PPIP/PLG515

KESAMAAN PELUANG PENDIDIKAN (Equality of

Educational opportunity)

Pre-Industrial Europe:
 Kanak-kanak dipengaruhi oleh kedudukan kekeluarganya
 Bentuk pekerjaan juga dipengaruhi oleh pekerjaan bapanya
 Mengamalkan sistem patriarchal kinship
 Tanggungjawab keluarga bagi kebajikan anaknya
 Keluarga sebagai unit pengeluaran ekonomi

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Industrial Revolution

• Organisasi ekonomi berlaku di luar keluarga / rumah

• Peluang pekerjaan berlaku di luar keluarga
• Kuasa keluarga menentukan pekerjaan anak menjadi
semakin lemah
• Peranan keluarga sebagai tempat mendapat latihan
menjadi semakin lemah
• Peranan seterusnya - sekolah

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Pendidikan Awam
(Public Education)

 Mewujudkan pengalaman pendidikan yang sama

(kanak-kanak kumpulan atas – sekolah swasta)
 Sekolah berasrama – (boarding school) : bagi kanak-
kanak kumpulan rendah, mengguna kurikulum berbeza
 Struktur dualisma pendidikan awam menengah –
persediaan ke universiti
 Sekolah umum dihadiri oleh semua masyarakat

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England:
Peluang Pendidikan berbeza

• Perindustrian: pendidikan asas untuk tenaga buruh

• Tenaga buruh terlatih
• Kumpulan menengah – pendidikan yang lebih baik untuk
anaknya
• Satu bentuk social order – system of stratification

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U.S:
Kesamaan Peluang Pendidikan

• Pendidikan percuma kepada tahap memasuki tenaga buruh

• Mengguna kurikulum yang sama
• Kanak-kanak dari latar belakang berbeza berada di sekolah
yang sama
• Kanak-kanak dari kawasan yang sama berada di sekolah
sama
• Membuka peluang memasuki taraf sosial lebih tinggi

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National Education Association

• Kurikulum – persediaan memasuki kolej

• Kemasukan pelajar yang tidak berminat menyambung ke
kolej/universiti
• Kesedaran kepada keperluan kurikulum yang kurang
akademik
• Pengenalan kepada kurikulum neoclassical / college
prepatory vs terminal
 persediaan memasuki universiti
 persediaan pasaran kerja

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Pergerakan Pekerjaaan antara Generasi

( occupational mobility between Generations)

o Semua pelajar didedahkan kepada kurikulum sama di sekolah sama

o Pelajar didedahkan kepada kurikulum yang berbeza – peluang
pekerjaan berbeza
o Separate but equal facilities – identical teacher salaries and facilities
o Type of inequalities:
o Perbezaan input
o Perbezaan komposisi pelajar

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• Sifat Intangible : moral guru, jangkaan guru terhadap pelajar,

• Kesamaan hasil – inputnya sama
• Kesamaan hasil – inputnya berbeza
• Kajian:
 tertumpu kerada aspek keempat dan kelima
 Juga termasuk 1 hingga 3 – perbentukan polisi ( input tangible dan
segregation)

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Dapatan Kajian

• Susunan mengikut hairaki:

 educational background
 teacher quality
 facilities and curriculum
Finding:
• Children from educationally strong families would enjoy educational
opportunity far surpassing that of others
• Very large overall Negro-white achievement differences

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Dapatan Kajian
o Schools had little effect or no effect on student achievement when
the effects of a family background variables have been taken into
account
o The finding had generated a quiet pessimistic view on the influence
of education and on the influence of schools on teaching
o Issues:
 Used research design comparing positive and negative outlier
schools
 In availability of techniques for statistical analysis – Hierarchical
Linear Modeling (HLM)

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• They attended segregated schools

• Schools for black & other minorities were inferior as measured by:
 accreditation
 class-size
 teacher background
 school attended by white
• Schools vary from district to district and State on:
 Wealth – ability to pay
 governmental access / decision making process
 aspiration of the people

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• Kepentingan pendidikan
 bilangan tahun bersekolah penentu kepada pencapaian
pekerjaan
 keturunan juga menentukan pencapaian pendidikan dan
pencapaian pekerjaan
 Careers are thus shaped within the educational system

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Technical Function Theory of Education

• Common explanation for the importance of education in modern

society
 The skills requirements of jobs in industrial society constantly
increase because of technological change
 the proportion of jobs requiring low skill decreases and the
proportion requiring high skill increases
 The same job are upgraded in skill requirements

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Technical Function Theory

• Formal education provide the training in either specific

skills and general capacities necessary for the more
highly skilled jobs
• Educational requirements for employment constantly rise
– population are required to spend longer period in
schools

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Functional Theory of Stratification

• Occupational position require particular kinds of skilled

performance
• Positions must be filled with persons who have either the
native ability, or have acquired the training, necessary for
the performance of the occupational role

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Process of Stratification

• Educational requirements of jobs in industrial society increase

because the proportion of jobs requiring low skills decreases and
the proportion requiring high skill increases

• Educational requirements of jobs in industrial society rise because

the same jobs are upgraded in skill requirements.

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Formal education provides required job skills

 are better educated employees more productive?
National growth approach – the residual approach –
attributable to improvements in skill of the labor force –
increased education
Correlation of education and level of economic
development
Time-lag correlation

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• Direct evidence: the better educated employees are not generally

more productive, and in some cases are less productive
• Are vocational skills learned in school or elsewhere?
 Acquire their skills on the job
 High technical skills may be acquired on the job
 In profession where education is legal requirement for admission
to practice

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• Vocational training seems to be derived more from work experience

than from formal school training
• The nature of student cultures suggest that schooling is very
inefficient as a means of training for work skills
• Skilled manual workers acquire their skills on the job
• Schooling is very inefficient as a means of training for work skills

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Functional and Conflict Perspective

• Inadequacies of technical function theory of education

• Functional approach to stratification: a fixed set of
positions, that labor force must satisfy – the fixed
demand of skills.
• Functional demands change with the process of
modernization

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Conflict Theory of Stratification

 Status group may be derived from:

• Economic situation
• Power position
• Cultural conditions or institutions
• Struggle for advantage
 The struggle for wealth, power, and prestige is carried out through
organization
 Education as Status Culture
Schools is to teach status cultures, outside and in the class-rooms

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Conflict Theory of Stratification

• Education as a Mechanism of Occupational Placement

• Employers use education for selection or placement
• Education has been used as a means of cultural selection
• Education has been associated with high economic and status
position
• Education at all levels expanded faster in America than
anywhere else

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Survey / Tinjauan

 James S. Coleman & U.S. Office of Education

 Input resources: (facilities, curriculum an teachers)
 Educational background
 Intangible characteristics – morale,
 tiga aspek - Inputs to schools
 Dua aspek -Effects of schooling

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Keputusan kajian

• Susunan mengikut hiraki:

 educational background
 teacher quality
 facilities and curriculum
• Keputusan
• Children from educationally strong families would enjoy educational
opportunity far surpassing that of others
• Very large overall Negro-white achievement differences

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Modal Sosial (Social Capital)

• School Social Capital – (social cohesion) - perhubungan di antara
keluarga pelajar dan sekolah membawa kepada peningkatan
pencapaian pelajar
• Penglibatan keluarga – perhubungan keluarga dengan sekolah
• Program school outreach – program yang melibatkan ibu bapa pelajar
(program sukarela kumpulan ibu bapa)
• School ambiance – sekolah membekalkan environment / suasana
positif kepada pelajar (placing high priority on learning, reduce
conflict between teachers and administrators, good school
health/climate)
• Mewujudkan suasana pengajaran yang positif untuk guru
• Coleman (1988): Human actions are shaped not only by financial and
human resources (Becker, 1964, 1991) but also by the social context
within which the person is situated. Thus in order to maximize a
student’s success in life, financial and human resources must be
accompanied by social relationships.
• Social capital – refers to social networks available to parents that
enhance a pupil’s ability to benefit from educational opportunities 25
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Modal Sosial (Social Capital)

• Parents and schools that possess more social capital (stronger
relationship, ties and a strong sense of connectedness) promote
higher level of pupil achievement
• Social capital – social networks (communities, solidarity) that are tied
by social relations.
• Bourdiue’s (1977 and Bourdiue& Passeron, 1977; McDonough, 1997)
cultural capitalism – social reproduction of inequality in schools –
structural inequality within the system.
• Cultural capital stresses on bias and structural inequalities that exist
within the system and institutions
• Children from dominant class; middle-class parents possessing a
higher level of cultural capital are able to make educational choices
that advantage their children the most (Brown, 1990; brown & lauder,
1992).
• Children from dominant group come to school with cultural capital –a
home background with rich language usage and socially correct
behavior patters, that position them to do better than others in terms
of schools meritocratic norms. 26