1. Melissa buys an iPod for $120 and gets consumer surplus of $80.
a. What is her willingness to pay?
b. If she had bought the iPod on sale for $90, what would her consumer
surplus have been?
c. If the price of an iPod were $250, what would her consumer surplus
have been?
Answer
a. Surplus konsumen sama dengan kesediaan untuk membayar dikurangi
harga yang dibayarkan. Oleh karena itu, kesediaan Melissa untuk
membayar harus $200 ($120 + $80).
b. Surplus konsumennya dengan harga $90 akan menjadi $200 - $90 =
$110.
c. Jika harga iPod adalah $250, Melissa tidak akan membelinya karena harganya
lebih besar dari kesediaannya untuk membayar. Karena itu, dia tidak akan menerima
surplus konsumen.
Answer:
Table permintaan bert
Price Quantity Demanded
Lebih dari 7 0
5 sampai 7 1
3 sampai 5 2
1 sampai 3 3
1 atau kurang 4
B. Jika sebotol air berharga $4, Bart membeli 2 botol air. Surplus
konsumen ditunjukkan sebagai area A dalam diagram. Dia menilai botol
air pertama seharga $7, tetapi hanya membayar $4 dan surplus konsumen
seharga $3. Dia menilai botol air keduanya seharga $5, tetapi hanya
membayar $4 dan surplus konsumennya $1. Oleh karena itu, total surplus
konsumen Burt adalah $3 + $1 = $4, yang merupakan wilayah A dalam
diagram.
C. Jika harga sebotol air turun dari $4 menjadi $2, Bart membeli 3 botol
air dengan kelipatan 1. Surplus konsumsinya terdiri dari area A dan B
pada diagram, dengan peningkatan jumlah area B. Dia memiliki
konsumsi surplus $5 dari botol pertama (nilai $7 dikurangi harga $2) dan
$3 dari botol kedua (nilai $5 dikurangi $2). Yang ketiga (nilai $3
dikurangi nilai $2-nya) memberikan total surplus konsumen sebesar $9.
Oleh karena itu, jika harga sebotol air turun dari $4 menjadi $2, surplus
konsumen meningkat sebesar $5 (sesuai dengan wilayah B).
C. Ketika harga air minum kemasan naik dari $4 menjadi $6, Arnie
menjual tiga botol air dan menaikkan harga satu botol. Surplus
produsennya terdiri dari daerah A dan B dalam diagram dan ditambah
dengan daerah B. Surplus produsen untuk botol pertama adalah $5
(harga $6 dikurangi biaya $1) dan dari botol kedua adalah $3 (harga
$6 dikurangi biaya). $3), $1 dari botol, dan ketiga ($6 harga
dikurangi $5 harga), membuat total surplus produsen $9. Jika harga
sebotol air meningkat dari $4 menjadi $6, surplus produsen meningkat
sebesar $5 (ukuran wilayah B).
6. Consider a market in which Bert from Problem 4 is the buyer and Ernie
from Problem 5 is the seller.
a. Use Ernie’s supply schedule and Bert’s demand schedule to find the
quantity supplied and quantity demanded at prices of $2, $4, and $6.
Which of these prices brings supply and demand into equilibrium?
b. What are consumer surplus, producer surplus, and total surplus in this
equilibrium?
c. If Ernie produced and Bert consumed one fewer bottle of water, what
would happen to total surplus?
d. If Ernie produced and Bert consumed one additional bottle of water,
what would happen to total surplus?
Answer
A. Dari table penawaran ernie dan tabel permintaan bert, kuantitas
permintaan dan penawaran adalah
Price Qs Qd
2 1 3
4 2 2
6 3 1
7. The cost of producing flat-screen TVs has fallen over the past decade.
Let’s consider some implications of this fact.
a. Draw a supply-and-demand diagram to show the effect of falling
production costs on the price and quantity of flat-screen TVs sold.
b. In your diagram, show what happens to consumer surplus and producer
surplus.
c. Suppose the supply of flat-screen TVs is very elastic. Who benefits
most from falling production costs—consumers or producers of these
TVs?
Answer
A. Efek dari penurunan biaya produksi di pasar untuk stereo
menghasilkan pergeseran ke kanan dalam kurva penawaran, seperti
yang ditunjukkan pada Gambar 11. Akibatnya, harga kesetimbangan
menurun dan kuantitas kesetimbangan meningkat.
Answer:
A. Gambar 17 mengilustrasikan permintaan akan perawatan medis. Jika
setiap prosedur memiliki harga $ 100, jumlah yang diminta akan menjadi
Q1Prosedur
Chapter 8
1. Untuk suatu perekonomian secara keseluruhan, pendapatan pasti sama
dengan pengeluaran. Hal ini terjadi karena setiap transaksi melibatkan dua
pihak: pembeli dan penjual. Besarnya pendapatan nasional suatu negara
merupakan salah satu tolak ukur kemakmuran negara.
2. Yang berkontribusi lebih banyak untuk PDB adalah produksi mobil mewah
dikarenakan PDB menghitung nilai pasar dari barang dan jasa jadi yang
diproduksi di dalam negeri dalam period tertentu dalam kasus ini nilai
pasar mobil mewah lebih tinggi dari nilai pasar mobil murah sehingga mobil
mewah lebih berkontribusi terhadap PDB.
5. Konsumsi privat
Komponen ini menghitung konsumsi dari individu atau rumah tangga untuk
sejumlah jenis barang, di antaranya:
a. Durable Goods yaitu barang tahan lama atau tidak mudah rusak yang
biasanya memiliki umur relatif panjang atau lebih dari 3 tahun.
Contohnya motor, mobil, alat elektronik dan lain-lain namun tak
termasuk pembelian rumah baru.
Investasi
Lalu, komponen kedua dari PDB adalah investasi yang menghitung suatu
pengeluaran untuk barang modal. Misalnya pembelian rumah, pembangunan
pabrik baru, program baru, dan beberapa jenis investasi lainnya.
Pengeluaran pemerintah
Ekspor bersih
6. Karena PDB riil tidak dipengaruhi oleh perubahan harga, perubahan PDB riil
hanya mencerminkan perubahan jumlah yang diproduksi.Tujuan para ekonom
menghitung PDB adalah untuk mengukur jalannya perekonomian, PDB riil
mencerminkan kemampuan perekonomian untuk memenuhi kebutuhan dan
hasrat orang sehingga PDB Riil menjadi ukuran kesehatan ekonomi yang lebih
baik daripada PDB nominal.
7. jadi PDB nominal:
2007 ($2 per roti x100 roti ) = $200
2008 ($3 per roti x 200 roti) = $600
Presentase dari PDB nominal= 200%
Perhitungan deflator:
Deflator PDB =PDB nominalX 100
PDB riil
2007 ($200/$200) x 100 =$100
2008 ($600/$400) x 100 = $150
8. Sangat diperlukan suatu negara untuk memiliki PDB yang tinggi karena
masyarakat akan dapat menikmati lebih banyak barang dan jasa. Dan
kesejahteraan perekonomian menjadi lebih sehat. Tetapi GDP bukan satu-
satunya ukuran kesejahteraan yang penting.
Soal aplikasi
1. Komponen PDB apa (jika ada) yang dapat terpengaaruh oleh transaksi-
transaksi berikut?Jelaskana. Sebuah keluarga membeli lemari es baru.
b. Bibi Santhi membeli rumah baru. = (Investasi) Karena rumah tidak mengalami
depresiasi.
3. Karena dalam PDB, komponen yang dimasukkan adalah produk yang saat ini
diproduksibukan barang bekas yang dijual kembali karena secara tidak langsung
barang bekas yangdijual kembali akan menurunkan nilai jual
2014 : 1×200+2×100=400
2015 : 2×200+4×100=800
2014 : 1×200+2×100=400
PDB deflator
PDB deflator :
c) Kesejahteraan ekonomi pada tahun 2014 atau 2015 tidaklah menjadi lebih
baik ataupun menjadi lebih buruk. Pada tahun 2014 atau 2015 memiliki
jumlah PDB riil yang sama sehingga hal tersebut tidak menunjukkan
kenaikan maupun penurunan pada PDB riil. Sedangkan dalam kesejahteraan
ekonomi dilihat dari PDB riil yang mengalami kenaikan karena hal tersebut
memungkinkan dari standar hidup rata-rata menjadi meningkat, karena
memungkinkan orang untuk dapat memenuhi lebih banyak kebutuhan mereka
5.
f. Untuk ekonomi yang baik, persentase tingkat pertumbuhan PDB riil haruslah
sama dengan tingkat pertumbuhan produksi. Demikian pula, tingkat inflasi yang
diukur dengan deflator PDB sama dengan tingkat inflasi biasa selama suatu
periode.
6.
f.Tingkat pertumbuhan PDB nominal adalah 6,12% sedangkan tingkat
pertumbuhan PDBriil adalah 1,96%. Tingkat pertumbuhan PDB nominal lebih
tinggi dari tingkatpertumbuhan PDB riil karena tingkat pertumbuhan PDB riil
tidak mengambilkeuntungan dalam PDB sedangkan nominal mengambil
keuntungan.
7.
8. a. Salah satu metode yang dapat digunakan untuk menentukan nilai PDB
suatu negara adalah dengan pendekatan pengeluaran.
Saat menghitung nilai PDB, produk antara tidak termasuk dalam penentuan
PDB. Ini berarti bahwa satu-satunya jumlah yang akan ditambahkan dalam
perhitungan PDB adalah $180.
Nilai tambah ketiga individu tersebut sama dengan PDB yang dihitung.
c. Metode nilai tambah adalah metode lain yang dapat digunakan untuk
menentukan nilai PDB suatu negara. Semua hal sama, metode nilai tambah
harus sama dengan PDB negara.
9. Di Indonesia PDB merupakan semua item yang produksi dalam suatu
perekonomian dandijual secara legal di pasar. Jadi item yang di produksi dan di
konsumsi di rumah serta tidakpernah di transaksikan di pasar tidak akan
dihitung dalam PDB, hal inilah yang menyebabkanrendahnya jumlah PDB
Indonesia di bandingkan AS.
11. a) Barry menyumbang PDB sebesar $400 karena telah menyediakan jasa
$ 400 - $ 50 - $ 30 = $ 320
Chapter 9
QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW
1. What does the domestic price that prevails without international trade tell us
about a nation’s comparative advantage?
Answer: If the domestic price that prevails without international trade is above
the world price, the country does not have a comparative advantage in
producing the good. If the domestic price is below the world price, the country
has a comparative advantage in producing the good.
2. When does a country become an exporter of a good? An importer?
Answer: A country will export a good for which its domestic price is lower
than the prevailing world price. Thus, if a country has a comparative advantage
in producing a good, it will become an exporter when trade is allowed. A
country will import a product for which its domestic price is greater than the
prevailing world price. Thus, if a country does not have a comparative
advantage in producing a good, it will become an importer when trade is
allowed.
Answer: The arguments given to support trade restrictions are: (1) Trade
destroys jobs; (2) Industries threatened with competition may be vital for
national security; (3) New industries need trade restrictions to help them get
started; (4) Some countries unfairly subsidize their firms, so competition isn’t
fair; and (5) Trade restrictions can be useful bargaining chips. Economists
disagree with these arguments: (1) Trade may destroy some jobs, but it creates
other jobs; (2) Arguments about national security tend to be exaggerated; (3)
The government cannot easily identify new industries that are worth protecting;
(4) If countries subsidize their exports, doing so simply benefits consumers in
importing countries; and (5) Bargaining over trade is a risky business, since it
may backfire, making the country worse off without trade.
a. Assuming that Canadian imports of wine are a small part of total world wine
production, draw a graph for the Canadian market for wine under free trade.
Identify consumer surplus, producer surplus, and total surplus in an appropriate
table.
Answer: Figure 5 illustrates the Canadian market for wine, where the world
price of wine is P1. The following table illustrates the results under the heading
“P1.”
Answer: The shift in the Gulf Stream destroys some of the grape harvest,
raising the world price of wine to P2. The table shows the effects on consumer,
producer, and total surplus under the heading “P2,” and the change in the
surplus measures under the heading “Change.” Consumers lose, producers win,
and Canada as a whole is worse off
Answer:
d. Government revenue is E.
Answer: For a country that imports clothing, the effects of a decline in the
world price are shown in Figure 3. The initial price is Pw1 and the initial level
of imports is Q d 1 – Q s 1. The new world price is PW2 and the new level of
imports is Q d 2 – Q s 2. The table below shows the changes in consumer
surplus, producer surplus, and total surplus. Domestic consumers are made
better off, while domestic producers are made worse off. Total surplus rises by
areas D + E + F.
b. Now draw an appropriate diagram to show how this change in price affects
consumer surplus, producer surplus, and total surplus in a nation that exports
clothing, such as the Dominican Republic.
Answer: For a country that exports clothing, the effects of a decline in the
world price are shown in Figure 4. The initial price is Pw1 and the initial level
of exports is Q s 1 – Q d 1. The new world price is Pw2 and the new level of
exports is Q s 2 – Q d 2. The table below shows the changes in consumer
surplus, producer surplus, and total surplus. Domestic consumers are made
better off, while domestic producers are made worse off. Total surplus falls by
area D.
c. Compare your answers to parts (a) and (b). What are the similarities and what
are the differences? Which country should be concerned about the expansion of
the Chinese textile industry? Which country should be applauding it? Explain.
Answer: Overall, importing countries benefit from the fall in the world price of
clothing, while exporting countries are harmed.
a. Imagine that you are a lobbyist for timber, an established industry suffering
from low-priced foreign competition, and you are trying to get Congress to pass
trade restrictions. Which two or three of the five arguments discussed in the
chapter do you think would be most persuasive to the average member of
Congress? Explain your reasoning.
b. Now assume you are an astute student of economics (not a hard assumption,
we hope). Although all the arguments for restricting trade have their
shortcomings, name the two or three arguments that seem to make the most
economic sense to you. For each, describe the economic rationale for and
against these arguments for trade restrictions
5. The nation of Textilia does not allow imports of clothing. In its equilibrium
without trade, a T-shirt costs $20, and the equilibrium quantity is 3 million T-
shirts. One day, after reading Adam Smith’s The Wealth of Nations while on
vacation, the president decides to open the Textilian market to international
trade. The market price of a T-shirt falls to the world price of $16. The number
of T-shirts consumed in Textilia rises to 4 million, while the number of T-shirts
produced declines to 1 million.
a. Illustrate the situation just described in a graph. Your graph should show all
the numbers.
b. Calculate the change in consumer surplus, producer surplus, and total surplus
that results from opening up trade. (Hint: Recall that the area of a triangle is ½ 3
base 3 height.)
6. China is a major producer of grains, such as wheat, corn, and rice. Some
years ago, the Chinese government, concerned that grain exports were driving
up food prices for domestic consumers, imposed a tax on grain exports.
Answer: Consumer surplus increases by the amount A (see Figure 9), producer
surplus decreases by the amount A + B + C + D, and government revenue is
equal to area C
Answer: Total welfare decreases by the deadweight loss of the export tax,
which is equal to B + D
7. Consider a country that imports a good from abroad. For each of following
statements, state whether it is true or false. Explain your answer.
a. “The greater the elasticity of demand, the greater the gains from trade.”
Answer: False. Area B in Figure 10 is still greater than zero even if demand is
vertical (perfectly inelastic).
Answer: False. In fact, all gains from trade go to consumers when we only
consider one market at a time.
8. Having rejected a tariff on textiles (a tax on imports), the president of Isoland
is now considering the samesized tax on textile consumption (including both
imported and domestically produced textiles).
a. Using Figure 4, identify the quantity consumed and the quantity produced in
Isoland under a textile consumption tax.
Answer: Using Figure 9.4 from the text, the quantity demanded will fall to Q2
D , the same quantity demanded under the tariff. However, quantity supplied
will not change because the price sellers receive will be the world price. Thus,
quantity supplied will remain at Q1 S .
b. Construct a table similar to that in Figure 4 for the textile consumption tax.
Answer: The effects of the consumption tax can be seen in the table below:
c. Which raises more revenue for the government— the consumption tax or the
tariff? Which has a smaller deadweight loss? Explain.
Answer: The consumption tax raises more government revenue because the tax
is on all units (not just the imported units). Thus, the deadweight loss is smaller
with the consumption tax than with a tariff.
9. Assume the United States is an importer of televisions and there are no trade
restrictions. U.S. consumers buy 1 million televisions per year, of which
400,000 are produced domestically and 600,000 are imported.
b. After the fall in price, consumers buy 1.2 million televisions, of which
200,000 are produced domestically and 1 million are imported. Calculate the
change in consumer surplus, producer surplus, and total surplus from the price
reduction.
Answer: (See Figure 11) If US sets a tariff of $100 on imported televisions, the
price in US increases back by $100, sending the domestic quantities demanded
and supplied back to 1 million and 400 000 televisions, respectively. Thus,
consumer and producer surplus go back to what they were before the
technological improvement. However, the government would receive a tariff of
$60 million (600 000 units of $100 each). The deadweight loss would be [1/2 ×
$100 × (4 – 2)] + [1/2 × $100 × (12 – 10)] = $600 − $100 − $100 = $20 million.
The policy induces an inefficiency measured by the deadweight loss we have
just calculated. Domestic producers of televisions would support this policy as
their producer surplus increases.
d. Suppose that the fall in price is attributable not to technological advance but
to a $100 per television subsidy from the Japanese government to Japanese
industry. How would this affect your analysis?
Answer: The analysis remains the same, since the particular reason for which
the foreign producers face lower costs of production is irrelevant for US.
10. Consider a small country that exports steel. Suppose that a “pro-trade”
government decides to subsidize the export of steel by paying a certain amount
for each ton sold abroad. How does this export subsidy affect the domestic price
of steel, the quantity of steel produced, the quantity of steel consumed, and the
quantity of steel exported? How does it affect consumer surplus, producer
surplus, government revenue, and total surplus? Is it a good policy from the
standpoint of economic efficiency? (Hint: The analysis of an export subsidy is
similar to the analysis of a tariff.)