Literatur Laporan Modul 3

Universal indicator and the pH scale

Universal indicator is supplied as a solution or as universal indicator paper. It is a mixture of
several different indicators. Unlike litmus, universal indicator can show us how strongly
acidic or alkaline a solution is, not just that the solution is acidic or alkaline. This is measured
using the pH scale, which runs from pH 0 to pH 14.

Universal indicator has many different colour changes, from red for strongly acidic solutions
to dark purple for strongly alkaline solutions. In the middle, neutral pH 7 is indicated by
green.

Colour chart of universal indicator colours at different pH values

When you use universal indicator paper, you get more accurate results if you only put a small
spot of the test solution on the paper, and then leave the colour to develop for about 30
seconds before comparing it with the colour chart.

These are the important points about the pH scale:

 neutral solutions are pH 7 exactly

 acidic solutions have pH values less than 7
 alkaline solutions have pH values more than 7
 the closer to pH 0 you go, the more strongly acidic a solution is
 the closer to pH 14 you go, the more strongly alkaline a solution is

https://www.bbc.com/bitesize/guidesu/z89jq6f/revision/1

Aturan dalam penulisan reaksi ion bersih adalah sebagai berikut:

1. Menuliskan reaksi ionnya.

a. Zat berupa elektrolit kuat dinyatakan oleh ion-ionya.

Perkecualian adalah untuk elektrolit kuat mengendap di mana zat dinyatakan oleh rumus
kimianya.
Contoh reaksi antara timbale(II) nitrat Pb(NO3)2 (elektrolit kuat) dengan kalium iodide KI
(elektrolit kuat) menghasilkan timbale(II) iodide PbI2 (elektrolit kuat mengendap) dan kalium
nitrat KNO3 (elektrolit kuat)
Reaksinya adalah sebagai berikut:
 Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + 2KI (aq) --> PbI2 (s) + 2KNO3 (aq)
 
Reaksi ion adalah sebagai berikut:
Pb2+ (aq) + 2NO3- (aq) + 2K+ (aq) + 2I- (aq) --> PbI2 (s) + 2K+ (aq) + 2NO3- (aq)
Reaksi ion bersih:
Pb2+ (aq) + 2I- (aq) --> PbI2 (s)

b. Zat berupa elektrolit lemah dinyatakan oleh rumus kimianya.

Contoh reaksi antara asam asetat CH3COOH (elektrolit lemah) dengan natrium hidroksida
NaOH (elektrolit kuat) menghasilkan natrium asetat CH3COONa (elektrolit kuat) dan air H2O
(elektrolit lemah)
Reaksinya adalah sebagai berikut:
CH3COOH (aq) + NaOH (aq) --> CH3COONa (aq) + H2O (l)
 
Reaksi ion adalah sebagai berikut:
CH3COOH (aq) + Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq) --> Na+ (aq) + CH3COO- (aq) + H2O (l)
Reaksi ion bersih:
CH3COOH (aq) + OH- (aq) --> CH3COO- (aq) + H2O (l)

https://www.jejaringkimia.web.id/2011/03/aturan-penulisan-reaksi-ion-bersih.html

E Chatelier's principle states that if a chemical dynamic equilibrium is disturbed by

changing the conditions (concentration, temperature, volume or pressure), the position of
equilibrium moves to counteract the imposed change. So if more reactant is added, the
equilibrium shifts to the right in order to consume that extra reactant, which results in more
product; also if the product is removed from the system, the equilibrium shifts to the right
completely increasing the yield.

     Yellow chromate and orange dichromate are in equilibrium with each other in aqueous
solution. The more acidic the solution, the more the equilibrium is shifted to the left towards
the dichromate ion. As hydrochloric acid is added to the chromate solution, the yellow color
turns to orange. Increasing the hydrogen ion concentration is shifting the equilibrium to the
left in accordance with Le Chatelier's principle, where we expect the reaction to try remove
some of the H+ we have added by reacting with the CrO42-, and yielding more Cr2O72- which
we observe as color change.

     When sodium hydroxide is added to the dichromate solution, the orange color turns back
to yellow, hydroxide ions react with hydrogen ions forming water, driving the equilibrium to
the right (OH- removes H+ ions by neutralizing them and the system acts to counteract the
change) and further shifting the color. We can observe that the addition of hydroxide ions
promotes the conversion of dichromate to chromate.

     Acids and bases are added to a system so as to shift the position of a chemical equilibrium.
The ions have different colors, so that changes are detected visually. Yellow chromate ion
turns orange by addition of acid, while the orange dichromate in reaction with bases turns
yellow. The equilibrium depends on the acidity of the solution, so the color in this case is pH
dependent.
http://www.chem-toddler.com/chemical-equilibrium/chromatedichromate.html