2002). Desain eksperi
6. Druckman, James N .; Greene, Donald P .; Kuklinski, James H .; Lupia, Arthur, mental dan kuasi-
red. (2011). Buku pegangan Cambridge tentang ilmu politik eksperimental untuk
eksperimental . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978- inferensial kausal
0521174558 . umum (Nachdr.
Ed.). Boston: Houghton
7. El-Bizri, Nader (2005). "Perspektif Filsafat tentang Optik Alhazen". Ilmu Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-
Pengetahuan dan Filsafat Arab (Cambridge University Press) . 15 (2): 189– 61556-9. (Kutipan
218. doi : 10.1017 / S0957423905000172 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0 (http://depts.washingto
957423905000172) . n.edu/methods/reading
8. Ibn al-Haytham, Abu Ali Al-Hasan. Optik . hal. 5. s/Shadish.pdf))
9. Ibn al-Haytham, Abi Ali Al-Hasan. Dubitationes di Ptolemaeum . hal. 3. Jeremy, Teigen
(2014). "Metode
10. "Setelah pertama-tama menentukan pertanyaan sesuai dengan Eksperimental dalam
kehendaknya, pria kemudian menggunakan pengalaman, dan menekuknya Studi Militer dan
agar sesuai dengan plakatnya, membimbingnya tentang seperti seorang Veteran". Dalam
tawanan dalam sebuah prosesi." Bacon, Francis. Novum Organum , saya, Soeters,
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logy.ucdavis.edu/faculty_site s / sommerb / sommerdemo / experiment /
types.htm) . Departemen Psikologi, Universitas California Davis. Diarsipkan
dari yang asli
(http://psychology.ucdavis.edu/SommerB/sommerdemo/experiment/types.htm) Tautan
pada 19 Desember 2014.
15. Dunning 2012 eksternal
16. Hinkelmann, Klaus dan Kempthorne, Oscar (2008). Desain dan Analisis Media yang terkait
Eksperimen, Volume I: Pengantar ke Experimental Design (ed. dengan Eksperimen di
Kedua). Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-72756-9 . Wikimedia Commons
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4). New York: Norton. ISBN 978-0-393- 92972-0 . Listrik - Volume VI -
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ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-74385- 03082327/http://open bo
3. okproject.net/electricCirc
19. Bailey, RA (2008). Desain eksperimen komparatif . Cambridge: Cambridge uits/Exper/index.html)
University Press. ISBN 978- 0521683579 . Eksperimen
dalam Fisika
20. Zippelius, von Reinhold (1991). Die eksperimenierende Methode im
(http://plato.stanf
Recht . Stuttgart: Steiner. ISBN 978- 3515059015 . ord.edu/entries/p
hysics-
experiment/) dari
Stanford
Bacaan lebih lanjut Encyclopedia of
Philosophy
Dunning, Thad (2012). Eksperimen alami dalam ilmu sosial: pendekatan
berbasis desain . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-
1107698000. Diperoleh dari
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Original text
Experiments vary greatly in goal and scale, but always rely on repeatable procedure and logical
analysis of the results.
Contribute a better translation
A child may carry out basic experiments to understand gravity, while teams of
scientists may take years of systematic investigation to advance their understanding
of a phenomenon. Experiments and other types of hands-on activities are very
important to student learning in the science classroom. Experiments can raise test
scores and help a student become more engaged and interested in the material they
are learning, especially when used over time.[1] Experiments can vary from personal
and informal natural comparisons (e.g. tasting a range of chocolates to find a
favorite), to highly controlled (e.g. tests requiring complex apparatus overseen by
many scientists that hope to discover information about subatomic particles). Uses of
experiments vary considerably between the natural and human sciences.
Experiments typically include controls, which are designed to minimize the effects of variables other than the single
independent variable. This increases the reliability of the results, often through a comparison between control
measurements and the other measurements. Scientific controls are a part of the scientific method. Ideally, all variables
in an experiment are controlled (accounted for by the control measurements) and none are uncontrolled. In such an
experiment, if all controls work as expected, it is possible to conclude that the experiment works as intended, and that
results are due to the effect of the tested variable.
Contents
Overview
History
Types of experiment
Controlled experiments
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Natural experiments
Field experiments
Contrast with observational study
Ethics
Experimental method in law
See also
Notes
Further reading
External links
Overview
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In the scientific method, an experiment is an empirical procedure that arbitrates competing models or
hypotheses.[2][3] Researchers also use experimentation to test existing theories or new hypotheses to support or
disprove them.[3][4]
An experiment usually tests a hypothesis, which is an expectation about how a particular process or phenomenon
works. However, an experiment may also aim to answer a "what-if" question, without a specific expectation about
what the experiment reveals, or to confirm prior results. If an experiment is carefully conducted, the results usually
either support or disprove the hypothesis. According to some philosophies of science, an experiment can never "prove"
a hypothesis, it can only add support. On the other hand, an experiment that provides a counterexample can disprove
a theory or hypothesis, but a theory can always be salvaged by appropriate ad hoc modifications at the expense of
simplicity. An experiment must also control the possible confounding factors—any factors that would mar the accuracy
or repeatability of the experiment or the ability to interpret the results. Confounding is commonly eliminated through
scientific controls and/or, in randomized experiments, through random assignment.
In engineering and the physical sciences, experiments are a primary component of the scientific method. They are
used to test theories and hypotheses about how physical processes work under particular conditions (e.g., whether a
particular engineering process can produce a desired chemical compound). Typically, experiments in these fields focus
on replication of identical procedures in hopes of producing identical results in each replication. Random assignment
is uncommon.
In medicine and the social sciences, the prevalence of experimental research varies widely across disciplines. When
used, however, experiments typically follow the form of the clinical trial, where experimental units (usually individual
human beings) are randomly assigned to a treatment or control condition where one or more outcomes are
assessed.[5] In contrast to norms in the physical sciences, the focus is typically on the average treatment effect (the
difference in outcomes between the treatment and control groups) or another test statistic produced by the
experiment.[6] A single study typically does not involve replications of the experiment, but separate studies may be
aggregated through systematic review and meta-analysis.
There are various differences in experimental practice in each of the branches of science. For example, agricultural
research frequently uses randomized experiments (e.g., to test the comparative effectiveness of different fertilizers),
while experimental economics often involves experimental tests of theorized human behaviors without relying on
random assignment of individuals to treatment and control conditions.
History
One of the first methodical approaches to experiments in the modern sense is visible in the works of the Arab
mathematician and scholar Ibn al-Haytham. He conducted his experiments in the field of optics—going back to optical
and mathematical problems in the works of Ptolemy—by controlling his experiments due to factors such as self-
criticality, reliance on visible results of the experiments as well as a criticality in terms of earlier results. He counts as
one of the first scholars using an inductive-experimental method for achieving results.[7] In his book "Optics" he
describes the fundamentally new approach to knowledge and research in an experimental sense:
"We should, that is, recommence the inquiry into its principles and premisses, beginning our investigation with an
inspection of the things that exist and a survey of the conditions of visible objects. We should distinguish the
properties of particulars, and gather by induction what pertains to the eye when vision takes place and what is
found in the manner of sensation to be uniform, unchanging, manifest and not subject to doubt. After which we
should ascend in our inquiry and reasonings, gradually and orderly, criticizing premisses and exercising caution in
regard to conclusions—our aim in all that we make subject to inspection and review being to employ justice, not to
follow prejudice, and to take care in all that we judge and criticize that we seek the truth and not to be swayed by
opinion. We may in this way eventually come to the truth that gratifies the heart and gradually and carefully reach
the end at which certainty appears; while through criticism and caution we may seize the truth that dispels
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disagreement and resolves doubtful matters. For all that, we are not free from that human turbidity which is in the
nature of man; but we must do our best with what we possess of human power. From God we derive support in all
things."[8]
According to his explanation, a strictly controlled test execution with a sensibility for the subjectivity and susceptibility
of outcomes due to the nature of man is necessary. Furthermore, a critical view on the results and outcomes of earlier
scholars is necessary:
"It is thus the duty of the man who studies the writings of scientists, if learning the truth is his goal, to
make himself an enemy of all that he reads, and, applying his mind to the core and margins of its
content, attack it from every side. He should also suspect himself as he performs his critical
examination of it, so that he may avoid falling into either prejudice or leniency." [9]
Thus, a comparison of earlier results with the experimental results is necessary for an objective experiment—the
visible results being more important. In the end, this may mean that an experimental researcher must find enough
courage to discard traditional opinions or results, especially if these results are not experimental but results from a
logical/ mental derivation. In this process of critical consideration, the man himself should not forget that he tends to
subjective opinions—through "prejudices" and "leniency"—and thus has to be critical about his own way of building
hypotheses.
Francis Bacon (1561–1626), an English philosopher and scientist active in the 17th century, became an influential
supporter of experimental science in the English renaissance. He disagreed with the method of answering scientific
questions by deduction—similar to Ibn al-Haytham—and described it as follows: "Having first determined the
question according to his will, man then resorts to experience, and bending her to conformity with his placets, leads
her about like a captive in a procession."[10] Bacon wanted a method that relied on repeatable observations, or
experiments. Notably, he first ordered the scientific method as we understand it today.
There remains simple experience; which, if taken as it comes, is called accident, if sought for,
experiment. The true method of experience first lights the candle [hypothesis], and then by means of the
candle shows the way [arranges and delimits the experiment]; commencing as it does with experience
duly ordered and digested, not bungling or erratic, and from it deducing axioms [theories], and from
established axioms again new experiments.[11]:101
In the centuries that followed, people who applied the scientific method in different areas made important advances
and discoveries. For example, Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) accurately measured time and experimented to make
accurate measurements and conclusions about the speed of a falling body. Antoine Lavoisier (1743–1794), a French
chemist, used experiment to describe new areas, such as combustion and biochemistry and to develop the theory of
conservation of mass (matter).[12] Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) used the scientific method to disprove the prevailing
theory of spontaneous generation and to develop the germ theory of disease.[13] Because of the importance of
controlling potentially confounding variables, the use of well-designed laboratory experiments is preferred when
possible.
A considerable amount of progress on the design and analysis of experiments occurred in the early 20th century, with
contributions from statisticians such as Ronald Fisher (1890–1962), Jerzy Neyman (1894–1981), Oscar Kempthorne
(1919–2000), Gertrude Mary Cox (1900–1978), and William Gemmell Cochran (1909–1980), among others.
Types of experiment
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Experiments might be categorized according to a number of dimensions, depending upon professional norms and
standards in different fields of study. In some disciplines (e.g., psychology or political science), a 'true experiment' is a
method of social research in which there are two kinds of variables. The independent variable is manipulated by the
experimenter, and the dependent variable is measured. The signifying characteristic of a true experiment is that it
randomly allocates the subjects to neutralize experimenter bias, and ensures, over a large number of iterations of the
experiment, that it controls for all confounding factors.[14]
Controlled experiments
A controlled experiment often compares the results obtained from experimental samples against control samples,
which are practically identical to the experimental sample except for the one aspect whose effect is being tested (the
independent variable). A good example would be a drug trial. The sample or group receiving the drug would be the
experimental group (treatment group); and the one receiving the placebo or regular treatment would be the control
one. In many laboratory experiments it is good practice to have several replicate samples for the test being performed
and have both a positive control and a negative control. The results from replicate samples can often be averaged, or if
one of the replicates is obviously inconsistent with the results from the other samples, it can be discarded as being the
result of an experimental error (some step of the test procedure may have been mistakenly omitted for that sample).
Most often, tests are done in duplicate or triplicate. A positive control is a procedure similar to the actual experimental
test but is known from previous experience to give a positive result. A negative control is known to give a negative
result. The positive control confirms that the basic conditions of the experiment were able to produce a positive result,
even if none of the actual experimental samples produce a positive result. The negative control demonstrates the base-
line result obtained when a test does not produce a measurable positive result. Most often the value of the negative
control is treated as a "background" value to subtract from the test sample results. Sometimes the positive control
takes the quadrant of a standard curve.
An example that is often used in teaching laboratories is a controlled protein assay. Students might be given a fluid
sample containing an unknown (to the student) amount of protein. It is their job to correctly perform a controlled
experiment in which they determine the concentration of protein in the fluid sample (usually called the "unknown
sample"). The teaching lab would be equipped with a protein standard solution with a known protein concentration.
Students could make several positive control samples containing various dilutions of the protein standard. Negative
control samples would contain all of the reagents for the protein assay but no protein. In this example, all samples are
performed in duplicate. The assay is a colorimetric assay in which a spectrophotometer can measure the amount of
protein in samples by detecting a colored complex formed by the interaction of protein molecules and molecules of an
added dye. In the illustration, the results for the diluted test samples can be compared to the results of the standard
curve (the blue line in the illustration) to estimate the amount of protein in the unknown sample.
Controlled experiments can be performed when it is difficult to exactly control all the conditions in an experiment. In
this case, the experiment begins by creating two or more sample groups that are probabilistically equivalent, which
means that measurements of traits should be similar among the groups and that the groups should respond in the
same manner if given the same treatment. This equivalency is determined by statistical methods that take into account
the amount of variation between individuals and the number of individuals in each group. In fields such as
microbiology and chemistry, where there is very little variation between individuals and the group size is easily in the
millions, these statistical methods are often bypassed and simply splitting a solution into equal parts is assumed to
produce identical sample groups.
Once equivalent groups have been formed, the experimenter tries to treat them identically except for the one variable
that he or she wishes to isolate. Human experimentation requires special safeguards against outside variables such as
the placebo effect. Such experiments are generally double blind, meaning that neither the volunteer nor the researcher
knows which individuals are in the control group or the experimental group until after all of the data have been
collected. This ensures that any effects on the volunteer are due to the treatment itself and are not a response to the
knowledge that he is being treated.
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In human experiments, researchers may give a subject (person) a stimulus that the subject responds to. The goal of the
experiment is to measure the response to the stimulus by a test method.
Experiments can be also designed to estimate spillover effects onto nearby untreated units.
Natural experiments
The term "experiment" usually implies a controlled experiment, but sometimes controlled experiments are
prohibitively difficult or impossible. In this case researchers resort to natural experiments or quasi-experiments.[15]
Natural experiments rely solely on observations of the variables of the system under study, rather than manipulation
of just one or a few variables as occurs in controlled experiments. To the degree possible, they attempt to collect data
for the system in such a way that contribution from all variables can be determined, and where the effects of variation
in certain variables remain approximately constant so that the effects of other variables can be discerned. The degree
to which this is possible depends on the observed correlation between explanatory variables in the observed data.
When these variables are not well correlated, natural experiments can approach the power of controlled experiments.
Usually, however, there is some correlation between these variables, which reduces the reliability of natural
experiments relative to what could be concluded if a controlled experiment were performed. Also, because natural
experiments usually take place in uncontrolled environments, variables from undetected sources are neither measured
nor held constant, and these may produce illusory correlations in variables under study.
Much research in several science disciplines, including economics, political science, geology, paleontology, ecology,
meteorology, and astronomy, relies on quasi-experiments. For example, in astronomy it is clearly impossible, when
testing the hypothesis "Stars are collapsed clouds of hydrogen", to start out with a giant cloud of hydrogen, and then
perform the experiment of waiting a few billion years for it to form a star. However, by observing various clouds of
hydrogen in various states of collapse, and other implications of the hypothesis (for example, the presence of various
spectral emissions from the light of stars), we can collect data we require to support the hypothesis. An early example
of this type of experiment was the first verification in the 17th century that light does not travel from place to place
instantaneously, but instead has a measurable speed. Observation of the appearance of the moons of Jupiter were
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slightly delayed when Jupiter was farther from Earth, as opposed to when Jupiter was closer to Earth; and this
phenomenon was used to demonstrate that the difference in the time of appearance of the moons was consistent with
a measurable speed.
Field experiments
Field experiments are so named to distinguish them from laboratory experiments, which enforce scientific control by
testing a hypothesis in the artificial and highly controlled setting of a laboratory. Often used in the social sciences, and
especially in economic analyses of education and health interventions, field experiments have the advantage that
outcomes are observed in a natural setting rather than in a contrived laboratory environment. For this reason, field
experiments are sometimes seen as having higher external validity than laboratory experiments. However, like natural
experiments, field experiments suffer from the possibility of contamination: experimental conditions can be controlled
with more precision and certainty in the lab. Yet some phenomena (e.g., voter turnout in an election) cannot be easily
studied in a laboratory.
A particular problem with observational studies involving human subjects is the great difficulty attaining fair
comparisons between treatments (or exposures), because such studies are prone to selection bias, and groups
receiving different treatments (exposures) may differ greatly according to their covariates (age, height, weight,
medications, exercise, nutritional status, ethnicity, family medical history, etc.). In contrast, randomization implies
that for each covariate, the mean for each group is expected to be the same. For any randomized trial, some variation
from the mean is expected, of course, but the randomization ensures that the experimental groups have mean values
that are close, due to the central limit theorem and Markov's inequality. With inadequate randomization or low sample
size, the systematic variation in covariates between the treatment groups (or exposure groups) makes it difficult to
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separate the effect of the treatment (exposure) from the effects of the other covariates, most of which have not been
measured. The mathematical models used to analyze such data must consider each differing covariate (if measured),
and results are not meaningful if a covariate is neither randomized nor included in the model.
To avoid conditions that render an experiment far less useful, physicians conducting medical trials—say for U.S. Food
and Drug Administration approval—quantify and randomize the covariates that can be identified. Researchers attempt
to reduce the biases of observational studies with complicated statistical methods such as propensity score matching
methods, which require large populations of subjects and extensive information on covariates. Outcomes are also
quantified when possible (bone density, the amount of some cell or substance in the blood, physical strength or
endurance, etc.) and not based on a subject's or a professional observer's opinion. In this way, the design of an
observational study can render the results more objective and therefore, more convincing.
Ethics
By placing the distribution of the independent variable(s) under the control of the researcher, an experiment—
particularly when it involves human subjects—introduces potential ethical considerations, such as balancing benefit
and harm, fairly distributing interventions (e.g., treatments for a disease), and informed consent. For example, in
psychology or health care, it is unethical to provide a substandard treatment to patients. Therefore, ethical review
boards are supposed to stop clinical trials and other experiments unless a new treatment is believed to offer benefits as
good as current best practice.[19] It is also generally unethical (and often illegal) to conduct randomized experiments
on the effects of substandard or harmful treatments, such as the effects of ingesting arsenic on human health. To
understand the effects of such exposures, scientists sometimes use observational studies to understand the effects of
those factors.
Even when experimental research does not directly involve human subjects, it may still present ethical concerns. For
example, the nuclear bomb experiments conducted by the Manhattan Project implied the use of nuclear reactions to
harm human beings even though the experiments did not directly involve any human subjects.
See also
Black box experimentation
Design of experiments
Experimental physics
List of experiments
Long-term experiment
Concept development and experimentation
Allegiance bias
Experimentum crucis
Notes
1. Stohr-Hunt, Patricia (1996). "An Analysis of Frequency of Hands-on Experience and Science Achievement".
Journal of Research in Science Teaching. 33 (1): 101–109. Bibcode:1996JRScT..33..101S (https://ui.adsabs.harv
ard.edu/abs/1996JRScT..33..101S). doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098-2736(199601)33:1<101::AID-TEA6>3.0.CO;2-Z (http
s://doi.org/10.1002%2F%28SICI%291098-2736%28199601%2933%3A1%3C101%3A%3AAID-TEA6%3E3.0.C
O%3B2-Z).
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2. Cooperstock, Fred I. (2009). General relativistic dynamics : extending Einstein's legacy throughout the universe
(Online-Ausg. ed.). Singapore: World Scientific. p. 12. ISBN 978-981-4271-16-5.
3. Griffith, W. Thomas (2001). The physics of everyday phenomena : a conceptual introduction to physics (https://arc
hive.org/details/physicsofeveryda00grif_0/page/3) (3rd ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill. pp. 3–4 (https://archive.org/det
ails/physicsofeveryda00grif_0/page/3). ISBN 0-07-232837-1.
4. Wilczek, Frank; Devine, Betsy (2006). Fantastic realities : 49 mind journeys and a trip to Stockholm. New Jersey:
World Scientific. pp. 61–62. ISBN 978-981-256-649-2.
5. Holland, Paul W. (December 1986). "Statistics and Causal Inference". Journal of the American Statistical
Association. 81 (396): 945–960. doi:10.2307/2289064 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2289064). JSTOR 2289064 (htt
ps://www.jstor.org/stable/2289064).
6. Druckman, James N.; Greene, Donald P.; Kuklinski, James H.; Lupia, Arthur, eds. (2011). Cambridge handbook of
experimental political science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521174558.
7. El-Bizri, Nader (2005). "A Philosophical Perspective on Alhazen's Optics". Arabic Sciences and Philosophy
(Cambridge University Press). 15 (2): 189–218. doi:10.1017/S0957423905000172 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0
957423905000172).
8. Ibn al-Haytham, Abu Ali Al-Hasan. Optics. p. 5.
9. Ibn al-Haytham, Abi Ali Al-Hasan. Dubitationes in Ptolemaeum. p. 3.
10. "Having first determined the question according to his will, man then resorts to experience, and bending her to
conformity with his placets, leads her about like a captive in a procession." Bacon, Francis. Novum Organum, i,
63. Quoted in Durant 2012, p. 170.
11. Durant, Will (2012). The story of philosophy : the lives and opinions of the great philosophers of the western world
(https://archive.org/details/storyofphilosophdura00dura) (2nd ed.). New York: Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-
671-69500-2.
12. Bell, Madison Smartt (2005). Lavoisier in the Year One: The Birth of a New Science in an Age of Revolution (http
s://archive.org/details/lavoisierinyearo00madi). W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0393051551.
13. Brock, Thomas D, ed. (1988). Pasteur and Modern Science (New illustrated ed.). Springer. ISBN 978-
3540501015.
14. "Types of experiments" (https://web.archive.org/web/20141219220204/http://psychology.ucdavis.edu/faculty_site
s/sommerb/sommerdemo/experiment/types.htm). Department of Psychology, University of California Davis.
Archived from the original (http://psychology.ucdavis.edu/SommerB/sommerdemo/experiment/types.htm) on 19
December 2014.
15. Dunning 2012
16. Hinkelmann, Klaus and Kempthorne, Oscar (2008). Design and Analysis of Experiments, Volume I: Introduction to
Experimental Design (Second ed.). Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-72756-9.
17. Freedman, David; Pisani, Robert; Purves, Roger (2007). Statistics (4th ed.). New York: Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-
92972-0.
18. Freedman, David A. (2009). Statistical models : theory and practice (Revised ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-74385-3.
19. Bailey, R.A. (2008). Design of comparative experiments. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-
0521683579.
20. Zippelius, von Reinhold (1991). Die experimentierende Methode im Recht. Stuttgart: Steiner. ISBN 978-
3515059015.
Further reading
Dunning, Thad (2012). Natural experiments in the social sciences : a design-based approach. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1107698000.
Shadish, William R.; Cook, Thomas D.; Campbell, Donald T. (2002). Experimental and quasi-experimental
designs for generalized causal inference (Nachdr. ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-61556-9. (Excerpts
(http://depts.washington.edu/methods/readings/Shadish.pdf))
Jeremy, Teigen (2014). "Experimental Methods in Military and Veteran Studies". In Soeters, Joseph; Shields,
Patricia; Rietjens, Sebastiaan (eds.). Routledge Handbook of Research Methods in Military Studies. New York:
Routledge. pp. 228–238.
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External links
Media related to Experiments at Wikimedia Commons
Lessons In Electric Circuits – Volume VI – Experiments (https://web.archive.org/web/20120603082327/http://open
bookproject.net/electricCircuits/Exper/index.html)
Experiment in Physics (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/physics-experiment/) from Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy
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