TUJUAN HIDUP MANUSIA

DAN TUJUAN PEMBELAJARAN

 Harus dimiliki semua
orang

TUJUAN HIDUP MANUSIA Tidak bisa dilepas

(MENCARI RIDHA ALLAH) sesaatpun

Mewarnai semua tujuan

lainnya

KOMUNIS
PRINSIP HIDUP IDEOLOGI (SOSIALIS)

ISLAM

PROGRAM HIDUP
(AMAL SHALEH) KAPITALIS
 TUJUAN
PEMBELAJARAN:
1. Memahami dengan baik konsep-konsep dasar
Ilmu Ekonomi Makro;

2. Memahami konsep-konsep dasar tersebut untuk memecahkan

masalah/problem ekonomi makro seperti: pengangguran, tingkat inflasi,
melemahnya nilai tukar, defisit anggaran belanja negara dan sebagainya;

3. Memahami kebijakan pemerintah yang diterapkan dalam

perekonomian, khusunya kebijakan ekonomi makro;

4. Memahami konsep ekonomi normatif yang

seharusnya dilaksanakan dalam kegiatan ekonomi.
PENGERTIAN DAN
PANDANGAN ILMU
EKONOMI
 1. Inflasi
2. Pengangguran
MACROECONOMICS: 3. Nilai Tukar
Is the branch of Economics 4. APBN/APBD
which is concerned with the 5. Laju Pert Ek
overall performance of the (LPE), dst
economy
PENGERTIAN (Aggregate behavior)
ILMU EKONOMI
(ECONOMICS)
MICROECONOMICS: 1. Permintaan-
Is the branch of penawaran
Economics which today individual
(pasar)
is concerned with the 2. Prilaku
behavior of individual konsumen
entities 3. Perilaku
Economics is the study of how (Individuals behavior) produsen
societies use scarce resources to 4. Pasar
produce valuable goods and 5. Biaya produksi
services and distribute them 6. Persaingan
among different individuals 7. Harga input,
(Samuelson-Nordhaus, 2010:4) dst
 Scarce Resources:
Ilmu ekonomi itu ada (lahir) karena terdapat
kelangkaan sumberdaya (scarcity of resources)

to produce:
Berkaitan dengan pemanfaatan sumber daya (harus
efektif dan efisien = prinsip ekonomi)

KATA KUNCI
DEFINISI Valuable goods and services:
Berkaitan dengan barang dan jasa yang berguna
ILMU
(bernilai) bagi kehidupan manusia
EKONOMI

Distribute (distribution):
Berkaitan dengan fungsi pemasaran

Different individuals:
Pengguna barang dan jasa yang diproduksi (user),
mereka cukup beragam
 WHAT:
What goods and services are produced and
what quantities?

TIGA
FUNDAMENTAL HOW:
PERTANYAAN How are goods and services produced?
EKONOMI

FOR WHOM:
For whom are goods and services produced?
 The Circular Flow of Economic Activity
Reflecting The Outflows & The Inflows
10000
Economic Resources(Labor,Land,Skill,capital

8100
9000
7100
10000
Purchase of Goods & Services
HOUSEHOLDS PRODUCING UNITS
9000
10000
8100
7100 10000
Income Payments of Wages, Rent,
10000
Dividends, & Interests

Goods & Services10000

8100
9000
7100 Monetary
Policy
SAVINGS Capital/Money
INVESTMENTS
1000
900 Market
1000
Government
TAXES EXPENDITURES
1000 Sector 900
FOREIGN COUNTRIES
IMPORT SECTOR EXPORT
1000 1000 Fiscal
Policy
Principles of Economics
1. Introduction
2. Definition of Economics

3. Production Possibilities Frontiers

 Definition of Economics
Economics is the study of how
societies choose to use scarce
productive resources that have
alternative uses, to produce
commodities of various kinds, and to
distribute them among different
groups.
 Scarcity vs. Efficiency
 Economic goods are scarce or limited in supply.
 Free goods like air exist in such large
quantities. Thus, their market price is zero.
 Scarcity means that an economic good is not
freely available for the taking.
 Efficiency refers to the use of economic
resources to maximize satisfaction with the
given inputs and technology.
 Microeconomics vs.
Macroeconomics
 Microeconomics is the study of how
individual households and firms make
decisions and how they interact with
one another in markets.
 Macroeconomics is the study of the
economy as a whole with respect to
output, price level, employment, and
other aggregate economic variables.
 Adam Smith & John Maynard
Keynes
 Smith authored The Wealth of Nations in
1776.
 Founder of modern economics.
 Research into pricing of land, labor, and

capital.
 Invisible hand.

 Keynes authored General Theory of

Employment, Interest and Money in 1936.
 What, How, and For Whom
 What is the problem of decision to produce
possible goods or services.
 How is the choice of the particular
technique by which each good of the what
shall be produced.
 For whom refers to the distribution of
consumption goods among the members of
that society.
Production Possibilities
Frontiers

Antu Panini Murshid--Principles of

Macroeconomics
Production Possibilities Frontiers

 A simple two-good Scarcity

model of production Efficiency /

inefficiency and
 Production unemployment

possibilities frontiers Opportunity cost

 Use PPFs to illustrate Economic Growth

various concepts
Concave PPF
 Slope of the PPF
Linear PPF
 Examples
Antu Panini Murshid--Principles of
03/09/22 Macroeconomics 22
Production Possibilities
Frontier
 Suppose there are only two goods...
 …the production possibilities frontier, is a
graph showing the various combinations of
output that can be produced when all
resources are being utilized in the most
(productively) efficient manner possible,
given the current level of technology

Antu Panini Murshid--Principles of

03/09/22 Macroeconomics 23
Production Possibilities in a
Two-Good Economy
 Consider an economy that produces
computers and cars
 How can we illustrate the production
possibilities for this economy using a
graph?...

Antu Panini Murshid--Principles of

03/09/22 Macroeconomics 24
 Attainable and Unattainable
Production  All points on or
Possibilities
frontier inside the frontier
3,000 C
are attainable
B  Point A is attainable,
Quantity of so is point B. In fact
Computers A B is better!
Produced
 Point C is
unattainable
0 Quantity of 1,000
Cars Produced
03/09/22 25
Illustrating Concepts Using a
Production Possibility Frontier
 Scarcity
 Efficiency, Inefficiency and
Unemployment
 Opportunity Cost
 Economic Growth

Antu Panini Murshid--Principles of

03/09/22 Macroeconomics 26
 Scarcity
 All points on or inside the
frontier are attainable
 Points A and B are attainable
3,000 C  At point C more cars and
computers are being
B produced than at A or B
 But point C is unattainable.
Quantity of
Why?
Computers A
Produced
 Scarcity
 Production possibilities are
bounded

0 Quantity of 1,000
Cars Produced
03/09/22 27
 Efficiency, Inefficiency and
Unemployment
 All points on the PPF
are attainable if society
uses all of its resources
3,000
in a productively
efficient manner
 But point A, which is
Quantity of
not on the frontier, is
Computers A also attainable.
Produced  What is happening at
Inside the
A?
frontier!  Waste
 Unemployment
0 Quantity of 1,000  Inefficiency
Cars Produced
03/09/22 28
 Opportunity Cost
 Start at B1—800 cars and 1500
computers
 Say we want to increase the
3,000 number computers to 2000
Not Possible!  At point B2 we are producing
B2 C 2000 computers, but only 600
2,000 cars. To increase computer-
production by 500, we must
B1 give up car-production by 200
1,500
 The negative slope of the PPF
implies that whenever we
Quantity of increase production of one
Computers good…
Produced …we must give up some of the
other good
0 Quantity of 600 800 1,000
Cars Produced
03/09/22 29
 Economic Growth—Long Run
4,000  Over time an economy
can grow
 More labor and capital
3,000  Technological progress
 What happens to the
PPF?
 Shifts outward!
Quantity of
Computers
 Previously unattainable
Produced levels of production…
…now become
attainable

0 Quantity of 1,000 1,500

Cars Produced
03/09/22 30
 Economic Growth–Short Run
 Consider an economy at
point A
 Recession
3,000  High unemployment
 Suppose the central bank
cuts interest rates to bring
B the economy out of
Quantity of recession
Computers A
 The economy moves to B
Produced
 Unemployment falls, output
increases
 But production possibilities
are unaffected
0 Quantity of 1,000
Cars Produced
03/09/22 31
Why Does the PPF Bow
Outward?
 PPF does not necessarily have to be concave!
 But it is reasonable assumption. Why?
 Because not all resources are equally suited at
producing the same good
 Computer manufacturers make poor car makers and
vice versa
 If more and more resources were diverted into the
production of cars say, then even computer
manufacturers would find themselves on the
automobile assembly line. But their productivity
would be low!
Antu Panini Murshid--Principles of
03/09/22 Macroeconomics 32
 Illustrating the Point
 Suppose we go from A to B.
Production of cars is virtually
D As we move up unaffected, but production
3,000 C the PPF its slope of computers falls by 750!
decreases  Computer manufacturers
are lousy at making cars
 PPF is steep
Quantity of
Computers
 Suppose we go from C to D.
Produced
Production of computers is
virtually unaffected, but
production of cars decreases
A by 250!
750
 Car makers are lousy at
B making computers
 PPF is flat
0 250 Quantity of 1,000
Cars
Produced
03/09/22 33
 Linear PPFs
 The slope of the PPF….
…measures the opportunity
cost of producing good X (in
3,000
this case cars) in terms of
Slope = good Y (in this case
Y/X computers)
Slope at A…  If the PPF is linear, then the
Quantity of A opportunity cost of
Y
Computers equals Slope producing X in terms of Y is
Produced constant at all levels of
at B
B production
X  This is unrealistic, but linear
PPFs are easier to deal with
0 Quantity of 1,000
Cars Produced
03/09/22 34
Marginal Rate of
Transformation
 The slope of the PPF is sometimes
called the marginal rate of
transformation of good X (in this case
cars) for good Y (in this case
computers)
 For linear PPFs the MRTXY is constant
 For concave PPFs the MRTXY (o/c of X in
terms of Y) increases with X
Antu Panini Murshid--Principles of
03/09/22 Macroeconomics 35
 Measuring the Opportunity
Cost
 What is the opportunity
cost of producing cars?
3,000
 Pick any two points on
Slope = the PPF…
2,400 A
Y/X  As we move from A to
B…
Quantity of
Y DY = -1800 and
Computers DX = 600
Produced
Slope = -1800/600 = -3
600 B
X  O/C of 1 car is 3
computers
0 200 800 1,000
Quantity of
03/09/22
Cars Produced 36
Demand & Supply
MARKETS DEFINED

POTENTIAL POTENTIAL
BUYERS SELLERS

MARKETS
 DEMAND DEFINED

P QD A schedule or a curve that shows the

$5 10 various amounts of a product that
4 20 consumers are willing and able to
3 35 purchase at each of a series of possible
2 55 prices.
1 80
LAW OF DEMAND

An inverse relationship exists

between price and quantity
demanded
 As Price Falls…
…Quantity Demanded Rises
 As Price Rises…
…Quantity Demanded Falls
 LAW OF DEMAND
 DIMINISHING MARGINAL UTILITY
 INCOME EFFECT
 SUBSTITUTION EFFECT
 DEMAND CURVE
 INDIVIDUAL AND MARKET DEMAND
GRAPHING DEMAND
Price
P a
CORN 5
P QD
b
Plot the Points
4
$5 10
4 20 3
c

3 35 d
2 55 2

1 80
e
1

o Q
20 35 55 80 Quantity
GRAPHING DEMAND
Price of Corn
P a
$5
CORN
P QD
Connect the Points
b
4
$5 10
4 20 3
c

3 35 d
2 55 2

1 80 e
1
D
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Q
Quantity of Corn
GRAPHING DEMAND
Price of Corn
P
$5

What if
CORN
P QD
4
$5 10
4 20 3
Demand
3 35 Increases?
2 55 2

1 80
1
D
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Q
Quantity of Corn
GRAPHING DEMAND
Price of Corn
P Increase
CORN $5

P QD in Quantity
$5 1030
4
Demanded
4 2040 3
3 3560
2 5580 2 Increase
1 80 + in D’
1
Demand D
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Q
Quantity of Corn
GRAPHING DEMAND
Price of Corn
P
$5

What if
CORN
P QD
4
$5 10
4 20 3
Demand
3 35 Decreases?
2 55 2

1 80
1
D
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Q
Quantity of Corn
GRAPHING DEMAND
Price of Corn
P Decrease
CORN $5

P QD in Quantity
4
$5 10-- Demanded
4 2010 3
3 3520
2 5540 2 Decrease
1 8060 in
1
Demand D
D’
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Q
Quantity of Corn
DETERMINANTS OF DEMAND

 Tastes
 Number of Buyers
 Income
 Normal (Superior) & Inferior

Goods
 Prices of Related Goods
 Substitutes & Complements

 Unrelated Goods

 Expectations
 SUPPLY DEFINED
CORN
P QS
Supply is a schedule or a curve showing the
amounts of a product that producers are
$1 5
willing and able to make available for sale 2 20
at each of a series of possible prices. 3 35
4 50
5 60
 LAW OF SUPPLY
A direct relationship exists
between price and quantity
supplied
 As Price Rises…
…Quantity Supplied Rises
 As Price Falls…
…Quantity Supplied Falls
GRAPHING SUPPLY
Price of Corn
P Plot the Points
$5 e CORN

d P QS
4
60 5
c
3
50 4
b
2 35 3
a
20 2
1
5 1

o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Q
Quantity of Corn
GRAPHING SUPPLY
Price of Corn
P
$5 S CORN
P QS
4
What if $5 60
3 4 50
Supply 3 35
2
2 20
Increases?
1
1 5

o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Q
Quantity of Corn
GRAPHING SUPPLY
Price of Corn
P Increase S’
$5 S CORN
in P QS
4
Supply $5 6080
3 4 5070
3 3560
2
Increase 2 2045
1 in Quantity
1 530
Supplied
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Q
Quantity of Corn
GRAPHING SUPPLY
Price of Corn
P
$5 S CORN
P QS
4
What if $5 60
3
Supply 4 50
3 35
2
Decreases? 2 20
1
1 5

o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Q
Quantity of Corn
GRAPHING SUPPLY
Price of Corn Decrease
P S’
$5 in S CORN
Supply P QS
4
$5 6045
3 4 5030
3 3520
2 Decrease 2 20 0
in Quantity 1 5 --
1
Supplied
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Q
Quantity of Corn
 DETERMINANTS OF SUPPLY

 Resource Prices
 Technology
 Taxes & Subsidies
 Prices of Other Goods
 Price Expectations
 Number of Sellers
DETERMINANTS OF SUPPLY
 Resource Prices
 Technology
 Combining
Taxes & Subsidies
Prices of Other Goods

with
 Price Expectations
 Demand
Number of Sellers
MARKET DEMAND & SUPPLY
BUSHELS BUSHELS
OF CORN OF CORN
MARKET MARKET
P QD 200 DEMAND P QS 200 SUPPLY

$5 10 B 2,000 $5 60 S 12,000

4 20
3 35 x U 4,000
Y 7,000
4 50
3 35 x E
L
10,000
7,000
2 55 E
11,000 2 20 L
4,000
R E
1 80 16,000 1 5 1,000
S R
S
l l y…
ica
EQUILIBRIUM a ph
Gr
MARKET DEMAND & SUPPLY
Price of Corn
CORN P CORN
MARKET
$5 S MARKET
P QD P Q
4
$5 2,000 Market $512,000
S
Clearing
4 4,000 3
Equilibrium 410,000
3 7,000 3 7,000
211,000 2
2 4,000
116,000 1 1,000
1
D
o 2 4 678 10 12 14 16 Q
Quantity of Corn
 MARKET DEMAND & SUPPLY
Price of Corn
CORN P CORN
MARKET
$5
Surplus S MARKET
P QD At a $4 price P Q
4
$5 2,000 more is being $512,000
S

4 4,000 3 supplied than 410,000

3 7,000 3 7,000
demanded
211,000 2
2 4,000
116,000 1 1,000
1
D
Qd<Qs
o 2 4 678 10 12 14 16 Q
Quantity of Corn
MARKET DEMAND & SUPPLY
Price of Corn
CORN P CORN
MARKET
$5 S MARKET
P QD P Q
At a $2 price
4
$5 2,000 more is being $512,000
S

4 4,000 3 410,000
demanded than
3 7,000 3 7,000
supplied
211,000 2
2 4,000
116,000 Shortage 1 1,000
1
D
o 2 4 678 101112 14 16 Q
Quantity of Corn
MARKET DEMAND & SUPPLY
Price of Corn
CORN P CORN
MARKET
$5
Surplus S MARKET
P QD P Q
4
$5 2,000 $512,000
S

4 4,000 3 410,000
3 7,000 3 7,000
211,000 2
2 4,000
116,000 Shortage 1 1,000
1
D
o 2 4 678 101112 14 16 Q
Quantity of Corn
PRICE FLOORS
 Price Controls: Two Types
Price Ceiling
 A legally established maximum price at which
a goods can be sold.
Price Floor
 A legally established minimum price at which
a goods can be sold.
Price Floors
When the government imposes a
price floor, two outcomes are
possible.
 The price floor is not binding if set
below the equilibrium price.
 The price floor is binding if set above
the equilibrium price, leading to a
surplus.
A Price Floor That Is Not Binding...
Price of
Shave-Ice
Cone
Supply

Equilibrium
price

$3

Price
2
floor

Demand

0 100 Quantity of
Equilibrium Shave-Ice
quantity Cones
A Price Floor That Is Not Binding...
Price of
Shave-Ice
Cone
Supply

Equilibrium
price

$3

Price
2
floor

Demand

0 100 Quantity of
Equilibrium Shave-Ice
quantity Cones
 Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcour

A Price Floor That Is Binding...

Price of
#2 Wheat
Supply
Surplus

$4 Price floor

$3

Equilibrium
price

Demand

0 80 120 Quantity of
Quantity Quantity #2 Wheat
demanded supplied
Effects of a Price Floor
A price floor prevents supply and
demand from moving toward the
equilibrium price and quantity.
When the market price hits the

floor, it can fall no further, and the

market price equals the floor price.
 Effects of a Price Floor
A binding price floor causes . . .
 a surplus because Q >Q .
S D

 nonprice rationing is an alternative

mechanism for rationing the good,
using discrimination criteria.
 Examples: The minimum wage, Agricultural
price supports
 Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcour

A Price Ceiling That Is Not Binding

Price of
Oranges-lb

Supply

4 Price
ceiling
$3

Equilibrium
price

Demand

0 100 Quantity of
Oranges lbs
Equilibrium Quantity
 Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcour

A Price Ceiling That Is Binding

Price of
Oranges-lb

Supply

Equilibrium
price

$3

2 Price
ceiling
Shortage
Demand

0 75 125 Quantity of
Quantity Quantity Oranges-lbs
supplied demanded
INFLATION
Inflation : 
Inflation This is the process by which
the price level rises and money loses
value. There are two kinds of inflation:
a) Demand pull Inflation
b) Cost push Inflation
Demand pull inflation : 
Demand pull inflation , may be due to : Increase
in money supply and Increase in government
purchases Increase in exports

Cost push Inflation : 

Cost push Inflation Cost push inflation may arise
because of : Increase in money wage rates Increase
in money prices of raw materials.
 Demand pull inflation : 
AD’ Demand pull inflation , may be due to :
P AD ASIncrease in
Increase in money supply and
government purchases Increase in exports

P’ E’
P
E

O Q Q’ Q
 AS’
P AD AS

Cost push Inflation : 

P’ E’ Cost push Inflation Cost push
inflation may arise because of :
P Increase in money wage rates
E Increase in money prices of raw
materials.

O Q’ Q Q
DEMAND PULL INFLATION COST PUSH INFLATION
AD’ AS’
P AS P
AD
AD AS
P’ E’
P’ E’
P E
P E

O Q Q’ Q O Q’ Q Q
 THE BASIS OF RATE OF
INFLATION
 CREEPING INFLATION.
 WALKING INFLATION.
 RUNNING INFLATION.

 HYPER OR RUNAWAY INFLATION

 MELALUI KEBIJAKAN MONETER:
Attempt to influence target variables by changing the money
supply or interest rates, or both (Gordon, 1993:G5)

MELALUI KEBIJAKAN FISKAL:

Attempt to influence target variables by manipulating government
expenditures and tax rates (Gordon, 1993:G3).

MELALUI KEBIJAKAN PRODUKSI:

Dengan kebijakan ini, pemerintah berupaya menekan inflasi
KEBIJAKAN melalui perbaikan dari sisi supply, misalnya: (1) melalui
ANTI INFLASI perluasan lahan baru, (2) pemberian subsidi, (3) pemberian
bantuan bibit yang murah, (4) melakukan impor untuk
barang-barang tertentu, dst.

MELALUI KEBIJAKAN KOMBINASI:

Kebijakan ini dilakukan secara simultan melalui beberapa
kebijakan secara bersamaan, misalnya pemerintah dapat
memberikan kemudahan kredit bagi para petani,
keringanan pajak, subsidi, dan pembukaan areal lahan baru

PERBAIKAN POLA DISTRIBUSI:

Dengan lancarnya distribusi (pasokan) diharapkan inflasi
bisa ditekan
 DAMPAK INFLASI
 REDITRIBUSI PENDAPATAN
 DISTORSI HARGA
 DISTORSI PENGGUNAAN UANG
 DISTORSI PAJAK

SUMBER INFLASI
 DOMESTIC INFLATION
 FOREIGN INFLATION/IMPORT INFLATION

Antu Panini Murshid--Principles of

03/09/22 Macroeconomics 81
 MEASURING INFLATION

NOMINAL GDP
VS
REAL GDP

Antu Panini Murshid--Principles of

03/09/22 Macroeconomics 82
 NOMINAL GDP VS REAL GDP

GDP PRICE INDEX

PRICE OF MARKET BASKET
PRICE INDEX IN IN SPECIFIC YEAR
A GIVEN YEAR = PRICE OF SOME MARKET BASKET
X 100%

IN BASE YEAR

NOMINAL GDP
REAL GDP = PRICE INDEX
( in hundredths )

Nominal GDP
CONSUMER PRICE INDEX = X 100%
Real GDP
Antu Panini Murshid--Principles of
03/09/22 Macroeconomics 83
 Contoh perhitungan inflasi
Consumer
Price index AJDUSTED INFLATION
YEAR UNIT OF PRICE PIZZA Year 1 = 100 UNAJDUSTED OR REAL RATE
OUTPUT PER UNIT OR NOMINAL GDP
GDP
1 2 3 4 5( 2x3 ) 6(5 : 4 ) 7

1 5 10 100 50 50 -
2 7 20 200 140 70 100
3 8 25 250 200 80 40
4 10 30 300 300 100
5 11 28 280 308 110
 Contoh perhitungan inflasi
Consumer
Price index AJDUSTED INFLATION
YEAR UNIT OF PRICE PIZZA Year 1 = 100 UNAJDUSTED OR REAL RATE
OUTPUT PER UNIT OR NOMINAL GDP
GDP
1 2 3 4 5( 2x3 ) 6(5 : 4 ) 7

1 10 15 100 150 150 -

2 14 25
3 18 30
4 20 32
5 25 35
 PENGERTIAN DAN CARA MENGATASI MELEMAHNYA NILAI TUKAR

PENGERTIAN:
Exchang rates is the prices of its own currency in
terms of the currencies of other nations
(Perbandingan nilai mata uang suatu negara
dengan mata uang negara lain)

NILAI TUKAR NOMINAL (NER):

Perbandingan nilai mata uang suatu
negara dengan mata uang negara lain
dengan tidak memperhitungkan tingkat
NILAI inflasi di kedua negara tersebut
JENIS
TUKAR
NILAI
(Exchange TUKAR NILAI TUKAR RIIL (RER):
rates) Perbandingan nilai mata uang
suatu negara dengan mata uang
negara lain dengan
HUBUNGAN NILAI memperhitungkan tingkat inflasi di
TUKAR DENGAN NILAI kedua negara tersebut. Rumus
RUPIAH: nilai tukar riil sbb:
Nilai tukar sebagai
external value of
money
 PENGAWASAN PEMERINTAH

MENINGKATAN INVESTASI
ASING

CARA MENGATASI PENINGKATAN STABILITAS

MELEMAHNYA NEGARA (PENURUNAN RISK
NILAI TUKAR COUNTRY INDEX)

PENINGKATAN CADANGAN
DEVISA
 EXCHANGE RATE SYSTEM

FIXED EXCHANGE RATE FREE FLOATING MANAGED FLOATING

BAND INTERVENSION
OVER VALUEUNDER VALUE

DEPRECIATION
DEVALUATION APPRECIATION
REVALUATION

EXPORT INCREASE
IMPORT DECREASI
EXPORT DECREASE
IMPORT INCREASE