Mpiklp Lca Dalam Kajian Lingkungan

LIFE
CYCLE
ANALYSIS
Diabstraksikan oleh: Nunuk L.H., N. Akhmad, E. Sunaryono, dan Soemarno
PSL-PDKLP-PPSUB Januari 2013
LCA = LIFE-CYCLE AANALYSIS
Analisis Siklus Hidup.
ANALISIS DAUR HIDUP
LCA merupakan suatu metode analisis lingkungan dan

dampak lingkungan yang berhubungan dengan suatu
produk, proses, atau jasa; dengan jalan melakukan
inventori input enerji dan material, serta limbahnya yang
dibuang ke lingkungan; analisis dampak lingkungan dari
input dan limbah, serta interpretasi hasil-hasilnya untuk
digunakan dalam pengambilan keputusan.
Ketersediaan perangkat lunak (software) mempermudah

pelaksanaan LCA yang membutuhkan basis data yang
besar.
Life Cycle Asessment merupakan satu pendekatan Cradle to

Grave dimulai dari pengambilan bahan mentah dari lingkungan
untuk membuat produk dan berakhir pada pembuangan limbah
ke lingkungan.
Esensi dari Life Cycle Assessment adalah evaluasi dampak

teknologi, ekonomi dan lingkungan, yang relevan dengan bahan
mentah (material), proses dan/atau produk, sepanjang siklus
hidup mulai dari pembuatannya hingga menjadi limbah.
LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT
A life-cycle assessment (LCA, also known as life-cycle

analysis, ecobalance, and cradle-to-grave analysis) is a
technique to assess environmental impacts associated with
all the stages of a product's life from-cradle-to-grave (i.e.,
from raw material extraction through materials processing,
manufacture, distribution, use, repair and maintenance,
and disposal or recycling).
LCAs can help avoid a narrow outlook on environmental

concerns by:
1. Compiling an inventory of relevant energy and material inputs

and environmental releases;
2. Evaluating the potential impacts associated with identified
inputs and releases;
3. Interpreting the results to help make a more informed
decision.
Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment. 5/1/2013

GOALS AND PURPOSE
The goal of LCA is to compare the full range of environmental effects
assignable to products and services in order to improve processes,
support policy and provide a sound basis for informed decisions.
The term life cycle refers to the notion that a fair, holistic assessment
requires the assessment of raw-material production, manufacture,
distribution, use and disposal including all intervening transportation steps
necessary or caused by the product's existence.
There are two main types of LCA.

Attributional LCAs seek to establish the burdens associated with the
production and use of a product, or with a specific service or process, at a
point in time (typically the recent past).
Consequential LCAs seek to identify the environmental consequences of
a decision or a proposed change in a system under study (oriented to the
future), which means that market and economic implications of a decision
may have to be taken into account.
Social LCA is a different approach to life cycle thinking intended to assess

social implications or potential impacts. Social LCA should be considered
as an approach that is complementary to environmental LCA.
The procedures of life cycle assessment (LCA) are part of the ISO 14000
environmental management standards: in ISO 14040:2006 and
14044:2006. (ISO 14044 replaced earlier versions of ISO 14041 to ISO
14043.)
1. Thomas,J.A.G., ed: Energy Analysis, ipc science and technology press &
Westview Press, 1977, ISBN 0-902852-60-4 or ISBN 0-89158-813-2

Empat tahapan Utama
According to the ISO 14040[4] and 14044[5] standards, a Life Cycle
Assessment is carried out in four distinct phases as illustrated in the figure
shown to the right. The phases are often interdependent in that the results
of one phase will inform how other phases are completed.
DEFINISI TUJUAN
& LINGKUP
ANALISIS
INTERPRETASI
INVENTORY
PENDUGAAN
DAMPAK
4. ISO 14040 (2006): Environmental management Life cycle assessment Principles and
framework, International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO), Geneve
5. ISO 14044 (2006): Environmental management Life cycle assessment Requirements and
guidelines, International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO), Geneve

Goal and scope
An LCA starts with an explicit statement of the goal and scope of
the study, which sets out the context of the study and explains
how and to whom the results are to be communicated. This is a
key step and the ISO standards require that the goal and scope of
an LCA be clearly defined and consistent with the intended
application. The goal and scope document therefore includes
technical details that guide subsequent work:
1. The functional unit, which defines what precisely is being

studied and quantifies the service delivered by the product
system, providing a reference to which the inputs and outputs
can be related. Further, the functional unit is an important
basis that enables alternative goods, or services, to be
compared and analyzed.[6]
2. The system boundaries;
3. Any assumptions and limitations;
4. The allocation methods used to partition the environmental
load of a process when several products or functions share
the same process; and
5. The impact categories chosen.
6. Rebitzer, G. et al. (2004). Life cycle assessment Part 1: Framework, goal and scope
definition, inventory analysis,and applications. Environment International. 30(2004), 701-720.

Life cycle inventory
Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) analysis involves creating an inventory of flows
from and to nature for a product system. Inventory flows include inputs of
water, energy, and raw materials, and releases to air, land, and water. To
develop the inventory, a flow model of the technical system is constructed
using data on inputs and outputs.
The flow model is typically illustrated with a flow chart that includes the
activities that are going to be assessed in the relevant supply chain and
gives a clear picture of the technical system boundaries. The input and
output data needed for the construction of the model are collected for all
activities within the system boundary, including from the supply chain
(referred to as inputs from the techno-sphere).
The data must be related to the functional unit defined in the goal and
scope definition. Data can be presented in tables and some
interpretations can be made already at this stage. The results of the
inventory is an LCI which provides information about all inputs and
outputs in the form of elementary flow to and from the environment from
all the unit processes involved in the study.
7. Steinbach, V. and Wellmer, F. (May 2010). Review: Consumption and Use of Non-Renewable
Mineral and Energy Raw Materials from an Economic Geology Point of View. Sustainability.
2(5), pgs. 1408-1430. Retrieved from <http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/2/5/1408

Life cycle inventory
Inventory flows can number in the hundreds depending on the system
boundary. For product LCAs at either the generic (i.e., representative
industry averages) or brand-specific level, that data is typically collected
through survey questionnaires. At an industry level, care has to be taken
to ensure that questionnaires are completed by a representative sample
of producers, leaning toward neither the best nor the worst, and fully
representing any regional differences due to energy use, material
sourcing or other factors. The questionnaires cover the full range of inputs
and outputs, typically aiming to account for 99% of the mass of a product,
99% of the energy used in its production and any environmentally
sensitive flows, even if they fall within the 1% level of inputs.
One area where data access is likely to be difficult is flows from the
techno-sphere. The technosphere is more simply defined as the man-
made world. Considered by geologists as secondary resources, these
resources are in theory 100% recyclable; however, in a practical sense
the primary goal is salvage. [7]
For an LCI, these technosphere products (supply chain products) are
those that have been produced by man and unfortunately those
completing a questionnaire about a process which uses man-made
product as a means to an end will be able to specify how much of a given
input they use. Typically, they will not have access to data concerning
inputs and outputs for previous production processes of the product. The
entity undertaking the LCA must then turn to secondary sources if it does
not already have that data from its own previous studies. National
databases or data sets that come with LCA-practitioner tools, or that can
be readily accessed, are the usual sources for that information. Care must
then be taken to ensure that the secondary data source properly reflects
regional or national conditions.
7. Steinbach, V. and Wellmer, F. (May 2010). Review: Consumption and Use of Non-Renewable
Mineral and Energy Raw Materials from an Economic Geology Point of View. Sustainability.
2(5), pgs. 1408-1430. Retrieved from <http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/2/5/1408
LCIA =
LIFE-CYCLE IMPACT ASSESSMENT
Inventory analysis is followed by impact assessment. This phase of LCA is
aimed at evaluating the significance of potential environmental impacts
based on the LCI flow results. Classical life cycle impact assessment
(LCIA) consists of the following mandatory elements:
selection of impact categories, category indicators, and characterization
models;
the classification stage, where the inventory parameters are sorted and
assigned to specific impact categories; and
impact measurement, where the categorized LCI flows are characterized,
using one of many possible LCIA methodologies, into common
equivalence units that are then summed to provide an overall impact
category total.
In many LCAs, characterization concludes the LCIA analysis; this is also
the last compulsory stage according to ISO 14044:2006. However, in
addition to the above mandatory LCIA steps, other optional LCIA elements
normalization, grouping, and weighting may be conducted depending
on the goal and scope of the LCA study. In normalization, the results of
the impact categories from the study are usually compared with the total
impacts in the region of interest, the U.S. for example. Grouping consists
of sorting and possibly ranking the impact categories. During weighting,
the different environmental impacts are weighted relative to each other so
that they can then be summed to get a single number for the total
environmental impact.
ISO 14044:2006 generally advises against weighting, stating that
weighting, shall not be used in LCA studies intended to be used in
comparative assertions intended to be disclosed to the public. This
advice is often ignored, resulting in comparisons that can reflect a high
degree of subjectivity as a result of weighting.

Interpretation
Life Cycle Interpretation is a systematic technique to identify, quantify,
check, and evaluate information from the results of the life cycle inventory
and/or the life cycle impact assessment. The results from the inventory
analysis and impact assessment are summarized during the interpretation
phase.
The outcome of the interpretation phase is a set of conclusions and
recommendations for the study. According to ISO 14040:2006, the
interpretation should include:
1. Identification of significant issues based on the results of the LCI and
LCIA phases of an LCA;
2. Evaluation of the study considering completeness, sensitivity and
consistency checks; and
3. Conclusions, limitations and recommendations.
A key purpose of performing life cycle interpretation is to determine the

level of confidence in the final results and communicate them in a fair,
complete, and accurate manner. Interpreting the results of an LCA is not
as simple as "3 is better than 2, therefore Alternative A is the best choice"!
Interpreting the results of an LCA starts with understanding the accuracy

of the results, and ensuring they meet the goal of the study. This is
accomplished by identifying the data elements that contribute significantly
to each impact category, evaluating the sensitivity of these significant data
elements, assessing the completeness and consistency of the study, and
drawing conclusions and recommendations based on a clear
understanding of how the LCA was conducted and the results were
developed.

Reference test
More specifically, the best alternative is the one that the
LCA shows to have the least cradle-to-grave environmental
negative impact on land, sea, and air resources.[8]
8. Curran, Mary Ann. "Life Cycle Analysis: Priciples and Practice". Scientific
Applications International Corporation. Retrieved 24 October 2011.
LCA estimates the impacts or costs of resources associated with a project from cradle
to grave including extraction, processing, use, and disposal. The technique is often
used to compare options for a project, informing a selection that is less environmentally
damaging.
Diunduh dari: http://www.toolkit.bc.ca/tool/life-cycle-analysis. 7/1/2013

LCA uses
Based on a survey of LCA practitioners carried out in 2006[9] LCA is
mostly used to support business strategy (18%) and R&D (18%), as input
to product or process design (15%), in education (13%) and for labeling or
product declarations (11%). LCA will be continuously integrated into the
built environment as tools such as the European ENSLIC Building project
guidelines for buildings or developed and implemented, which provide
practitioners guidance on methods to implement LCI data into the
planning and design process.[10]
Major corporations all over the world are either undertaking LCA in house
or commissioning studies, while governments support the development of
national databases to support LCA. Of particular note is the growing use
of LCA for ISO Type III labels called Environmental Product Declarations,
defined as "quantified environmental data for a product with pre-set
categories of parameters based on the ISO 14040 series of standards,
but not excluding additional environmental information".[11][12] These third-
party certified LCA-based labels provide an increasingly important basis
for assessing the relative environmental merits of competing products.
Third-party certification plays a major role in today's industry. Independent
certification can show a company's dedication to safer and environmental
friendlier products to customers and NGOs.[13]
LCA also has major roles in environmental impact assessment, integrated
waste management and pollution studies.
9. Cooper, J.S.; Fava, J. (2006). "Life Cycle Assessment Practitioner Survey: Summary of
Results". Journal of Industrial Ecology.
10. Malmqvist, T; Glaumann, M; Scarpellini, S; Zabalza, I; Aranda, A (April 2011). "Life cycle
assessment in buildings: The ENSLIC simplified method and guidelines". Energy 36 (4): 1900-
1907. Retrieved October 31, 2012.
11. S. Singh, B. R. Bakshi (2009). "Eco-LCA: A Tool for Quantifying the Role of Ecological
Resources in LCA". International Symposium on Sustainable Systems and Technology: 16.
doi:10.1109/ISSST.2009.5156770. ISBN 978-1-4244-4324-6.
12. EPD_System www.thegreenstandard.org
13. LCA by Independent Third Parties

Data analysis
A life cycle analysis is only as valid as its data; therefore, it is crucial that
data used for the completion of a life cycle analysis are accurate and
current. When comparing different life cycle analyses with one another, it
is crucial that equivalent data are available for both products or processes
in question. If one product has a much higher availability of data, it cannot
be justly compared to another product which has less detailed data.[14]
There are two basic types of LCA data unit process data and
environmental input-output data (EIO), where the latter is based on
national economic input-output data.[15] Unit process data are derived
from direct surveys of companies or plants producing the product of
interest, carried out at a unit process level defined by the system
boundaries for the study.
Data validity is an ongoing concern for life cycle analyses. Due to

globalization and the rapid pace of research and development, new
materials and manufacturing methods are continually being introduced to
the market. This makes it both very important and very difficult to use up-
to-date information when performing an LCA. If an LCAs conclusions are
to be valid, the data must be recent; however, the data-gathering process
takes time. If a product and its related processes have not undergone
significant revisions since the last LCA data was collected, data validity is
not a problem. However, consumer electronics such as cell phones can
be redesigned as often as every 9 to 12 months,[16] creating a need for
ongoing data collection.
14. Scientific Applications International Corporation (May). "Life cycle assessment: principles and
practice". p. 88.
15. "How Does GREET Work?". Argonne National Laboratory. 2010-09-03. Retrieved 2011-02-28.
16. Choney, Suzanne (24 February 2009). "Planned obsolescence: cell phone models". MSNBC.
Retrieved 28 October 2011.

Data analysis
The life cycle considered usually consists of a number of stages including: materials
extraction, processing and manufacturing, product use, and product disposal. If the
most environmentally harmful of these stages can be determined, then impact on the
environment can be efficiently reduced by focusing on making changes for that
particular phase.
For example, the most energy-intensive life phase of an airplane or car is during use
due to fuel consumption. One of the most effective ways to increase fuel efficiency is
to decrease vehicle weight, and thus, car and airplane manufacturers can decrease
environmental impact in a significant way by replacing aluminum with lighter
materials such as carbon fiber reinforced fibers. The reduction during the use phase
should be more than enough to balance additional raw material or manufacturing
cost.
14. Scientific Applications International Corporation (May). "Life cycle assessment: principles and
practice". p. 88.
15. "How Does GREET Work?". Argonne National Laboratory. 2010-09-03. Retrieved 2011-02-28.
16. Choney, Suzanne (24 February 2009). "Planned obsolescence: cell phone models". MSNBC.
Retrieved 28 October 2011.

Economic inputoutput life cycle assessment
Economic inputoutput LCA (EIOLCA) involves use of aggregate sector-
level data on how much environmental impact can be attributed to each
sector of the economy and how much each sector purchases from other
sectors.[24]
Such analysis can account for long chains (for example, building an
automobile requires energy, but producing energy requires vehicles, and
building those vehicles requires energy, etc.), which somewhat alleviates
the scoping problem of process LCA; however, EIOLCA relies on sector-
level averages that may or may not be representative of the specific
subset of the sector relevant to a particular product and therefore is not
suitable for evaluating the environmental impacts of products. Additionally
the translation of economic quantities into environmental impacts is not
validated.[25]
24. Hendrickson, C. T., Lave, L. B., and Matthews, H. S. (2005). Environmental Life Cycle
Assessment of Goods and Services: An InputOutput Approach, Resources for the Future
Press ISBN 1-933115-24-6.
25. Limitations of the EIO-LCA Method and Models

Ecologically based LCA
While a conventional LCA uses many of the same approaches and
strategies as an Eco-LCA, the latter considers a much broader range of
ecological impacts. It was designed to provide a guide to wise
management of human activities by understanding the direct and indirect
impacts on ecological resources and surrounding ecosystems.
Eco-LCA is developed by Ohio State University Center for resilience, a

methodology that quantitatively takes into account regulating and
supporting services during the life cycle of economic goods and products.
In this approach services are categorized in four main groups: supporting,
regulating provisioning and cultural services.[11]
11. S. Singh, B. R. Bakshi (2009). "Eco-LCA: A Tool for Quantifying the Role of
Ecological Resources in LCA". International Symposium on Sustainable
Systems and Technology: 16. doi:10.1109/ISSST.2009.5156770. ISBN 978-1-
4244-4324-6.

LCEA = Life cycle energy analysis
Life cycle energy analysis (LCEA) is an approach in which all energy
inputs to a product are accounted for, not only direct energy inputs during
manufacture, but also all energy inputs needed to produce components,
materials and services needed for the manufacturing process.
An earlier term for the approach was energy analysis.
With LCEA, the total life cycle energy input is established.
Life Cycle Energy Assessment (LCEA) of Building Construction

Life Cycle Energy Assessment (LCEA) of building construction covers a range of the
issues relevant to sustainable building development. LCEA includes the entire life cycle
of the product, process or activity, encompassing extracting and processing materials;
manufacturing, transportation and distribution; use, reuse, maintenance; recycling and
final disposal. Promoting LCEA of buildings would arouse attention to environmentally
friendly building designs, including energy efficient building design and selection of
materials and construction methods that would incur lower impacts on the global, local
and indoor environments, which will also help minimise construction and demolition
waste.
Diunduh dari: http://www.energyland.emsd.gov.hk/en/building/assessment/index.html . 7/1/2013

Energy production
It is recognized that much energy is lost in the production of energy
commodities themselves, such as nuclear energy, photovoltaic electricity
or high-quality petroleum products. Net energy content is the energy
content of the product minus energy input used during extraction and
conversion, directly or indirectly. A controversial early result of LCEA
claimed that manufacturing solar cells requires more energy than can be
recovered in using the solar cell.
The result was refuted.[26] Another new concept that flows from life cycle
assessments is Energy Cannibalism. Energy Cannibalism refers to an
effect where rapid growth of an entire energy-intensive industry creates a
need for energy that uses (or cannibalizes) the energy of existing power
plants. Thus during rapid growth the industry as a whole produces no
energy because new energy is used to fuel the embodied energy of future
power plants. Work has been undertaken in the UK to determine the life
cycle energy (alongside full LCA) impacts of a number of renewable
technologies.[27][28]
26. David MacKay Sustainable Energy 24 February 2010 p. 41

27. McManus, M (2010). "Life cycle impacts of waste wood biomass heating systems: A case
study of three UK based systems". Energy 35 (10): 40644070.
doi:10.1016/j.energy.2010.06.014.
28. Allen, S.R., G.P. Hammond, H. Harajli, C.I. Jones, M.C. McManus and A.B. Winnett (2008).
Integrated appraisal of micro-generators: methods and applications. 161. pp. 7386.
doi:10.1680/ener.2008.1+61.2.73

ENERGY RECOVERY
If materials are incinerated during the disposal process, the energy
released during burning can be harnessed and used for electricity
production. This provides a low-impact energy source, especially when
compared with coal and natural gas[29] While incineration produces more
greenhouse gas emissions than landfilling, the waste plants are well-fitted
with filters to minimize this negative impact.
A recent study comparing energy consumption and greenhouse gas

emissions from landfilling (without energy recovery) against incineration
(with energy recovery) found incineration to be superior in all cases
except for when landfill gas is recovered for electricity production.[30]
29. Damgaard, A, et. al. Life-cycle-assessment of the historical development of air pollution
control and energy recovery in waste incineration. Waste Management 30 (2010) 12441250.
30 Liamsanguan, C., Gheewala, S.H., LCA: A decision support tool for environmental
assessment of MSW management systems. Jour. of Environ. Mgmt. 87 (2009) 132138.

Critiques
Life cycle assessment is a powerful tool for analyzing commensurable
aspects of quantifiable systems. Not every factor, however, can be
reduced to a number and inserted into a model. Rigid system boundaries
make accounting for changes in the system difficult. This is sometimes
referred to as the boundary critique to systems thinking.
The accuracy and availability of data can also contribute to inaccuracy.
For instance, data from generic processes may be based on averages,
unrepresentative sampling, or outdated results.[34]
Additionally, social implications of products are generally lacking in LCAs.
Comparative life-cycle analysis is often used to determine a better
process or product to use. However, because of aspects like differing
system boundaries, different statistical information, different product uses,
etc., these studies can easily be swayed in favor of one product or
process over another in one study and the opposite in another study
based on varying parameters and different available data.[35]
There are guidelines to help reduce such conflicts in results but the
method still provides a lot of room for the researcher to decide what is
important, how the product is typically manufactured, and how it is
typically used.
34. Malin, Nadav, Life-cycle assessment for buildings: Seeking the Holy Grail. Building Green,
2010.
35. Linda Gaines and Frank Stodolsky Life-Cycle Analysis: Uses and Pitfalls. Argonne National
Laboratory. Transportation Technology R&D Center
36. National Council for Air and Stream Improvement Special Report No: 04-03. Ncasi.org.
Retrieved on 2011-12-14.
37. FPInnovations 2010 A Synthesis of Research on Wood Products and Greenhouse Gas Impacts
2nd Edition page 40. (PDF) . Retrieved on 2011-12-14.
38. Bland, W.L. and Bell, M.M. (2007). "A holon approach to agroecology". International Journal of
Agricultural Sustainability 5 (4): 280294.

Critiques
An in-depth review of 13 LCA studies of wood and paper products[36]
found[37] a lack of consistency in the methods and assumptions used to
track carbon during the product life cycle. A wide variety of methods and
assumptions were used, leading to different and potentially contrary
conclusions particularly with regard to carbon sequestration and
methane generation in landfills and with carbon accounting during forest
growth and product use.
The Agroecology tool "agroecosystem analysis" offers a framework to
incorporate incommensurable aspects of the life cycle of a product (such
as social impacts, and soil and water implications).[38]
This tool is specifically useful in the analysis of a product made from

agricultural materials such as corn ethanol or soybean biodiesel because
it can account for an ecology of contexts interacting and changing through
time. This analysis tool should not be used instead of life-cycle analysis,
but rather, in conjunction with life-cycle analysis to produce a well-rounded
assessment.
34. Malin, Nadav, Life-cycle assessment for buildings: Seeking the Holy Grail. Building Green,
2010.
35. Linda Gaines and Frank Stodolsky Life-Cycle Analysis: Uses and Pitfalls. Argonne National
Laboratory. Transportation Technology R&D Center
36. National Council for Air and Stream Improvement Special Report No: 04-03. Ncasi.org.
Retrieved on 2011-12-14.
37. FPInnovations 2010 A Synthesis of Research on Wood Products and Greenhouse Gas Impacts
2nd Edition page 40. (PDF) . Retrieved on 2011-12-14.
38. Bland, W.L. and Bell, M.M. (2007). "A holon approach to agroecology". International Journal of
Agricultural Sustainability 5 (4): 280294.

LIFE CYCLE
ANALYSIS
Analysis of Environmental, Financial

and Social Impacts throughout the Life-
cycle of
Products and Processes
LCA
The Concept of Environmental LCA
Methodology of Environmental LCA;
Goal and Scope
Inventory Analysis
Impact Assessment
Interpretation
Extending the scope of Environmental LCA;
Economic LCA
Social LCA
A life-cycle assessment (LCA) is a comprehensive environmental management tool used

to investigate the environmental impacts of products, services and activities by taking a
'cradleto-grave' approach. The assessment scope includes the extraction and processing
of raw materials, manufacturing, transportation and distribution, use/reuse/maintenance,
recycling and final disposal
Diunduh dari: http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?pid=S1816-

79502011000500013&script=sci_arttext. 7/1/2013
KONSEP LCA
Products do no pollute, but their production,
use and disposal do!
Product systems are composed of interrelated
processes
Life Cycle of Product Systems

(Source: USEPA, 2006. Life
Cycle Assessment: Principles and
Practice, Cincinnati, Ohio report
no. 45268
KONSEP LCA
Some products have a dominating

environmental load in production, some in
use, some in disposal:
80 80 90
70 70 80
60 60 70
50 50 60
40 50
40
30 40
30
30
20 20
20
10 10
10
0 0
0
Production Use Disposal Production Use Disposal
Production Use Disposal
Examples: Examples: Examples:

books, furniture, cars, television, airco Ni-Cd batteries,
art etc. etc. household
chemicals, fireworks
etc.
KONSEP LCA
Environmental LCA is the quantitative
assessment of environmental impacts of
products or processes over their life cycle.
LCA is the analysis of the contribution of lifecycle
stages, product parts or processes to
environmental burden.
LCA is often used to compare between products
or design alternatives.
Applications of LCA:
Product improvement
Support for strategic choices
Benchmarking
External communication
KONSEP LCA
LCA is a model of a complex reality!
of an average lifecycle of a mass
product
of the effect of all impacts that occur
of their interaction.
Any model is a simplification of reality: If you
make a model, you must specify the goal and
scope describing why you want to make the
model.
METODOLOGI LCA
1. Goal and Scope definition
2. Inventory Analysis
3. Impact Assessment
4. Interpretation
Life cycle assessment framework
Goal
and scope
definition
Direct applications:
- Product development
and improvement
- Strategic planning
Inventory
analysis Interpretation - Public policy making
- Marketing
- Other
Impact
assessment
The official LCA framework according to the International Standards: ISO

14040:2006 and ISO 14044:2006
METODOLOGI LCA
Questions:
What is the intended application of the
LCA?
How much effort do you want to invest?
Who are interested parties?
What methodology will you use?
Why is a goal and scope definition
important?
guidance in data collection phase
communication base for data providers
reference for data quality management.
afterwards, to explain how choices have been
made during the various LCA phases.
METODOLOGI LCA
Definition of functional unit, initial system
boundaries and procedural aspects
Functional unit: comparison of products on the
basis of equivalent function, for example:
comparison of 2 packaging systems for 1000
litres of milk by (a) 1000 disposable cartons or
(b) 100 reusable bottles; instead of
comparison of 1 carton and 1 bottle.
Functional unit is basis for comparison
Compare
environmental
impacts of
?
packaging of 1000
= litres milk in carton
packages or glass
bottles
METODOLOGI LCA
Definition of functional unit, initial system
boundaries and procedural aspects
1. System boundaries: definition of processes that

are included in the investigation, e.g. material
extraction, processing and transport; energy
production; disposal processes. Production of
capital goods (equipment used for production
and transportation) are often excluded from the
system. System boundaries are further defined
during the inventory process.
2. Procedural aspects: organizational

arrangements such as a critical review to
guarantee consistency, scientific validity,
transparency of the final report and how various
stakeholders will be involved in the process (LCA
is a participatory process)
METODOLOGI LCA:
INVENTORY
1. Also referred to as Life Cycle Inventory (LCI)
phase
2. Compiling and quantifying of inputs and
outputs
3. Collecting of data, determination of total
emissions and resource use
4. Detailed defining of product system and
economy-environment boundary. Only data
collection for processes that are controlled by
human beings (economic processes).
Examples: coal mining, electricity production,
controlled dumping of solid waste etc.
5. Visualizing connected processes in product
system
6. Scaling of available technical data (e.g. from
data libraries) to functional unit
7. Aggregating the inputs and outputs in
Inventory Table
METODOLOGI LCA:
Inventory
Example of Product system and Inventory

Table
LCI table with
environmental
interventions
Crude 40000
oil from kg
electricity incineration earth
CO2 to 3500
steel production distribution use dump air
SO2 to 20 kg
air
plasti reus
c e NOx to 100 kg
air
recycling Cd to 5g
water
PAH to 8 kg
water
Etc. .
METODOLOGI LCA:
Inventory
Difficulties:
Data availability and quality
Data rarely available, usually special data
gathering studies needed
Measurement procedures rarely standardized
Geographic variations
quality of raw materials/energy sources
production methods
relevant environmental impacts
Technology
Which type of electricity production?
Salt Electrolysis with Mercury or Membrane
process?
Oldest, average or modern Waste Incineration
Plant?
METODOLOGI LCA:
Inventory
Difficulties:
Allocation of environmental interventions in case of
multiple output processes;
Many processes are multifunctional (e.g. co-
production, combined waste treatment.) and
interventions can be allocated to more outputs:
Recycli
ng
Electricity
production
Chlorine
Plastic Plastic
product bag
Salt
ion use
electrolysis
Paint Old plastic
Caustic Soda
product
ion
Recycling and reuse

Allocation determined by number of reuse times
and fraction of materials that can be recycled at a
certain quality
METODOLOGI LCA:
Pendugaan Dampak
Also referred to as Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)
Linkage (long) list of LCI results to environmental
impacts, like climate change, acidification, eco-toxic
impacts etc.
LCI result
Depletion
Raw materials
Land use
CO2 Land use
VOS
P Climate change
SO2
NOx
CFC Acidification
Cd
PAH
DDT Eutrophication
Ecotoxicity
Humantoxicity
METODOLOGI LCA:
Pendugaan Dampak
Steps: Characterization, Classification and
Normalization:
Determine which LCI results contribute to which impact
category, e.g. CO2 and CH4 to climate change
Multiply environmental interventions (resources,
emissions etc.) from LCI with a characterisation factor to
get indicator results
Normalize to understand the relative magnitude of the
indicator results and to get dimensionless score (useful
for comparison)
Cat. Indicator result (kg CO2 equivalent)

METODOLOGI LCA:
Pendugaan Dampak
Category indicators are quantifiable
representations of impact categories (ISO) and are defined
according standards, such as CML-IA, Eco indicator 99,
Impact 2002+ etc.)
Intervention Effect Damage

CO2 Greenhouse
effect
P Eutrophication
SO2 Damage to
NO Eco-
x Acidification
systems
DD Pesticides
T Indicator
Dus
Winter smog
t
VOC Summer smog

Damage to
Cd Heavy metals human
health
PAH
CFC Carconogenics
Ozone layer
depl.
METODOLOGI LCA:
Pendugaan Dampak
A high contribution to a certain impact category (a
high normalized score) does not automatically mean
an important contribution weighing of results is
needed
Weighing is a valuation of results and thus a
normative process, depending on preferences of
researcher; which environmental impact is most
important?
Procedure of LCIA according to ISO:
- Classification and characterisation are an
obligatory step.
- Normalisation is an optional step.
- Weighing is only permitted for internal decision
making, and not for comparison of products to the
public.
METODOLOGI LCA:
Interpretasi
Phase of life cycle assessment in which
the findings of either the inventory
analysis or the impact assessment, or
both, are combined consistent with the
defined goal and scope in order to reach
conclusions and recommendations (ISO)
To interpret an LCA, you must check the

goal and scope:
Are the the general assumptions
reasonable?
Is the functional unit well chosen?
Are ISO standards applied?
Has a peer review been conducted?
METODOLOGI LCA:
Interpretasi
Conduct a sensitivity analysis: analyze

the impact of important choices or
assumptions
What if other allocations are applied.
What if other boundaries are applied.
What if other impact assessment
method is used.
By recalculating the LCA with other

assumptions, we can verify how the
conclusions connect with the
assumptions.
LCA diperluas:
1. LCA is often associated with

environmental impacts, but scope can be
extended to include economic and social
impacts.
2. Financial LCA = Life Cycle Costing
(LCC);
Analysis of life cycle costs
3. Social LCA
Social impacts throughout life cycle of
products and processes
LCA diperluas:
What are the costs and revenues
incured during the life cycle of a
product or process?
R&D
Production
Marketing
Sales
Etc.
Sometimes external costs included as
well (costs that are imposed on
society or the environment):
Monetary valuation of environmental LCI
and LCIA resultsbut is it possible to
monetise all environmental services?
LCA diperluas:
Social LCA analyses social impacts, such

as employment and health:
Job quality
Quality physical health
Quality social health
Earthly possessions
Challenging to model social life cycle
impacts, because social conditions do
change more rapidly
impacts from changes in employment conditions
may dissipate
emotions resulting from changes disappear with
time
diseases get cured
people who are laid off may find new jobs)
LCA
METHODS
AND
METHODOLOGY
Sumber: LCA methods and methodology. Ireneusz Zbicinski; Lodz, Technical

University. Molo, EMS Conference, 28th June-2 nd July 2006
Introduction
to Life Cycle Assessment

DEFINISI LCA
Definitions of LCA
According to the ISO DIS standards, LCA is defined

as a method for analysing and determining the
environmental impact along the product chain of
(technical) systems.
It includes the various types of technical conversions

that occur in the manufacturing process.
These consist of:

- change of material chemistry (chemical
conversion), material formulation, or material
structure;
- the removal of material resulting in an increase of
(primary) outputs over the inputs;
- joining and assembly of materials resulting in a
decrease of (primary) outputs over the inputs.

DEFINISI LCA
According to ISO 14040, the formal

definition of LCA is as follows:
LCA is a technique for assessing the environmental aspects

and potential impacts associated with a product by:
Compiling an inventory of relevant inputs and outputs of

a product system.
Evaluating the potential environmental impacts associated

with those inputs and outputs.
Interpreting the results of the inventory analysis and impact

assessment phases in relation to the objectives of the study.

APLIKASI LCA
The Goals and Applications of LCA
LCA assess the environmental effects of a product or

service
or, more commonly, the effects of a change in the
production
or design of a product or service.
The goals and applications of LCA range over a scale

from
short to long term. It includes:
Short-term process engineering.

Design and optimization in a life cycle
Product comparisons including product design and
product
improvement.
Eco-labelling in the medium and long term
Long-term strategic planning

Product life cycle [Stachowicz, 2001; Walz, 20
The Qualitative (approximate)
LCA
The Red Flag Method
Qualitative LCA methods do not use systematic

computational
procedures to assess the environmental profile
of the system
under study. They analyse the life cycle of a
product in environmental terms directly on the
basis of emissions released
and the consumption of raw materials.
Assessing the seriousness of the impacts
directly from the impact table requires
thorough training and extensive knowledge. A
decisive role is played by relevant experiences
of the expert carrying out the evaluation

The red flag method (RFM) may serve as an
example of a
qualitative method. There are a number of
companies working
with RFM, for instance Philips. The first step is
preparing an impact table. This gathers all
emissions and material consumption during
the whole life cycle of a product.
Then, the items which are harmful to the

environment are red-flagged. The red-flagged
process or product should be given special
attention and if possible excluded from the life
cycle of the product.
The red flags many times are placed in nearly

each process
or life stage without, any distinction between
small and large
quantities of unwanted emissions.

The MET Matrix (materials, energy and
toxicity).
A MET analysis consists of five stages:
a discussion of the social relevance of the

products functions.
the life cycle of the product under study is
determined and all the relevant data is gathered.
next the data is used in which is the core of
the MET matrix method: completing the matrix
the processes in the life cycle are entered in
the matrix divided into three categories:
material consumption, energy consumption, and
emissions of toxic substances.
As in the case of Red Flag Method, completion
of the MET matrix can be done only with an aid
of environmental experts.
when the most significant environmental
problems are
identified, possible steps to improvement of the
product or service should be outlined.

METODE LCA KUANTITATIF
5.3 Quantitative LCA Methods

The Components of Quantitative Methods
There are a number of different quantitative

LCA techniques.
These are in practice applied as a group of
methods which use
classification, characterisation, normalisation
and weighting.
The most important are:

Eco-points
Eco-indicator
EPS system
MIPS concept
The methodological framework of all the LCA

techniques
is based on ISO standards 14040-43.

A complete LCA consistent with ISO standards

consists of
four interrelated phases (compare with the definition
of LCA
given by ISO):
1. Goal definition and scope.

2. Inventory analysis.
3. Impact assessment with four sub-phases:
classification,
characterisation, normalisation, weighting.
4. Improvement assessment.
Interrelations among the LCA phases make LCA an

iterative
process
Sumber: LCA methods and Interrelation

methodology. of LCA Zbicinski;
Ireneusz phasesLodz,[Hillary, 1995
Technical
The calculation and evaluation procedure is repeated until the
analysis reaches the required level of detail and reliability.
The first step in an LCA is a raw assessment to determine

critical points in the life cycle and find directions for further
studies. Such a quick analysis is called screening.
Sometimes it is enough to answer all the questions asked in the
goal definition.
Goal definition and scope is crucial for all the other phases.
These include gathering data, that is building a model of the

life cycle, choosing appropriate environmental effects to
consider (local, global?), and drawing conclusions to answer the
questions asked at the beginning of the project.
The last step, the improvement assessment phase, is performed

in accordance with the goal of the study and on the basis of
results from the impact assessment phase. This is achieved by
applying the computational procedure to the data in the
inventory table.

DEFINISI SASARAN DAN
LINGKUP
In the goal definition and scope phase the unambiguous

and
clear description of the goal of the study and its scope
must be
developed.
The product (or service) to be assessed is defined, a
functional basis for comparison in case of comparative
analysis is chosen and, in general, the questions to be
answered are established.
The scope of the study sets requirements to the desirable

level of detail. The main issues to consider in this stage
are:
Purpose of the study: Why is the analysis being

performed?
What is the end use of the LCA? To whom are the results
addressed?
Specify the product to be investigated (functional unit).
Scope of the study: depth and breadth (system
boundaries).

DEFINISI SASARAN DAN
LINGKUP
As far as the LCA end use is concerned there are several
basic possibilities:
1. Product or process improvement.

2. Product or process design.
3. Publication of information on the product.
4. Granting of an eco-label.
5. Exclusion or admission of products from or to the market.
6. Formulation of company policy (purchasing, waste
management, product range, how to invest the money).

UNIT FUNGSIONAL
An LCA of a product must have clearly specified functions

to be assessed.
If, for instance, the product is a washing machine, it is
important to describe its performance characteristics.
That is, it is important to define a function of a product

rather than a product itself. The measure of performance
which the system delivers is called a functional unit.
The functional unit provides a reasonable point of
reference when comparing different products.

UNIT FUNGSIONAL
1. Two products, A and B, may have different

performance characteristics even though they fulfil
the same function.
2. An illustrative example is the comparison of different

kinds of milk packaging. Two possible alternatives
are: a milk carton and a returnable glass bottle.
3. A glass bottle can be used ten or more times,

whereas a milk carton can be used only once. On
the other hand, a milk carton does not need
washing and additional transportation.
4. When comparing one carton and one bottle we

could conclude that carton is the environmentally
best choice. If the functional unit of the two
packages is established, however, the analysis are
not distorted by unfair assumptions.

BATAS-BATAS SISTEM
The next vital task in the goal and scope definition

step is to define system boundaries.
The necessity of defining system boundaries results

from the fact that the main technique applied in any
LCA is modelling. A function fulfilled by the product is
represented by a model of the complex technical
system.
This consists of subsequent processes required to

produce, transport, use and dispose of a product. The
model is graphically illustrated by a process tree.
Moreover, models of environmental mechanisms are

created to translate inflows and outflows from the life
cycle into the environmental impacts they may
contribute to.

Process tree of the production and use of biodiesel
BATAS-BATAS SISTEM
The typical question when defining the system
boundaries is whether to include the production of
capital goods or not.
In a majority of LCAs capital goods, e.g. equipment

of a workshop, are neglected. This assumption does
not lead to important distortions of the final LCA
outcome.
In some cases, however, neglecting capital goods

significantly underestimates environmental burdens.
This applies to, for example, electricity production. It
has been shown, that the production of capital goods
constitutes about 30% of the total environmental
impact resulting from an average generation of
electricity.
Another common problem is presented by agricultural

areas, which can be seen as a part of nature or as a
part of the production system.

BATAS-BATAS SISTEM
To narrow down the system boundaries, one uses cut-
off rules. Thus if the mass or economic value of the
inflow is lower than a certain percentage (a previously
set threshold) of the total inflow it is excluded from
further analysis.
The same applies when the contribution from an

inflow to the environmental load is below a certain
percentage of the total inflow. Carefully and properly
specified goals and scope help to develop the model
of the product in such a way that the simplifications
and thus distortions have only an insignificant
influence on the results.
This is vital for getting reliable answers from an LCA.

This challenging task undoubtedly depends to some
degree on subjective decisions and requires a lot of
experience.

TABEL INVENTORY
The inventory phase is the core of an LCA and is a

common feature of any LCA. During this phase all the
material flows, the energy flows and all the waste
streams released to the environment over the whole
life cycle of the system under study are identified and
quantified.
The final result of the inventory analysis is an inventory

table. The inventory phase has four separate sub-
stages:
1. Constructing a process flow chart (so-called

process tree).
2. Collecting the data.
3. Relating the data to a chosen functional unit
(allocation).
4. Developing an overall energy and material balance
(all inputs and outputs from the entire life cycle)
an inventory table.

Selected items in an inventory table for the production of 1
kg of PVC derived from SimaPro.

ALOKASI
Very often a process fulfils two or more functions or

gives two or several of usable outputs.
They are multi-output processes.
Then we have to determine which part of the total

emissions and material consumption should be
attributed to each specific product. The same applies
to multi-input processes.
An example of a multi-input process is a plastic bag.

When performing an LCA for a plastic bag, we assume
that at the end of its life cycle it is incinerated.
However, there are many other products incinerated at
one time. To what extent is the bag responsible for
chemicals emitted from the incineration plant?
The problem of how to divide emissions and material
consumption between several product or processes is
called allocation.

TEKNIK-TEKNIK ALOKASI
Several methods have been developed to deal with
allocation

LCIA = Life Cycle Impact
Assessment

SISTEM PENDUGAAN DAMPAK
The Components of Impact Assessment

A typical Life Cycle Assessment inventory table consists of a
few hundred or more items. They might be grouped into
categories: raw materials, emissions to air, water, soil, solid
emissions, non-material emissions (noise, radiation, land use)
etc.
An inventory table is a basis for the next step of LCA impact

assessment.
On the condition that an inventory table contains relatively few
items, an environmental expert can assess the life cycle
without applying any mathematical procedures. In practice,
however, such a situation hardly ever obtains.
The data from an inventory table has to be processed to attain
a higher level of aggregation.
Ideally the aggregation process results in a meaningful single
score. To achieve this, the ISO standards advise a four-step
procedure :
1. Compulsory steps:
1. Classification - Klasifikasi
2. Characterisation - Karakterisasi.
2. Optional steps:
1. Normalisation - Normalisasi
2. Weighting - PEMBOBOTAN.

KLASIFIKASI DAMPAK
The first step to higher aggregation of the data is

classification.
Inflows and outflows from the life cycle are gathered in a
number of groups representing the chosen impact
categories.
The inventory table is rearranged in such a way that
under each impact category, all the relevant emissions or
material consumption are listed (qualitatively and
quantitatively).
This procedure is illustrated in Figure

KLASIFIKASI DAMPAK
The common source of uncertainty here is the lack of

a universally accepted appropriate official list of
environmental impacts to consider. Nevertheless, as a
result of numerous already performed LCAs, a
standard, a list of environmental impacts that should
be treated does exists.
These are all broadly recognised environmental
problems such as resource depletion, toxicity, global
warming, ozone depletion, eutrophication,
acidification, etc.
The choice of impact categories is subjective.

KARAKTERISASI FAKTOR
EKUIVALENSI
In the previous step, substances contributing to the

impact categories were taken from an inventory table
and ascribed to a certain group. However, different
substances among one group contribute differently to
the impact category.
During the characterisation step the relative strength of

the unwanted emission is evaluated and contributions
to each environmental problem are quantified. What is
needed here is a single number for each category.

Relations between emissions and impact categories. To the
left are raw materials used (top) and pollutants emitted
(bottom) during the life cycle of a product.
To the right are the impact categories to which these

emissions contribute.
The figure illustrates that one emission may contribute to
several impacts, and that several emissions contribute to the
same impact.

PROFIL LINGKUNGAN
The final result of the characterisation step is a list of

potential environmental impacts.
This list of effect scores, one for each category, is
called the environmental profile of the product or
service.

PROFIL LINGKUNGAN
Environmental profiles.
The impact of a life cycle may be expressed as the sum of
each kind of impact summed over the entire life cycle
(above), or as the impact expressed separately for each life
stage (below).
In this life cycle four impacts are considered (resource
depletion; global warming; acidification; and stratospheric
ozone depletion), and four life stages (disposal (wasting);
transportation; use; and manufacture) [Hillary, 1995].

FAKTOR EKUIVALENSI DAMPAK
LINGKUNGAN
Equivalence factors for environmental impacts.

The contribution to an environmental impact is
calculated for any substance if an equivalence factor is
available.

NORMALISASI
Normalised Effects
The results from the characterisation step cannot be

compared since they are usually presented in different
units (CO2eq., SO2eq., CFC-11eq, etc.). A procedure to
allow us to compare impact categories among
themselves is therefore carried out.
This is called normalisation.
Normalisation is performed to make the effect scores

of the environmental profile comparable. The
normalised effect score is the percentage of a given
products annual contribution to that effect in a certain
area:

MENGHITUNG
PROFIL LINGKUNGAN
The principle of a normalisation is illustrated by the diagram below.
It shows a computational procedure for an environmental profile of
a coffee machine in Belgium.
The entire life cycle of the coffee machine results in the following
emissions: 6.1 kg of equivalent CO2 (for global warming), 56.2 g of
equivalent SO2 (for acidification), 2.88.
Sumber: LCA methods and methodology. Ireneusz Zbicinski; Lodz, Technical University.
Molo, EMS Conference, 28th June-2 nd July 2006
A LCA is a mapping (inventory) and allocation / calculation of environmental impacts for a

product system. Starting with the product and its manufacturing then backwards
upstream along the supply chain until you reach base reosurces used. All emissions to
air, water and ground for this chain will be gathered and summarised to a total sum.
Same is done downstream, at product usage and at waste phase. But these latter parts
must be build on scenarios as we do not in detail know the fate of the sold product.
Totally you then get a sort of a model for total environmental impact from the products
craddle to its grave.
Sumber: http://www.extracon.se/LCAbeskrivneng.html . 7/1/2013

Normalisation of impacts from the life cycle of a
Belgian coffee machine.

PEMBOBOTAN
Comparing Impact Categories
In order to obtain a single score representing

the environmental impact of a product, we need
further aggregation of the data.
Weighting (valuation) is the step in which the

different impacts categories are weighted so
that they can be compared among themselves,
i.e. the relative importance of the effects is
assessed.
In comparative analysis the prime goal is to find

out which one of the products fulfilling the same
function is the best option for the environment.

PEMBANDINGAN DAMPAK
Comparing impacts of life cycles from different

products.
Four impacts from three different products, called A, B
and C expressed as relative values.

INDEKS LINGKUNGAN
How to establish such a set of preferences and

priorities?
This is a still subjective process although much effort

has been spent in recent years to work out a
scientific basis for weighting, i.e. weighting
principles.
Ranking impact categories in terms of their

environmental impact makes clear distinction
between the weighting and all of the previous
phases. The latter use empirical knowledge of
environmental effects and their mechanisms, while
the weighting relies mainly on preferences and social
values.
In practice, weighting is performed by multiplying a

normalised environmental profile by a set of
weighting factors, which reflect the seriousness of a
given effect.

INDEKS LINGKUNGAN
One of the ready-made methods, Eco-

indicator 95, can serve an example of a
defined set of weighting factors (Table).
Weighting factors used in Eco-indicator 95

PRINSIP PEMBOBOTAN
A Panel of experts can provide a qualitative analysis

which uses weighting without weighting factors.
Instead of applying the computational procedure the
rating is performed by the panel of experts.
The major disadvantage of this approach is its poor

reproducibility the results will often remain
controversial and open to discussion .

PRINSIP PEMBOBOTAN
The Social evaluation
is the basis of the EPS (Environmental Priority
Strategy) system. EPS is designed to be used
internally as a tool supporting product development
within a company. It is there to assist designers and
product developers in finding which of two product
concepts is preferable in environmental terms.
Prevention costs
are costs of preventing or combating the negative
changes in the environment with the aid of technical
means. The principle of this approach is simple: the
higher the prevention costs, the higher the
seriousness of the impact.
Energy consumption.
This approach is analogous to the previous one,
except that in this case the overall energy needed to
prevent emissions consumption is used as an indicator.
The higher the energy consumption, the higher the
seriousness of the impact.

PRINSIP PEMBOBOTAN
The Distance-to-target principle
is based on the assumption that the seriousness of

an effect can be related to the difference between
the current and target values [Goedkoop, 1995].
It should be clear that the choice of the target value

is crucial. Much thought has also been given to the
choice and development of the target values.
Finally one may avoid weighting by using only one

environmental effect, namely energy consumption.
This principle derives from the fact that energy

consumption can be seen, in some cases, as an
indicator of the total environmental pollution.

PRINSIP PEMBOBOTAN

PRINSIP PEMBOBOTAN

SEGITIGA PEMBOBOTAN
As mentioned, the weighting phase in any LCA remains
the most doubtful and controversial, because of the
subjective assessment of environmental issues.
The results may, however, be

expressed in a less
subjective way, when the
weighting is analysed with
aid of a so-called weighting
triangle (Figure).
The triangle indicates to
what extent the result of an
analysis is dependent on
weighting factors.

Areas of product B and A superiority in the weighting
triangle.

Areas of product B and A superiority in the
weighting triangle.

PENYEMPURNAAN PENDUGAAN
Uncertainties in the Impact

Assessments
Improvement assessment closing an LCA should

thoroughly analyse all the results obtained during
previous methodological stages and give answers to
questions asked in the goal and scope definition
phase.
The possible ways to reduce the environmental

burden of a product should be suggested and
evaluated.
In this phase a detailed report is also drawn up to

present the results in the most informative way
possible, suited to the intended audience. There are
several issues to cover.

UNCERTAINTY
KETIDAK-PASTIAN
The LCA methodology still has many weak points and

strongly depends on the quality of the data, which
frequently is extremely hard to obtain. All these
factors must be highlighted when drawing conclusions
from the analysis, not to mislead the audience.
The conditions for receiving credible results should be

unambiguously described. There are two main sources
of uncertainty. First is the quality of the data data
often comes from different sources, estimates,
assumptions, theoretical calculation, etc..
Secondly any LCA, includes subjective choices which

cannot be avoided uncertainty is part of the model,
e.g. system boundaries, allocation rules,
characterisation models. For products, which have
long lifetimes, future events have to be predicted.
A sensitivity analysis is made to check how stable the

results are. It should be proved that input data and
methodological choices do not influence the results of
an LCA too much.

Ready-made Methods
for Life Cycle Impact Assessment

METODE LCIA
SEMI-KUANTITATIF
There are several different qualitative methods for

conducting an LCA.
When working with a ready-made method one needs

to do the review of the life cycle of the product or
service just as in a proper full scale LCA agree of
systems boundaries, allocations etc.
The difference lies in the way in which the impact

assessment is performed: different impact categories
are taken into account, different environmental models
and equivalence factors are used for the
characterisation, different reference points are used
during normalisation and different ways are used when
conducting the weighting phase.

METODE LCIA
SEMI-KUANTITATIF
The ready-made methods, among others, include:
1. EPS system (Environmental Priority Strategies in

product design).
2. EDIP/UMIP (Environmental Development of
Industrial Products, in Danish UMIP).
3. Eco-points.
4. Eco-indicator.
5. MIPS (Material Input per Service Unit).
6. Ecological footprints.
There are several more than those listed.

The Eco-indicator concept seems to be the most
successful one in practical LCIA applications.

EKO-INDIKATOR & ECO-POINTS
The Eco-indicator Methodology

The eco-indicator was first introduced in 1995 to
provide engineers and designers with a simple method
to estimate the environmental impact of proposed
design solutions.
It was thus in the first place intended for internal use in

companies when working with product development
The Eco-indicator method is a multi-step process
(Figure).
It starts with the calculation of the environmental loads

from the product life cycle. In the following two steps
the exposure and effect of the exposure, using average
European data, are calculated. Then follows the critical
issue: what should be considered an environmental
problem. In the Eco-indicator approach three damage
categories, so-called endpoints, are distinguished:
1. Human Health,
2. Ecosystem Quality and
3. Resources.

The eco-indicator concept

METODOLOGI
EKO-INDIKATOR
Figure below shows in general the Eco-indicator methodology.
The white boxes refer to the procedures; the other boxes
refer to the (intermediate) results.

EKO-INDIKATOR
UNTUK KESEHATAN MANUSIA
The health of any human individual, being a member of

the present or a future generation, may be damaged
either by reducing the duration of his or her life by
premature death, or by causing a temporary or
permanent reduction of body functions (disabilities).
The environmental sources for such damages include

e.g.:
1. Infectious diseases, cardiovascular and respiratory

diseases, as well as forced displacement due to the
climate change.
2. Cancer as a result of ionizing radiation.
3. Cancer and eye damages due to ozone layer
depletion.
4. Respiratory diseases and cancer due to toxic
chemicals in air, drinking water and food.
These types of damages represent important threats to

Human Health caused by emissions from product
systems.

EKO-INDIKATOR
Eco-indicator for Ecosystem Quality

Ecosystems are very complex, and it is very difficult to
determine all damage inflicted upon them. An
important difference compared with Human Health is
that even if you could, you are not really concerned
with the individual organism, plant or animal. The
species diversity is used as an indicator for Ecosystem
Quality. You can express the ecosystem damage as a
percentage of species that are threatened or that
disappear from a given area during a certain time.
Eco-indicator for Resources

In the case of non-renewable resources it is rather arbitrary
to give data on the total quantity per resource existing in
the accessible part of the earth crust. The sum of the known
and easily exploitable deposits is quite small in comparison
with current yearly extractions. If one includes occurrences
of very low concentrations or with very difficult access, the
resource figures become huge. It is difficult to fix convincing
boundaries for including or not-including occurrences
between the two extremes, as quantity and quality are
directly linked. To tackle this problem, the Eco-indicator
methodology does not consider the quantity of resources as
such, but rather the qualitative structure of resources.

MENGHITUNG NILAI
EKO-INDIKATOR
The Eco-indicator values for a certain impact are expressed

as a sum of impacts for each of the three categories. Each
of the impact categories are expressed in one unit.
Principle of damage assessment in Eco-indicator 99.

METODE PROKSI
Using Single Dimensions to Asses Environmental
Impact
Proxy methods are those where a single dimension is

used to reflect the total environmental impact of a
product or service.
1. Energy consumption
2. Money
3. Surface area use

METODOLOGI MIPS
Material Input Per Service unit, MIPS, is a concept
developed by the Wuppertal Institute for Climate,
Environment and Energy, Germany.

METODE MIPS:
KEKUATAN & KELEMAHAN
The Ecological Footprint Method
The idea was to reduce all ecological impacts of a

product or service to the surface area in nature that
was necessary to support its use /production.
Any production or other service in society is dependent

on one or several ecological services, and that each of
these required a small area in nature.

JASA EKOLOGIS
Five main categories of ecological services were

considered:
1. Agricultural land, needed for food production,

grain or meat.
2. Forest land, needed for production of fibres,
timber, paper etc.
3. Energy land, needed for production of energy,
calculated as biomass or other forms of
energy, such as ethanol from grain or
methanol from wood
4. Waste sinks, land to absorb waste, such as
carbon dioxide or nutrients.
5. Built land, used for infrastructure, buildings,
roads, etc.

LCA Information
Management

Product Data Management, PDM
Product data management. Information management

includes four stages, acquisition, structuring,
documentation and transfer of data [Bourgonje et al.,
1995]. Each of these will be described in some detail in the
chapter.

DIAGRAM LCA PRODUKSI

Data quality.
RELIABILITAS AKSESIBILITAS RELEVANSI
PRESISI
KREDI-
BILITAS
KOMPE-
TENSI
TRANSPARANSI

PERSYARATAN KUALITAS-DATA
UNTUK LCA
The following data quality requirements, according to ISO

14 041:1998(E), should be considered when performing an
LCA:
1. Time-related coverage.
2. Geographical coverage.
3. Technology coverage.
Also, further descriptors to define the nature of the data

should be given, and the following parameters should be
considered at an appropriate level of detail:
1. Precision.
2. Completeness.
3. Representativeness.
4. Consistency.
5. Reproducibility.
The above requirements may all be grouped into the quality

aspects relevance, reliability and accessibility described above:
1. Relevance: time-related coverage, geographical coverage,
technology coverage, completeness representativeness.
2. Reliability: precision, consistency.
3. Accessibility: reproducibility, consistency.

The LCA data set. Components, which may or
should be part of a complete LCA data set are
shown.

LIFE
CYCLE
ASSESSMENT
A product-oriented method
for sustainability analysis
Sumber: Life Cycle Assessment. A product-oriented method for sustainability analysis.

UNEP LCA Training Kit. Module a LCA and decision support
LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT
Life cycle assessment (LCA)

product from cradle to grave
(vertical integration)
total picture; avoidance of problem
shifting
all types of impact (horizontal
integration)
role of functional unit
for comparability of different product
systems
integration over space and time
standardised in ISO (14040 series)
Now, we come to focus on LCA. First some general

features.
Life cycle assessment framework
Goal
and scope
definition
Direct applications:
- Product development
and improvement
- Strategic planning
Inventory
analysis Interpretation - Public policy making
- Marketing
- Other
Impact
assessment
Here, we see the ISO framework for LCA. It comprises the LCA procedure itself, as
well as its relation with the direct applications. The four main phases of LCA are
concerned with different types of data, assumptions, procedures or calculations. The
Sumber:
phases are Life Cycle Assessment.
mutually A product-oriented
connected with arrows. These method for sustainability
represent analysis.
flows of information
Final result can be in terms of:

LCI results (extractions and emissions)
LCIA results (for separate impact categories)
weighted results (one index)
Weighting (subjective!) possible on basis of:
distance to target (policy reference)
economic values (various possibilities, incl.
collectively revealed preferences)
social preferences (panel process)
Without discussing the machinery inside the LCA tool, the

type of its results it yields are important to know.

Example of the results of a

comparative LCA
Impact Incandescent Fluorescent
category lamp lamp
Climate 120000 kg 40000 kg

change CO2-eq CO2-eq
Ecotoxicity 320 kg DCB- 440 kg DCB-

eq eq
Acidification 45 kg SO2-eq 21 kg SO2-eq
Depletion of 0.8 kg 0.3 kg

resources antinomy-eq antinomy-eq
etc
An example of a table with category indicator results. Some people

refer to this as the environmental profile (or ecoprofile), the
characterisation table, or the impact table.

Main applications
product comparisons
product improvement, design and
development
strategy and policy development
LCA as a process
Product comparisons is the most obvious and striking application

of LCA. However, product improvement, design and development
are by far the most frequent applications.
Many of these LCAs are never made public: they are for internal
use only.
Larger companies and authorities use LCA for strategy and policy
development, e.g. on the design of logistics, waste policies, etc.
LCA as a process, finally, means that doing an LCA implies
learning:
1. learning about the product,
2. learning about the processes that are involved,
3. learning about the ideas of other stakeholders, etc.

APLIKASI LCA
Product comparisons
by industry, government, NGOs
also for ecolabeling (type I, type III)
Note:
need for authorized procedure and peer
review
comparative assertions disclosed to the
public (ISO)
Here are some uses of product comparisons. ISO stresses

the importance of comparative assertions disclosed to the
public, where qualiity requirements and procedures are
extremely important.

APLIKASI LCA
This gives an illustration of some ecolabeling criteria.

APLIKASI LCA
Product improvement, design and

development
by industry
also on the basis of adapted LCA-
tools
Learning curve:
LCA suggests rules of thumb
rules of thumb further validated
and improved by LCA
The use of LCA for improvement, design and

development.

APLIKASI LCA
environmental
improvement Level of improvement
(factors)
25
System Innovation
20
15
10
5 Functional Innovation
Redesign
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
time (years)
This graph illustrates that different types of improvements are of interest

in different decision situations. As an example, we see three
innovations for cars:
1) the catalyser
2) the hybrid Toyota Prius
3) the full hydrogen-based GM HydroGen3
APLIKASI LCA
Here, we see an example of simple visual LCA-based rules of

thumb that are used by product designers.

APLIKASI LCA
Policy and policy development

by government, sometimes together
with industries or NGOs
examples:
waste management
packaging
EU's Integrated Product Policy (IPP)
energy policy
green building
The strategic use of LCA: some examples.

APLIKASI LCA
This shows the classical waste treatment hierarchy. LCA can

be used to validate it, or to add some nuances for particular
materials or products.

APLIKASI LCA
. This is an LCA application for total consumption patterns: which activities

contribute to most to environmental problems? To the right, we see
activities that contribute largely per euro of product. The width indicates
how much a household spends on that activity. Thus the area indicates
the total impact of that activity. Car driving is the activity with the highest
impact. This study has been done for the Integrated Product Policy of the
EU.
APLIKASI LCA
LCA as a process
LCA as a vehicle of discussion for
various stakeholders
producer
supply chain
competitors
purchasers
government
NGOs
Finally, LCA as a process of learning and getting

to understand the problems and one another.

KETERBATSAN LCA
LCA in practice obstructed by:
data requirements
methodological inconsistencies
technical characteristics
LCA sounds nice.

But now, we move to some of the problems
in doing LCA.

KETERBATSAN LCA
Data requirements
only general, no specific data
obsolete data
only data from industrialized
countries
different data formats
databases not connected
Role for ISO 14048 and
UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative
Role for input-output analysis
(and hybrids of IOA and LCA)
LCA is very data intensive. General

purpose databases are emerging, but there
is still much to do.

KETERBATSAN LCA
Methodological inconsistencies
and debates:
main issues in LCI:
system boundaries
multiple processes/allocation
attribution versus change oriented
main issues in LCIA
midpoint versus damage level
heterogeneous mechanisms (e.g.,
toxicity)
regionalisation
Although the basic principles of LCA have been

described in the ISO standards, many issues are
still under debate, especially within academic
circles.

KARAKTERISTIK TEKNIS LCA
Some specific details:

global/regional, not local
steady state, not dynamic, no one-
time transitions
quantitative, not pass/fail criteria
risk approach, not prevention
approach
Some explanations:
1. LCA does not address the impact of a product for a specific
user at a well-defined place. It focuses on the impacts of a
product as it is available and used in a certain country,
continent, or even the world.
2. LCA studies products in a well-established situation, not the
transition to that situation
3. LCA is primarily a quantitative tool, it does not address issues
as contains hardwood or is recyclable
4. LCA does not look at risks in the sense of pollutants
exceeding threshold; it focuses on the load
Sumber: Life Cycle Assessment. A product-oriented method for sustainability

analysis. UNEP LCA Training Kit. Module a LCA and decision support
Usual impact categories:

depletion of fossil fuels and
minerals
climate change
ozone depletion
photo-oxidant formation
acidification
eutrophication
human toxicity and ecotoxicity

Potential impact categories:
land occupation (area)
water use
salination
soil erosion
leakage of nutrients
noise
This is an additional list of impacts that are

typically not included, but that are sometimes
included, and that are certainly of interest in
special cases.

Not fitting impact categories:
land use quality (forest, coral reefs)
depletion of wildlife and fish stocks
desiccation; desertification
biodiversity
contained toxics
There are some environmental issues that

may be of interest as such, but that are
difficult to fit into the overall LCA perspectives
in a satisfactory way.

Need to make LCA

broader (more impacts, also covering
economic and social aspects)
deeper (more precise, more
mechanisms)
How to make LCA broader and
deeper
three major options:
extension of LCA
hybrid LCA
use of toolbox (with additional quantitative
tools, or using pass-fail criteria)
LCA is not perfect. Important directions for improvement

are indicated here, making it broader and deeper.
Three strategies to achieve this are listed as well. More
on the last strategy in the next few slides.

HASIL-
HASIL
PENELITIAN
LIFE-CYCLE ANALYSIS: USES AND PITFALLS
Linda Gaines and Frank Stodolsky
Conference Paper : Air & Waste Management Association 90th Annual Meeting &
Exhibition. Date: June 8-13, 1997. Toronto, Ontario, Canada
There has been a recent trend toward the use of lifecycle analysis (LCA)
as a decision-making tool. However, the different practitioners' methods
and assumptions vary widely, as do the interpretations put on the results.
The lack of uniformity has been addressed by such groups as the Society
of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) and the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO), but standardization of
methodology assures neither meaningful results nor appropriate use of
the results. This paper examines the types of analysis that are possible
for various consumer products, explains possible pitfalls to be avoided,
and suggests ways that LCA can be used as part of a rational decision-
making procedure. Examples are drawn from studies of municipal waste
disposition, using standard methodology.
The key to performing a useful analysis is identification of the factors that

will actually be used in making the decision. It makes no sense to analyze
system energy use in detail if direct financial cost is to be the decision
criterion. Criteria may depend on who is making the decision (consumer,
producer, regulator). LCA can be used to track system performance for a
variety of criteria, including emissions, energy use, and monetary costs,
and these can have spatial and temporal distributions. Real decisions are
often made using rather narrow criteria; we illustrate how choice of criteria
and differences in location can affect decisions. Because optimization of
one parameter is likely to worsen another, identification of trade-offs is an
important function of LCA.
Diunduh dari: www.transportation.anl.gov/pdfs/TA/104.pdf. 5/1/2013

Lifecycle analysis (LCA) is a powerful tool, often used as an aid to

decision making in industry and for public policy. LCA forms the
foundation of the newly-invented field of industrial ecology.
There are several possible uses and users for this tool. It can be used to
evaluate the impacts from a process or from production and use of a
product. Impacts from competing products or processes can be compared
to help manufacturers or consumers choose among options, including
foregoing the service the product or process would have provided
because the impacts are too great.
Information about impacts can be used by governments to set regulations,

taxes, or tariffs; to allocate funds for research and development (R&D) or
low-interest loans; or to identify projects worthy to receive tax credits. In
addition, LCA can identify key process steps and, most important, key
areas where process changes, perhaps enabled by R&D, could
significantly reduce impacts.
Analysts can use the results to help characterize the ramifications of

possible policy options or technological changes.
Diunduh dari: www.transportation.anl.gov/pdfs/TA/104.pdf . 5/1/2013

The basic procedure is, in concept, relatively straightforward. Examine the

entire system, evaluate the impacts, and choose the best option. But in
actual practice, there are a number of difficulties. Each of the key words
used in describing the procedure needs careful definition, or the results
obtained may be different.
The system must be defined so that the entire lifecycle is included, or

important effects may be neglected. Alternatively, smaller systems with
equivalent inputs and outputs can be compared.
The impacts of concern must be identified, and these can range from a
single air emission (e.g., CO2) to total financial costs. Impacts may be
difficult to evaluate, and they may be regional or global, as well as
distributed in time.
The analyst or decision-maker must finally decide what is meant by "best."

If there are trade-offs among impacts, how should they be weighted?
Different weightings might imply different decisions.

Conference Paper : Air & Waste
LCA Management
CONCEPTS Association 90th Annual Meeting &
This section briefly describes our concept of LCA. LCA is an effective tool
when a decision must be made about how to deal with a specific, limited
problem. (For some purposes, larger problems can be tackled, but these
and the associated institutional issues are very complicated.). The logical
steps in the LCA procedure are described below.
System Definition -- The first step in a complete LCA is to determine what
consumers actually require. They do not usually require a specific product
made from a specific material, but rather a service that will meet their
primary needs (such as freshness of the contents of a package).
Once the actual requirements are identified, the next step is to define all
of the acceptable means to satisfy them (such as using a different
process to produce the product or recycling it). All of the inputs and
outputs associated with each option must be identified; care must be
taken to ensure that systems to be compared have equivalent
functionality. For instance, if one produces a co-product, appropriate
credits must be given.
Life-Cycle Inventory -- The next step in the analysis is to actually perform

an inventory of all of the inputs and outputs for every element of the
system and for each process or product option. Two alternative methods
can be used: input/output (I/O) analysis and process analysis. Each has
advantages and disadvantages, but we prefer to use process analysis
because newer data are generally available and the effects of
technological changes are more apparent. On the other hand, I/O
captures all the effects from a process throughout the entire economy.
The collection and interpretation of data for process analysis are nontrivial
activities and the subject of a considerable volume of literature. We
employed flowcharts to aid in our understanding of energy and material
flows in industrial processes (inputs and outputs, including residuals). An
example is provided in Figure 1.

Criteria Choice -- The analyst must then determine the goals to be

accomplished (i.e., define the criteria to be used for choosing the best
option). The choice of criteria is a policy decision; the criteria should be
meaningful and explicit, rather than vague "motherhood and apple pie
justifications like conserving resources.
Which resources do we want to conserve?

Possibilities include energy in general, fossil fuels, trees, landfill space,
and clean air. Other possible goals include minimizing costs, either for
production or over the product's life cycle. But any decision (including
changes in lifestyle that would reduce or eliminate the demand) involves
trade-offs. It is often difficult to conserve one resource without using more
of another. So priorities must be more detailed, and may differ, depending
on who is setting the policy and where the decision is being made.
Minimizing the total cost to society might be considered the ultimate

criterion for a product or process choice. We attempted to analyze total
costs in an early work on power generation options.(1)
The total social cost includes the direct financial cost and indirect costs.
Indirect costs, which differ for virgin and recycled products, are generally
not reflected in the market price of the products. Indirect costs can result
from impacts on unpriced resources (such externalities as air and water
quality, wilderness, parks, and wildlife habitats), as well as costs to other
parties (such as damage to buildings from acid rain).
External costs are sometimes internalized by the government through

regulations, such as limits on SO2 emissions from utilities and industrial
boilers. Other social costs that may not be adequately reflected in the
market price are the time-related or strategic values of resources.

The LCA examples presented below is study of alternative

disposition option for municipal solid waste (msw).
Recycling of Solid Waste -- The second example is more insidious,

because this generally competent and objective study for a public interest
group does not technically make any errors.
However, there is a flaw (or is it a feature?) in the data presentation that
supports a policy option that appears inconsistent with the presumed
decision criteria. The study includes detailed appendices with careful
estimates, using the SETAC methodology, of lifecycle inventories of
energy and emissions for manufacture and recycling of each of the major
components in municipal solid waste. Again, the material of interest is
kraft paper, and the text includes the key fact that recycling of kraft paper
may actually require more fossil fuel than does production from trees. The
conclusion based on this fact was highlighted in our work on MSW (4): if
fossil fuel use (and CO2 emissions) is to be minimized, perhaps kraft
paper should be burned for energy rather than recycled, in order to
conserve fossil fuel. No such conclusion is made in the example report,
however. Instead, total energy use for all of the components in MSW is
added up. The aggregation obscures important differences among
materials.
The total energy use when MSW is recycled is correctly found to be lower than when
all of the material is landfilled. Therefore, maximum recycling is the option suggested
in both the main report text and in the executive summary, where only aggregated
results are presented.
Moreover, the report implies that a major opportunity for increased recycling is
increased paper recovery. The important information about paper recycling remains
buried in the appendix. The more appropriate MSW strategy to conserve fossil fuel
and minimize emissions, a mixed strategy including combustion of some
components, should have been highlighted.
Diunduh dari: www.transportation.anl.gov/pdfs/TA/104.pdf. 5/1/2013

LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT AND THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF
BUILDINGS: A REVIEW
Mohamad Monkiz Khasreen , Phillip F.G. Banfill and Gillian F. Menzies
Sustainability 2009, 1, 674-701
Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA) is one of various management tools for

evaluating environmental concerns. This paper reviews LCA from a
buildings perspective.
It highlights the need for its use within the building sector, and the
importance of LCA as a decision making support tool. It discusses LCA
methodologies and applications within the building sector, reviewing some
of the life-cycle studies applied to buildings or building materials and
component combinations within the last fifteen years in Europe and the
United States.
It highlights the problems of a lack of an internationally comparable and
agreed data inventory and assessment methodology which hinder the
application of LCA within the building industry.
It identifies key areas for future research as

1. The whole process of construction,
2. The relative weighting of different environmental impacts and
3. Applications in developing countries.
Diunduh dari: . 5/1/2013

BUILDINGS: A REVIEW
Life-Cycle Assessment
There are many methods available for assessing the environmental
impacts of materials and components within the building sector. While
adequate to an extent for a particular purpose, they have disadvantages.
LCA is a methodology for evaluating the environmental loads of processes
and products during their whole life-cycle [15]. The assessment includes
the entire life-cycle of a product, process, or system encompassing the
extraction and processing of raw materials; manufacturing, transportation
and distribution; use, reuse, maintenance, recycling and final disposal
[16]. LCA has become a widely used methodology, because of its
integrated way of treating the framework, impact assessment and data
quality [17]. LCA methodology is based on ISO 14040 and consists of four
distinct analytical steps: defining the goal and scope, creating the life-
cycle inventory, assessing the impact and finally interpreting the results
[18]. Employed to its full, LCA examines environmental inputs and outputs
related to a product or service life-cycle from cradle to grave, i.e., from
raw material extraction, through manufacture, usage phase, reprocessing
where needed, to final disposal.
Diunduh dari: www.rpd-mohesr.com/uploads/custompages/sust..pdf . 5/1/2013

BUILDINGS: A REVIEW
ISO 14040 defines LCA as: A technique for assessing the

environmental aspects and potential impacts associated with a
product, by: compiling an inventory of relevant inputs and outputs
of a product system; evaluating the potential environmental
impacts; and interpreting the results of the inventory analysis and
impact assessment phases.
LCA is often employed as an analytical decision support tool.

Historically it has found popular use comparing established ways
of making and processing materials, for example comparing
recycling with incineration as a waste management option .
LCA is increasingly being seen as a tool for the delivery of more

eco-efficient life-cycles.

BUILDINGS: A REVIEW
The UN Environment Program published the Life-cycle

Assessment: What Is and How to Do it, and The European
Environment Agencys Life-cycle Assessment: A Guide to
Approaches, Experiences and Information Sources .
There were many initiatives to standardize the methodology of

life-cycle assessment; the Canadian Standards Association
released the worlds first national LCA guideline Z-760
Environmental Life-cycle Assessment in 1994, to provide in-depth
information on LCA methodology .
The most recognized standards were the ones published by the

International Standards Organization ISO :
1. ISO 14040 Environmental management, LCA, Principles and
framework (1997).
2. ISO 14041 Environmental management, LCA, Goal definition
and inventory analysis (1998).
3. ISO 14042 Environmental management, LCA, Life-cycle
impact assessment (2000).
4. ISO 14043 Environmental management, LCA, Life-cycle
interpretation (2000).

BUILDINGS: A REVIEW
The building industry, governments, designers and researchers of

buildings are all affected by the trend of sustainable production and eco-
green strategies. The importance of obtaining environment-related
product information by LCA is broadly recognized, and LCA is one of the
tools to help achieve sustainable building practices.
Applying LCA in the building sector has become a distinct working area
within LCA practice. This is not only due to the complexity of buildings but
also because of the following factors, which combine to make this sector
unique in comparison to other complex products.
1. First, buildings have long lifetimes, often more than 50 years, and it is
difficult to predict the whole life-cycle from cradle-to-grave.
2. Second, during its life span, the building may undergo many changes
in its form and function, which can be as significant, or even more
significant, than the original product. The ease with which changes
can be made and the opportunity to minimize the environmental
effects of changes are partly functions of the original design.
3. Third, many of the environmental impacts of a building occur during its
use. Proper design and material selection are critical to minimize
those in-use environmental loads.
4. Fourth, there are many stakeholders in the building industry. The
designer, who makes the decisions about the final building or its
required performance, does not produce the components, nor does he
or she build the building. Traditionally, each building is unique and is
designed as such. There is very little standardization in whole building
design, so new choices have to be made for each specific situation.

BUILDINGS: A REVIEW
Life-Cycle Assessment Methods in Building
ISO 14040 defined four main phases of life-cycle assessment

study, each affecting the other phases
in some way (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Life-cycle assessment framework [18].
Goal and scope

definition
Interpretation
Inventory Analysis
Impact Assessment Study

Outcome

Energy and Buildings 36 (2004) 10211027
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT AND LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF
HEATING AND AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS, A SIMPLIED CASE
STUDY
Matjaz Prek
During the design process of heating and air conditioning systems, the
designer must analyse various factors in order to determine the
best design options. Therefore, the environmental aspects of a product
should be included in the analysis and selection of design options
if an environmentally aware design is to be produced or selected.
The comparison between three different heating systems was made with
the Eco-indicator 95 method.
The study included the environmental impact at the production phase of

the system, because alternative production methods have different kinds
of environmental burdens.
The results showed that the three different concepts of heating systems
with different construction materials varied the Eco-indicator value. For
radiator heating system the Eco-indicator value is far superlative than for
oor or fan coil convector heating system. Copper pipes and other copper
parts contribute to the greatest environmental impact.
Radiator heating Eco-indicator showed three times higher value for
copper pipes than for the steel pipes despite smaller dimensions.
The lowest values are obtained for oor heating systems. Reasonable
values are obtained for fan coil units; analysis shows up, that heat
exchanger contributes the main part of the value.

HEATING AND AIR
CONDITIONING SYSTEMS, A SIMPLIED CASE STUDY
Matjaz Prek
A major goal of these studies is to present the consequences of

designers choices during the design phase.
Selecting and designing of heating and air-conditioning systems affects
the costs and the environmental impacts.
This study dealt with effects of selecting the heating system as a part of
building services systems of a dwelling in a residential building. The work
was carried out by studying alternative combinations of heating systems
in model building.
In the study the LCA methodology was used. It has become one of the
most actively considered techniques for the study and analysis of
strategies to meet environmental challenges.
The strengths of LCAs derive from their roots in traditional engineering

and process analysis. Also vital is the techniques recognition that the
consequences of changes in technological undertakings may extend far
beyond the immediate, or local, environment.
A technological process or a change in process can produce a range of

consequences whose impacts can only be perceived when the entire
range is taken into consideration.

HEATING AND AIR
Matjaz Prek
Life cycle assessment and Eco-indicator methodology
Life cycle assessment is dened by ISO 14000 series standards [58] and
is conducted by compiling an inventory of relevant inputs and outputs of a
product system by evaluating the potential environmental impacts
associated with the inputs and outputs and by interpreting the results of
the inventory analysis and impact assessment phases.
The LCA covers the whole life of the product; the study begins from the
raw material acquisition through production, use and disposal.
The main phases of LCA are goal and scope denition (dening aims,
product system and reach of the study), inventory (extractions and
emissions caused by the product system are quantied and related to the
product function), impact assessment (outcome of the inventory is
analysed with respect to their environmental relevance) and interpretation
(results are evaluated with regard to the goal of the study).

HEATING AND AIR
Matjaz Prek
An LCA starts with a systematic inventory of all emissions and the

resource consumption during a products entire life cycle. The
result of this inventory is a list of emissions, consumed resources
and non-material impacts like land use.
This table is termed the inventory result. Since usually inventory
tables are very long and hard to interpret, it is common practice to
sort the impacts by the impact category and calculate a score for
impact categories such as greenhouse effect, ozone layer
depletion, and acidication.
Once the category indicator results are generated, additional
techniques are used to analyse the category indicator results
(normalisation) and the valuation process to aggregate across
impact categories (valuation or weighting).
How these impact categories are to be weighted is much less

clear. For this reasons it is frequently the case that the result of an
LCA cannot be unambiguously interpreted.

HEATING AND AIR
Matjaz Prek
The importance of the LCA approach, including the LCIA phase,

lies in LCAs key featurea system-wide perspective and the use
of inventory functional unit to normalize the data.
Weighting is an optional element to be included separately to

better understand the ecological consequences of results from
the inventory analysis. This procedure, starting with the inventory
result and then trying to interpret it, is referred to as the bottom-up
approach.
Another possibility is a top-down approach. The top-down
approach starts by dening the required result of assessment.
This involves the denition of term environment and the way for
weighting the different environmental impacts.
The weighting of environmental problems is usually seen as the

most controversial and difcult step in an assessment.

HEATING AND AIR
Matjaz Prek
The Eco-indicator method has resolved these problems. The

LCA method has been expanded to include a weighting method.
This has enabled one single score to be calculated for the total
environmental impact based on the calculated effects , as is
schematically shown in Figure.
During the development of the weighting method for the Eco-

indicator much attention was given to dening the environmental
impact. The problem lies in determining the weighting factors.
In this method, the so-called Distance-to-Target principle was

chosen.

HEATING AND AIR
Matjaz Prek
A recently developed life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) is the

Eco-indicator 99 [6], the successor of the Eco-indicator 95
method.
Eco-indicator 99 methodology assesses the impact of emissions
to human beings and ecosystems.
Ecological impact is represented by the potentially affected

fraction (PAF) or potentially disappeared fraction (PDF) of
species, since the environmental impact is given as the global
warming potential (GWP), ozone depletion potential (ODP), etc.
The impact on human well-being is measured by disability

adjusted life years (DALY). This represents the years of life lost
and years lived disabled due to the impact of emissions and is
based on a approach described in [15,16].
For a given process, the emissions data are classied in several

impact categories and characterized in common units for each
category based on impact factors.
The improvements have been made for damage categories

themselves, inclusion of land-use as an impact or impact
category, inclusion of source depletion, better modelling of
damage functions and inclusion of cultural theory as a tool to
manage subjectivity.

Life Cycle Assessment Methods for Building Materials Recovery and
Reuse
George Guy, The Catholic University of America
Benjamin Holsinger, The Catholic University of America
Jim Schulman, The Community Forklift
This paper presents the results of a streamlined life cycle assessment (LCA) of
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and avoidance from one-years operation of a
community non-profit reused building materials store (RBMS).
The hypothesis was that a representative RBMS would provide a greater avoidance
of GHG emissions than will result from its operations.The mix of materials types in
any RBMS and lack of detailed inventories posed unique challenges in this
assessment.
A hybrid approach of economic input-output (EIO) LCA and direct process inventory
and impact assessment was taken to overcome data inventory obstacles1. The
environmental attribute calculated in this assessment were GHG as measured in
CO2 equivalents (CO2e).
The assessment was performed on the Community Forklift (CF) non-profit in
Edmonston, MD in 20112. It was estimated that CFs CO2e gross emissions for 2011
were approximately 285.6 tCO2e and its operations resulted in a gross 799.1 tCO2e
emissions avoidance. The net GHG impacts of CF for the year 2011 were -513.5
tCO2e. The largest GHG impacts occurred from donation pick-ups. The secondary
impacts were from building heating and electricity. The largest avoided impacts or
benefits came from the provision of reused building materials.
The recycling of mixed metals also had a significant positive impact.
The three Rs of Reduce, Reuse and Recycle are well-known by the average US
citizen as priorities for materials conservation and avoiding the impacts of waste. It
is estimated that approximately 30-40% of all US solid waste is a result of
construction and demolition (C&D) activities with an approximate 30% recycling
rate.
The C&D reuse rate is unknown, however, it is estimated to be a fraction of one-
percent of the C&D waste produced in the US each year. RBMS and reuse have not
been well-analyzed, as compared to recycling, for their potential environmental
benefits to the building materials and construction industries.
This study also identifies areas of potential environmental improvement by the

RBMS.
Diunduh dari: http://lcacenter.org/lcaxii/abstracts/521.html . 5/1/2013

CO-PRODUCT ALLOCATION IN LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT:
A CASE STUDY
Extended Abstract 2009-645-AWMA
Katherine A. Edwards AND Robert P. Anex
Trinity Consultants, 106 Main Street South, Suite 201, Stillwater, MN
55082
LCA is a helpful tool for measuring the energy and environmental impacts
of a product. Allocation plays an important role in LCA.
Assumptions made during allocation can have a significant impact on the
overall LCA result.
In the illustration developed here it was shown that GHG co-product
credits for ethanol and subsequently the overall life cycle GHG emissions,
depend on assumptions made regarding the end use of the co-products.
The method presented in this paper can likely be adapted to determine

co-product credits associated with both feed and fertilizer co-products
from the ever increasing number and types of biorefinery co-products.
Co- product credits for these applications may vary with the level of co-
product used for a specific application. In the case of animal feed the
value of the co-product most likely depends on the amount fed and in the
case of fertilizer the value to the soil most likely depends on the amount
applied.
The case study presented in this paper demonstrates that assumptions

are an important aspect and play a significant role in the overall results of
LCA.
Diunduh dari: www.trinityconsultants.com/WorkArea/DownloadAsset.aspx?id... .

5/1/2013
. J. Dvarionien, G. Zoblait-Noreikien, J. Kruopien, and Stasikien (2012)
Application of the Life-Cycle Assessment Method for Pollution Prevention
in Klaipda Sea Port.
Journal of Coastal Research
doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.2112/JCOASTRES-D-11-00167.1
Lithuania is one of the countries that have ratified the Marpol 73/78 Convention,
which foresees the tools of reduction and prevention of sea pollution by bilge water
and other substances. The Directive of the European Parliament and Council
2000/59/EB is addressed to the reduction of waste onboard ships and its wash
overboard.
Analysis of the ships entering Klaipda sea port has estimated that oil waste
constitutes about 74% of the whole collected waste amount. Engine bilge water is
specific and hazardous to the environment because it is a liquid compound of water
and oil products capable of making steady emulsions. It also acquires specific
properties during various technological processes. Equipment, technological
processes, specificity of the control related to combustibility and flammability, as well
as conformity to the requirements of the International and European Union Rights,
technological process management, and documents are needed for the
management of this specific waste. For this reason, separation of this oily water from
the common oil-polluted waste and analysis of these streams of waste treatment are
of great importance to enhance the effectiveness of environmental protection during
the management process of this oily waste.
Applying a system approach to the oily waste in the port, we set up a waste
management system algorithm based on the life cycle. The system of port waste
management is a set of technological processes, each of them performing a certain
function and requiring stock, electric energy, fuel, transport, heat, technological
equipment, etc. Having made the environmental assessment, a suggestion was
made to convert the waste resulting from the engine bilge water treatment into
energy and to use it in a technological process when closing (finishing) the life cycle.
In this paper, a life-cycle assessment (LCA) was performed to identify and quantify
the environmental impacts caused by the ship-generated waste management,
focusing on oily waters of the port of Klaipda. LCA methodology was used to
evaluate the environmental performance of ship-generated waste management of
Klaipda port, according to international standards.
Diunduh dari: http://www.jcronline.org/doi/abs/10.2112/JCOASTRES-D-11-00167.1.

5/1/2013
The environmental impact assessment of wheat and barley
production by using life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology
F. FallahpourA. AminghafouriA. Ghalegolab BehbahaniM. Bannayan
Environment, Development and Sustainability.Volume (Year): 14 (2012)
Issue (Month): 6 (December). Pages: 979-992
This study was conducted to assess the impact of cereals (wheat and barley)
production on environment under rainfed and irrigated farming systems in northeast
of Iran. Life cycle assessment (LCA) was used as a methodology to assess all
environmental impacts of cereal grain production through accounting and appraising
the resource consumption and emissions.
The functional unit considered in this study was one ton grain yield production under
different rates of nitrogen application. All associated impacts of different range of N
fertilizer application were evaluated on the basis of the functional unit. In this study,
three major impact categories considered were climate change, acidification, and
eutrophication. In order to prepare final evaluation of all impacts on environment, the
EcoX was determined.
Results represented that, under low consumption of N fertilizer, the environmental

impacts of both rainfed farming systems of wheat and barley was less than irrigated
farming systems. Considering grain yield as response factor to different fertilizer
application level, irrigated farming systems of wheat and barley with the range of
160180 and >220 (Kg N ha 1 ) showed the maximum impact on environment.
It seems LCA is an appropriate method to quantify the impact of utilized agricultural

inputs and different managements on environment. Copyright Springer
Science+Business Media B.V. 2012.
Diunduh dari: http://ideas.repec.org/a/spr/endesu/v14y2012i6p979-

Environmental impact assessment using a weighting method for
alternative air-conditioning systems
Katarna Heikkila
Building and Environment 39 (2004) 1133 1140
Requirements for the design of HVAC systems with low environmental impact have
become accepted in the past decade. However, the environmental performance is
complicated to evaluate, because the process is a ected by several parameters. This
paper presents a case study, in which a previously established method for
environmental evaluation is adapted. Two alternative air handling units were
analysed using life cycle assessment including the weighting step. The results,
according to the weighting method applied as well as the material assumptions,
show that the user stage of the life cycle of both units is the critical part of the overall
impact.
In an LCA study, the whole life cycle of a product or a system is taken into account.
This means that the assessment includes the extraction of resources, production
processes, the use and waste treatment of the product assessed. The LCA study
consists of four stages: goal and scope, inventory analysis (LCI), impact assessment
(LCIA) and interpretation.
The goal and scope stage species the intention of the study, as well as its
application and audience. Moreover, limitations of the study are specied and the
functional unit, which is a quantied performance of a product system , is dened. In
the LCI, the inventory data on materials and energy ows for the product during its life
cycle are collected. This is the most extensive and time-consuming phase of the
study, because the information is not always available.
Since the production processes of a material involve several stages (producers,
transporters, etc.), the compilation of the information is time consuming and
sometimes fragmentary.
Results of the LCI are given as emissions (in kg) with various e ects on the
environment. In next phase, the LCIA, the various kinds of emissions are assigned to
impact categories (e.g. climate change), and category indicator results are calculated
(e.g. kg of CO2 equivalents). In the interpretation phase, the information from the
earlier phases is evaluated.
Diunduh dari: stuff.mit.edu/.../... 6/1/2013

. Life Cycle environmental Assessment (LCA) of sanitation systems including
sewerage: Case of vertical flow constructed wetlands versus activated sludge
P. Rouxa, C. Boutinb, E. Rischa, A. Hduitc
12th IWA International Conference on Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control
Venise ITA, 4-8 octobre 2010
The article presents the application of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) to a

complete sanitation system including the sewer network. It first describes
the LCA hypothesis which concerns two types of waste water-treatment
plant with the same daily nominal load in BOD5 and associated to the
same sewer network derived from the Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) database
Ecoinvent.
The two wastewater treatment systems compared are (i) a Vertical Flow
Constructed Wetlands (VFCW) for which a detailed inventory was
elaborated and (ii) an activated sludge stemming from the LCI database
Ecoinvent.
LCA scores of VFCW highlight the importance of eutrophication which can

be easily explained by the incomplete removal of total N and total P in a
VFCW.
In a more surprising way, the impact of the network seems considerable.
Finally, the article analyses the applicability and limitations of LCA for
wastewater treatment with regard to water quality and the needed
improvements of water status in LCA.
Diunduh dari: hal.cirad.fr/docs/00/57/24/79/PDF/MO2010-

METODE
LCA is a method developed to carry out a comparison of environmental
impacts of products, technologies or services on their whole life cycle, so
called from cradle to grave (Haes et al., 2002). The emissions to all
environmental compartments and resource consumption during
production, use and disposal are considered.
The LCA framework is defined according to international standards (ISO
14040-14044) and for its effective implementation databases of
processes, material and energy flows are used (Ecoinvent database in
this study).
The LCA method consists of 4 main phases described in this paper: (1)
Goal and scope definition (2) Life Cycle Inventory - LCI (3) Life Cycle
Impact Assessment LCIA (4) Interpretation.
Within the LCA conceptual framework, impact categories have been

defined following the description of environmental pathways, i.e. cause-
effect chains, as shown with some examples in Figure 1.
This results in defining two main impact categories for Life Cycle Impact
Assessment (LCIA), the first one being the MIDPOINT indicator category
and the second being defined as ENDPOINT indicators. While midpoint
indicators do not account for potential damages they may cause to the
final targets, endpoint indicators are damage-oriented.
They must be understood as issues of environmental concern, such as

human health, extinction of species, and availability of resources for future
generations.
In this paper, the presentation of the results will use mainly midpoint
indicators from the CML method (Guine et al., 2001) and in one case the
endpoint Eco-indicator method (Goedkoop et al, 2001).
Diunduh dari: hal.cirad.fr/docs/00/57/24/79/PDF/MO2010-

Application of life cycle assessment to chemical processes
A. Burgess , D. J. Brennan
Chemical Engineering Science 56 (2001) 2589}2604
The literature on the application of life cycle assessment (LCA) to process

industry products and particularly to chemical processes has been
reviewed.
The main purpose of an LCA is to provide a quantitative assessment of

the environmental impact of products over their entire life cycle, with a
view to making improvements.
Application to processes, which are key parts of the life cycle, is important
in the context of process design and development, and in the analysis of
processing chains. Reference is made to some important techniques for
environmental assessment which interface with LCA when evaluating
processes.
The essential features of the LCA methodology are reviewed and some
specific difficulties in the application of LCA are identified and discussed.
These difficulties include allocation of impacts to multiple products, the

de"nition of system boundaries, the quality of data, temporal and spatial
characteristics, and impact assessment methods. Consideration is given
to the combined use of LCA with economic evaluations, which is important
in the process industry context.
Finally, some cases of the application of LCA to speci"c chemical

processes are reviewed.

Application of life cycle assessment to chemical processes
A. Burgess , D. J. Brennan
Chemical Engineering Science 56 (2001) 2589}2604
Life cycle assessment

The use of LCA as a tool for assessing the environ mental impacts of products,
processes and activities is gaining wide acceptance. All direct and indirect
environmental impacts associated with the product, process or activity are included
in the assessment. The scope of the assessment encompasses extraction and
processing of raw materials, manufacturing and assembly processes, product
distribution, use, re-use, maintenance, recycling and "nal disposal (Consoli et al.,
1993; Kniel, Delmarco, & Petrie, 1996).
LCAs identify and quantify the process #ows and systems which are
major contributors to environmental degradation (Lee, O'Callaghan, &
Allen, 1995). This is important for identifying the areas for improvement
which will have the greatest in#uence on total life cycle impacts (Berkhout
& Howes, 1997).
Unlike some pollution prevention techniques which are centred around
single issues such as recyclability or reduced toxicity, LCA considers a
range of environmental impact categories (Curran, 1993; Lee et al.,
1995). Furthermore, while typical approaches to environmental protection
select the most effcient and cost-e!ective processes before determining
ways of reducing environmental impacts, environmental considerations
are part of the decision-making process from the beginning when using
LCA (Harsch, 1996).
1. Berkhout, F., & Howes, R. (1997). The adoption of life-cycle approaches by industry: patterns
and impacts. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 20, 71}94.
2. Consoli, F., Boustead, I., Fava, J., Franklin, W., Jensen A., de Oude, N., Parish, R.,
Postlethwaite, D., Quay, B., Seguin, J., & Vignon, B. (1993). Guidelines for life-cycle
assessment: A &Code of Practice'. SETAC.
3. Curran, M. (1993). Broad-based environmental life cycle assessment. Environmental Science
and Technology, 27(3), 431}436.
4. Harsch, M. (1996). Life-cycle assessment. Advanced Materials and Processes, 43}46.
5. Kniel, G. E., Delmarco, K., & Petrie, J. G. (1996). Life cycle assessment applied to process
design: Environmental and economic analysis and optimisation of a nitric acid plant.
Environmental Progress, 15(4), 221}228.
6. Lee, J., O'Callaghan, P., & Allen, D. (1995). Critical review of life cycle analysis and assessment
techniques & their application to commer- cial activities. Resources, Conservation & Recycling,
13, 37}56.

. System optimization for eco-design by using monetization
of environmental impacts: a strategy to convert bi-objective
to single-objective problems
Seong-Rin Lim, , Yoo Ri Kim , Seung H. Woo , Donghee Park , Jong Moon Park
Journal of Cleaner Production. Volume 39, January 2013, Pages 303311
Eco-design is an essential way to reduce the environmental impacts and

economic cost of processes and systems, as well as products. Until now,
the majority of eco-design approaches have employed multi-objective
optimization methods to balance between environmental and economic
performances. However, the methods have limitations because multi-
objective optimization requires decision makers to subjectively assign
weighting factors for objectives, i.e., environmental impacts and economic
cost.
This implies that, depending on decision makers' preference and
knowledge, different design solutions can be engendered for the same
design problem.
This study proposes an eco-design method which can generate a single

design solution by developing mathematical optimization models with a
single-objective function for environmental impacts and economic cost.
For the formulation of the single-objective function, environmental impacts
are monetized to external cost by using the Environmental Priority
Strategies. This enables the tradeoffs between environmental impacts and
economic cost in the same unit, i.e., monetary unit.
As a case study, the proposed method is applied to the eco-design of a

water reuse system in an industrial plant.
This study can contribute to improving the eco-efficiency of various
products, processes, and systems.
Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652612003782 . 6/1/2013

. System optimization for eco-design by using monetization of
environmental impacts: a strategy to convert bi-objective to single-
objective problems
Comparison of eco-design methods: (a) multi-objective optimization; (b)

proposed method converting a multi-objective problem to a single-
objective problem by using the monetization of environmental impacts to
economic cost.
Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652612003782

. 6/1/2013
objective problems
Concept of the proposed eco-design method. Environmental impacts of principal

contributors are monetized to external costs by using the Environmental Priority
Strategies (EPS) as a life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) method for life cycle
assessment (LCA), which enables the tradeoffs between environmental impacts and
economic cost. The monetized external costs and economic costs are formulated
and combined to develop a mathematical optimization model with a single-objective
function.

. 6/1/2013
objective problems
Generalized superstructure model used to generate a water supply system utilizing

freshwater and wastewater. Modified from the model in Lim and Park (2007).

. 6/1/2013
. Life cycle assessment as a tool in environmental impact
assessment
Arnold Tukker
Environmental Impact Assessment Review. Volume 20, Issue 4, August 2000, Pages
435456
Various authors have stated that Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) differs
fundamentally from product Life Cycle Assessment (LCA).
This paper shows the contrary. LCA is a specific elaboration of a generic

environmental evaluation framework. EIA is a procedure rather than a tool, in which
LCA certainly may be useful.
Particularly in strategic and project EIAs, environmental comparisons of process and
abatement alternatives may be relevant. Although these alternatives may lead to
different emissions and effects at the location of the process itself (which is usually
the focus in project EIAs), they can also influence the demand for activities upstream
and downstream in the production chain.
Including such secondary effects in an EIA, which may be crucial for a proper
comparison of alternatives, requires a system approach that takes into account all
relevant effects.
This is, in fact, LCA. A review of five case studies shows that it is quite feasible to
use elements of LCA in EIA.

. 6/1/2013
A typical environmental evaluation in an LCA

. Life cycle impact assessment and risk assessment of
chemicals a methodological comparison
Stig Irving Olsen , Frans Mller Christensen , Michael Hauschild , Finn Pedersen ,
Henrik Fred Larsen , Jens Trslv
Environmental Impact Assessment Review. Volume 21, Issue 4, July 2001, Pages
385404
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Risk Assessment (RA) are two different
tools in environmental management.
This article identifies harmonies, discrepancies, and relations between the

two tools exemplified by the RA principles of the European Commission
(EC) and the LCA method, Environmental Design of Industrial Products
(EDIP), developed in Denmark, respectively.
A very important feature of LCA is the relative assessment due to the use
of a functional unit. RA, on the other hand, is an absolute assessment,
which requires very specific and detailed information on e.g. the exposure
conditions.
It is concluded that the conceptual background and the purpose of the

tools are different, but that there are overlaps where they may benefit
from each other and complement each other in an overall environmental
effort.

. 6/1/2013
. Life cycle impact assessment and risk assessment of
chemicals a methodological comparison
385404
Schematic overview of the principles of assessment of chemicals (Bro-Rasmussen,
1998). TGD and EUSES (the accompanying software model) can be used for
preliminary screening (priority setting), as well as for risk characterisation. The
principles of TGD can also be used for more specific RA, depending on purpose and
data accessibility. The RA has to quantify actual risks, and therefore, specific
information on the actual conditions of a given population is necessary. This is not
immediately possible in EUSES.

. 6/1/2013
. Life cycle impact assessment and risk assessment of chemicals
a methodological comparison
385404
Schematic presentation of the correlation between the product-oriented and the

chemical-oriented approach.
This is a very simplified description, because chemical substances can form part of a
product's life cycle in many different ways, e.g. a chemical substance can be the
product itself in some cases (if so, just a few fields of application are assessed), in
other cases, it may be a raw material or an auxiliary material. It might also appear as
a decomposition product/by-product in processes.

. 6/1/2013
. Life cycle impact assessment and risk assessment of chemicals a
methodological comparison
385404
Relationship between RA and LCA according to the time and site specificity.

. 6/1/2013
. Life cycle impact assessment and risk assessment of chemicals a
methodological comparison
385404
In principle, the assessments of emissions in LCA and RA are based on the same
data, but end up with different results. LCA furthermore includes use of ressources
and land.

. 6/1/2013
Braz. J. Chem. Eng. vol.21 no.3 So Paulo July/Sept. 2004
INCORPORATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT CRITERIA IN THE
DESIGN AND OPERATION OF CHEMICAL PROCESSES
P.E. Bauer; R. Maciel Filho
Environmental impact assessment is becoming indispensable for the

design and operation of chemical plants.
Structured and consistent methods for this purpose have experienced a
rapid development.
The more rigorous and sophisticated these methods become, the greater
is the demand for convenient tools. On the other hand, despite the
incredible advances in process simulators, some aspects have still not
been sufficiently covered. To date, applications of these programs to
quantify environmental impacts have been restricted to straightforward
examples of steady-state processes.
In this work, a life-cycle assessment implementation with the aim of

process design will be described, with a brief discussion of a dynamic
simulation for analysis of transient state operations, such as process start-
up.
A case study shows the importance of this analysis in making possible

operation at a high performance level with reduced risks to the
environment.
Diunduh dari: http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0104-66322004000300005

. 6/1/2013
LCA METHODOLOGY
LCA is a tool used to evaluate the environmental effects of a product, process or
system from extraction of the raw materials (oil, ores, fresh water, air, and so on) to
the final disposal of materials in the environment, commonly known as "cradle to
grave" analysis. LCA is normally applied (ISO 14040, 1997), as shown in Figure 1, in
four main phases:
1) goal and scope definition,
2) inventory analysis,
3) impact assessment, and
4) interpretation.

. 6/1/2013
LCA METHODOLOGY
In the first phase the purpose of the work is defined and the system boundaries
(temporal, geographical, and technological) and mainly the environmental impact
categories to be used are identified.
The second phase is concerned with data collection and the calculation procedures
for preparing the materials and energy inputs and outputs of any unit process
producing the LCI. These procedures may be almost completely rigorously
implemented using the chemical process simulation software.
The third phase is impact assessment (LCIA), and it is aimed at understanding and
evaluating the magnitude and significance of potential environmental impacts of the
system under study. It is essentially a quantitative procedure to identify, characterise,
and assess the potential impacts of environmental interventions identified in the
second phase.
The final phase in an LCA study is interpretation, which may be defined as the
systematic procedure to identify, qualify, check, and evaluate the results of the LCI
and LCIA. The main aim of interpretation is to analyse the results according to the
goals and scope and to formulate the conclusions and the recommendations that can
be drawn from the LCA. It can comprise five different kinds of analysis (Heijungs and
Kleijn, 2000):
1) contribution analysis,
2) perturbation analysis,
3) uncertainty analysis,
4) comparative analysis, and
5) discernibility analysis.
The chemical process design follows a series of stages, beginning with a preliminary
structuring of the process, based on an input-output description (Turton et al., 1998)
and concluding with a flowsheet of the final process. LCA can assist in the
environmental performance analysis during the whole sequence of stages.
1. Heijungs, R. and Kleijn, R. 2000. Numerical Approaches towards Life-Cycle Interpretation: Five
Examples, WP-SSP Working Paper 2000.001, Centre of Environmental Science (CML), Leiden
University, The Netherlands .
2. Turton, R., Bailie, R.C., Whiting, W.B., and Shaeiwitz, J.A. 1998. Analysis, Synthesis, and
Design of Chemical Processes, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall Inc .

. 6/1/2013
. Environmental Impact Assessment methodology with special
emphasis on European pork production
K. Reckmann , I. Traulsen , J. Krieter
Journal of Environmental Management. Volume 107, 30 September 2012, Pages 102109
One of the most discussed topics worldwide is climate change, upon

which livestock production is known to have a great environmental impact.
There are different methods to measure these environmental impacts,
some of which are mentioned in this review.
It especially focuses on the method of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA),
because it is widely used, of high relevance and good quality. This review
highlights a sample of the few published European LCA studies on pork
production.
These assessments result in an average global warming potential of
3.6 kg CO2- eq per kg pork, ranging from 2.6 to 6.3 kg CO2- eq per kg
pork.
Additionally, it illustrates the main limitations of the methodology itself (e.g.
data intensiveness, different allocation techniques) and its application in
pork production (e.g. limited data availability, use of multiple functional
units, varying system boundaries).
The missing comparability of various studies arising from a vague

standard still represents the main problem in LCA. Therefore, a new
standardisation and the development of a more exhaustive database
would generate a future trend.
Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S030147971200196X. 6/1/2013

Stages of an LCA (according to ISO, 2006a).

System boundaries of the pork production chain. In a typical cradle-to-gate study,

dark grey boxes are not taken into account.

Is it feasible to address indoor climate issues in LCA?
sa Jnsson
Environmental Impact Assessment Review. Volume 20, Issue 2, April 2000, Pages 24125.
Life cycle assessment (LCA) is frequently used as a tool for

environmental assessment of buildings and building products.
Generally, the main focus of LCA is the impact on the regional and global
external environment. However, there are important environmental
problems related to buildings that arise locally in connection with the
indoor environment, such as effects on human health.
The approaches of LCA, measurements of emissions from building

materials, and indoor climate assessment were studied to see how they
relate to each other from a methodological point of view, using volatile
organic compound (VOC) emissions as an example.
The possibility of including indoor climate issues as an impact category in

LCA of building products was investigated. Only very limited aspects of
the indoor climate could be addressed in LCA; thus, indoor climate issues
are preferably dealt with separately.

sa Jnsson
Environmental loads from the technical systems contribute to effects of

various orders in the natural environment

sa Jnsson
Life cycle assessment (LCA), material emissions assessment (MEA), and

indoor climate assessment (ICA) approaches, with the most common
types of input data

sa Jnsson
Life cycle assessment (LCA) and material emissions assessment (MEA)

start out from the technical system to assess the potential effects on the
natural environment, whereas indoor climate assessment (ICA) aims at
finding the causes of observed effects in the natural environment
Elements in the life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) stage, according to the draft of
ISO 14042

. COMBINING LIFECYCLE AND RISK ASSESSMENTS OF MINERAL
WASTE REUSE SCENARIOS FOR DECISION MAKING SUPPORT
Enrico Benetto , Ligia Tiruta-Barna , Yves Perrodin
Environmental Impact Assessment Review. Volume 27, Issue 3, April 2007, Pages
266285
Lack of regulations and standards on mineral waste recycling makes Life

Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Ecological Risk Assessment (ERA) useful
methods for environmental assessment of recycling scenarios.
An unsolved problem arises whenever two scenarios of recycling have to

be compared according to both ERA and LCA impact results considered
simultaneously. A methodology to combine LCA and ERA results and tools
toward Integrated Environmental Assessment (IEA) is proposed together
with three application examples based on case studies.
The most effective combination approach is to define further impact

categories for ERA to be considered with the standard LCA ones. Then,
the use of a multicriteria analysis method was proved to be an efficient
way to rank alternative scenarios with respect to all the results.
The key issues to be further researched are discussed and proposals are
suggested.
Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195925506001296. 6/1/2013

266285
Relationship between LCA and ERA (from Flemstrm et al.,

2004).

266285
Overall IEA (Integrated Environmental Assessment) scheme.

266285
Scheme for combining LCA and ERA results.

266285
ERA (a. from ADEME, 1999) and LCA (b, from Birgisdttir, 2005)
scenarios considered in the application example 1.

266285
ERA (a, from POLDEN, 2002) and LCA (b, from Mroueh et al., 1999)
scenarios considered in the application example 2.

266285
ERA scenario considered in the application example 3.

Aggregating and evaluating the results of different
Environmental Impact Assessment methods
Stavros E Daniel , Giannis T Tsoulfas , Costas P Pappis , Nikos P Rachaniotis
Ecological Indicators. Volume 4, Issue 2, June 2004, Pages 125138
The role of life cycle analysis (LCA) in identifying and measuring the
environmental impact of extended supply chains, i.e., chains involving
both forward and reverse activities, is very important.
Particularly, in the case of alternative supply chain management policies

or scenarios, life cycle analysis may significantly help to quantify the
environmental result of these alternatives for the purpose of comparison
and decision making. It is debatable, however, whether such comparison
is always possible.
Indeed, life cycle analysis has often raised discussion and disagreements,
especially regarding the stage of Impact Assessment (valuation), and,
until now, there is no generally accepted framework of analysis.
In this paper, different models are used in order to extend the usability of
the Environmental Design of Industrial Products method of Impact
Assessment.
Furthermore, research results that are produced by applying different

methods of Impact Assessment are examined in the cases of the recovery
and disposal chains of leadacid batteries.
Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1470160X04000160 . 6/1/2013

LCA polygon of the reverse supply chain resources consumption.

LCA polygon of the disposal chain resources consumption.

LCA polygon of the reverse supply chain ecological impacts.

LCA polygon of the disposal chain ecological impacts.

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LIFE

LCA merupakan suatu metode analisis lingkungan dan

Ketersediaan perangkat lunak (software) mempermudah

Life Cycle Asessment merupakan satu pendekatan Cradle to

Esensi dari Life Cycle Assessment adalah evaluasi dampak

A life-cycle assessment (LCA, also known as life-cycle

LCAs can help avoid a narrow outlook on environmental

1. Compiling an inventory of relevant energy and material inputs

Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment. 5/1/2013

There are two main types of LCA.

Social LCA is a different approach to life cycle thinking intended to assess

Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment. 5/1/2013

Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment. 5/1/2013

1. The functional unit, which defines what precisely is being

Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment. 5/1/2013

Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment. 5/1/2013

Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment. 5/1/2013

A key purpose of performing life cycle interpretation is to determine the

Interpreting the results of an LCA starts with understanding the accuracy

Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment. 5/1/2013

Diunduh dari: http://www.toolkit.bc.ca/tool/life-cycle-analysis. 7/1/2013

Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment. 5/1/2013

Data validity is an ongoing concern for life cycle analyses. Due to

Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment. 5/1/2013

Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment. 5/1/2013

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Eco-LCA is developed by Ohio State University Center for resilience, a

Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment. 5/1/2013

Life Cycle Energy Assessment (LCEA) of Building Construction

Diunduh dari: http://www.energyland.emsd.gov.hk/en/building/assessment/index.html . 7/1/2013

26. David MacKay Sustainable Energy 24 February 2010 p. 41

Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment. 5/1/2013

A recent study comparing energy consumption and greenhouse gas

Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment. 5/1/2013

Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment. 5/1/2013

This tool is specifically useful in the analysis of a product made from

Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment. 5/1/2013

Analysis of Environmental, Financial

A life-cycle assessment (LCA) is a comprehensive environmental management tool used

Diunduh dari: http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?pid=S1816-

Life Cycle of Product Systems

Some products have a dominating

Examples: Examples: Examples:

Life cycle assessment framework

The official LCA framework according to the International Standards: ISO

1. System boundaries: definition of processes that

2. Procedural aspects: organizational

Example of Product system and Inventory

Recycling and reuse

Cat. Indicator result (kg CO2 equivalent)

Intervention Effect Damage

VOC Summer smog

To interpret an LCA, you must check the

Conduct a sensitivity analysis: analyze

By recalculating the LCA with other

1. LCA is often associated with

Social LCA analyses social impacts, such

Sumber: LCA methods and methodology. Ireneusz Zbicinski; Lodz, Technical

Sumber: LCA methods and methodology. Ireneusz Zbicinski; Lodz, Technical

According to the ISO DIS standards, LCA is defined

It includes the various types of technical conversions

These consist of:

Sumber: LCA methods and methodology. Ireneusz Zbicinski; Lodz, Technical

According to ISO 14040, the formal