Institut Teknologi Bandung

Mekanika Fluida dan Hidraulika

Kuliah 3 (UTS s/d UAS)

Water Flow in Open Channels

1
 Introduction
Saluran terbuka adalah pipa dengan aliran air yang
mempunyai permukaan bebas
Pipe Flow Open Channel Flow

Fluida memenuhi pipa Aliran terjadi karena

secara penuh dan dalam
pengaruh tekanan. perbedaan elevasi dasar
saluran (kemiringan)
dimana pengaruh
Aliran dalam saluran gravitasi bekerja dalam
tertutup terjadi karena
perbedaan tekanan sistem aliran
(pressure gradient),
Aliran diklasifikasikan
Aliran dalam saluran dalam aliran saluran
tertutup tidak harus di terbuka apabila aliran
dalam pipa. mempunyai permukaan 2

bebas
Aliran dalam saluran tertutup Aliran dalam saluran terbuka

3
Untuk Aliran dalam Pipa (tertutup) (Gb. a):
The hydraulic gradient line (HGL) adalah penjumlahan elvasi dan
tinggi tekanan (tergantung dari permukaan air di piezometer).
The energy gradient line (EGL) adalah penjumlahan HGL dan tinggi
kecepatan.
hL didefinisikan sebagai jumlah kehilangan energi dari potongan 1 ke 2
Untuk aliran saluran terbuka (Gb. b):
The hydraulic gradient line (HGL) corresponds to the water surface
line (WSL); where it subjected to only atmospheric pressure which is
commonly referred to as the zero pressure reference.

The energy gradient line (EGL) is the sum of the HGL and velocity
head.
The amount of energy loss when the liquid flows from section 1 to
section 2 is indicated by hL. For uniform flow in an open channel, this
drop in the EGL is equal to the drop in the channel bed.

4
 Definitions

Energy Grade Line 2

1
V12/2g

hf
Sf

v22/2g
y1

Control Volume y2

So
1
z1

z2

Datum

Steady Uniform Flow in an Open Channel

 Definitions
Specific Energy
Energi yang diperlukan aliran air dari suatu
penampang untuk bergerak

Specific Energy E adalah, E = y + v2/2g

Y adalah kedalaman pada penampang
tersebut dan V adalah kecepatannya

Specific energy adalah minimum pada

kondisi kritis (aliran kritis)
 Definitions
Specific Force
Didefinisikan sebagai jumlah momentum yang melalui
penampang saluran per waktu per berat air
Gaya per unit berat air
F = Q2/gA +yA
Untuk specific forces dari dua penampang saluran
yang sama, akan mempunyai gaya luar dan
pengaruh berat air dapat diabaikan.

Pada kondisi aliran kritis, specific force adalah

minimum pada debit tertentu.
 Critical Flow
Flow is critical when the specific energy is minimum.
Also whenever the flow changes from sub critical to
super critical or vice versa the flow has to go
through critical condition

figure is shown in next slide

Sub-critical kedalaman aliran akan bertambah

besar sedangkan kecepatan akan berkurang.

Super-critical kedalaman aliran akan berkurang

sedangkan kecepatan akan bertambah besar.

Critical flow: Flow over a free over-fall

 Specific energy diagram

E=y
Depth of water Surface (y)

E-y curve

1
Emin

y1
C

Alternate Depths
yc

2
45

2
Critical Depth
Specific Energy (E) y

Specific Energy Curve for a given discharge

Normal depth adalah fungsi dari laju kecepatan,
geometri saluran dan kemiringan
Kedalaman Normal ataupun lebar dapat dicari dari
informasi kecepatan dan kemiringan dasar saluran
B

b
Normal depth implies that flow rate, velocity, depth,
bottom slope, area, top width, and roughness remain
constant within a prismatic channel as shown below

UNIFORM FLOW

Q =C
V =C
y =C
S0 = C
A =C
B =C
n =C
 1

z

Properti Geometri Cot = z/1

Optimal Channels - Max R and Min P
 H = z + y + v2/2g = Total Energy Energy Coeff.

E = y + v2/2g = Specific Energy = vi2 Qi

often near 1.0 for most channels V2 QT

Uniform Flow
Energy slope = Bed slope or dH/dx = dz/dx
Water surface slope = Bed slope = dy/dz = dz/dx
Velocity and depth remain constant with x
 Characteristics of Critical Flow
Specific Energy (E = y+Q2/2gA2) is minimum

For Specific energy to be a minimum dE/dy = 0

dE Q 2 dA
= 1 3
dy gA dy

However, dA=Tdy, where T is the width of the

channel at the water surface, then applying dE/dy =
0, will result in following

Q 2Tc Ac Q2 Ac VC2
3
=1 = 2 =
gAc Tc gAc Tc g
 Characteristics of Critical Flow
For a rectangular channel Ac /Tc=yc

Following the derivation for a rectangular channel,

Vc
Fr = =1
gy c
The same principle is valid for trapezoidal and other
cross sections

Critical flow condition defines an unique relationship

between depth and discharge which is very useful in the
design of flow measurement structures
Critical depth is used to characterize channel flows --
based on addressing specific energy E = y + v2/2g :

E = y + Q2/2gA2 where Q/A = q/y and q = Q/b

Take dE/dy = (1 q2/gy3) and set = 0. q=

const

E = y + q2/2gy2
y
Min E Condition, q = C

E
 Solving dE/dy = (1 q2/gy3) and set = 0.

For a rectangular channel bottom width b,

1. Emin = 3/2Yc for critical depth y = yc

2. yc/2 = Vc2/2g
3. yc = (Q2/gb2)1/3

Froude No. = v/(gy)1/2

We use the Froude No. to characterize critical flows

 E = y + q2/2gy2
Y vs E q = const
T

r y 1

21
T

r y 1

22
T

r y 1

23
T

r y 1

24
T

r y 1

25
26
27
Contoh 1
Saluran berbentuk segi empat dengan lebar dasar 5 m mengalirkan air dengan
debit 7,5 m3/d. Hitung energi spesifik apabila kedalaman aliran adalah 2 m.

Contoh 2
Saluran dengan lebar 10 m mengalirkan air dengan debit 25 m3/d. Tentukan
kedalaman air apabila energi spesifik adalah minimum (kedalaman kritis) dan
kecepatan kritis.

28
Critical Flow in Open Channels
In general for any channel shape, B = top width

(Q2/g) = (A3/B) at y = yc

Finally Fr = v/(gy)1/2 = Froude Number

Fr = 1 for critical flow

Fr < 1 for subcritical flow
Fr > 1 for supercritical flow
 6.1 Energy Principle in Open Channel Flow
The total energy of a flowing liquid per unit weight is given by:

V2
Total Energy = Z + y +
2g

If the channel bed is taken as the datum, then the total energy per unit
weight will be: 2
V
Especific = y +
2g
Specific energy (Es) of a flowing liquid in a channel is defined as
energy per unit weight of the liquid measured from the channel bed as
datum. It is a very useful concept in the study of open channel flow. 31
 2
V
Es = y + = E p + Ek Ep = potential energy of flow = y
2g 2
Ek = kinetic energy of flow = V
2g
Q2
Es = y + Valid for any cross section
2 g A2

Specific Energy Curve:

It is defined as the
curve which shows the
variation of specific
energy (Es ) with depth
of flow y.

32
 Specific Energy Curve (Rectangular channel)

Consider a rectangular channel in which a constant discharge

Q
q = discharge per unit width = = constant ( since Q and B are constants)
B
2
Q Q q q
V= = = Es = y + = E p + Ek
A B y y 2g y 2

Ep

EK
EP Es

yc

33
 Sub-critical, critical, and supercritical flow
The criterion used in this classification is what is known by Froude number, Fr, which
is the measure of the relative effects of inertia forces to gravity force:
V Q 2
T T
Fr = Fr = 3
2

g Dh Ag
V = mean velocity of flow of water,
Dh = hydraulic depth of the channel

Area of Flow (Wetted Area) A

Dh = =
Water Surface Width T
T

Fr Flow
Fr < 1 Sub-critical
1 = Fr Critical
Fr >1 Supercritical 34
Referring to the energy curve, the following features can be observed:

1. The depth of flow at point C is referred to as critical depth, yc.

(It is defined as that depth of flow of liquid at which the specific energy is
minimum, Emin yc The flow that corresponds to this point is called
critical flow (Fr = 1.0).
2. For values of Es greater than Emin , there are two corresponding depths.
One depth is greater than the critical depth and the other is smaller then
the critical depth, for example; E s1 y1 and y1'
These two depths for a given specific energy are called the alternate depths.
3. If the flow depth y > yc the flow is said to be sub-critical (Fr < 1.0).

In this case Es increases as y increases.

4. If the flow depth y < yc the flow is said to be super-critical (Fr > 1.0).

In this case Es decreases as y increases.

35
36
 Critical depth, yc for rectangular channel
Critical depth, yc , is defined as that depth of flow of liquid at which the
specific energy is minimum, Emin,
The mathematical expression for critical depth is obtained by differentiating
energy equation with respect to y and equating the result to zero;
q2
Es = y +
2g y2
dE d q2 q2 2
=0 (y + 2
) =1+ ( 3 )=0
dy dy 2g y 2g y
1
q
2 2 2 3
q q
1 3
=0 y =
3
yc =
gy g g
37
 Critical velocity, Vc for rectangular channel
2
q
yc3 = ,
g q
Vc =
Q Q q yc
V= = =
A B y y
2 2
V y
OR y=
3
c
Vc =
c c g yc
g
Vc
= 1 = Fr
g yc
38
 Minimum Specific Energy in terms of critical depth

q2
E min = yc +
2 g yc2 yc
2 E min = yc +
q 2
y =
3
c
g

3 yc 2 E min
E min = OR yc =
2 3

39
 Critical depth, yc , for Non- Rectangular Channels
dEs d Q2 2 Q 2 dA
=0 ( y+ 2
)=1 3
( )=0
dy dy 2g A 2 g A dy
Q2 dA
OR 1 ( ) = 0 (constant discharge is assumed)
g A3 dy
dA/dy = the rate of increase of area with respect to y = T (top width).
2
QT Q2 A3 condition must be satisfied for the flow
1 = 0 =
gA 3
g T at the critical depth.
A Q2
Recalling that D = = 2
h
A Dh
T g V2 Dh
The equation may also be written in terms of velocity =
2g 2

The velocity head is equal to one-half the hydraulic depth for critical flow.40
 Q2 A
E s = y+ 2
Es = y + This equation represents
2g A 2T the critical state

1 A
E c = yc + ( )
The general equation for the specific energy in
OR critical state applicable to channels of all shapes.
2 T
Rectangular section Trapezoidal section

3 yc ( 3B + 5n yc ) yc
Ec = Ec =
2 2 ( B + 2 n yc )

Circular section Triangle section

5
Ec = yc
d d ( 2 sin 2 ) 4
Ec = ( 1 cos ) +
2 16 sin 41
 Constant Specific Energy
The specific energy was varied and the discharge was assumed to be
constant. Let us now consider the case in which the specific energy is
kept constant and the discharge Q is varied.

Q2
E s y= 2
Q= A 2 g ( Es y )
2g A
Q2 = A2 (2 g ) ( E s y ) = 2 gA2 E s 2 gA2 y
dQ
The discharge will maximum if =0
dy
dQ dA dA 2
Q = 2 g E s ( 2 A ) 2 g ( 2 y A + A )
dy dy dy
dA/dy = T 2 g Es (2 AT )2 g (2 yAT )2 gA =0 2
42
4 E sT 4 yT 2 A = 0
A
2T ( Es y ) = A Es = y +
2T
Q2
but Es = y +
2 g A2
2 2 3
Q A Q A
y+ 2
= y+ =
2g A 2T g T

Thus for a given specific energy, the discharge in a given channel is a

maximum when the flow is in the critical state. The depth corresponding
to the maximum discharge is the critical depth.

43
44
 6.5 Hydraulic Jump
A hydraulic jump occurs when flow changes from a supercritical flow
(unstable) to a sub-critical flow (stable).
There is a sudden rise in water level at the point where the hydraulic
jump occurs.
Rollers (eddies) of turbulent water form at this point. These rollers cause
dissipation of energy.
A hydraulic jump occurs in practice at the toe of a dam or below a sluice gate
where the velocity is very high.

45
General Expression for Hydraulic Jump:
In the analysis of hydraulic jumps, the following assumptions are made:
(1) The length of hydraulic jump is small. Consequently, the loss of head
due to friction is negligible.
(2) The flow is uniform and pressure distribution is due to hydrostatic
before and after the jump.
(3) The slope of the bed of the channel is very small, so that the
component of the weight of the fluid in the direction of the flow is
neglected.

46
 Location of hydraulic jump

Generally, a hydraulic jump occurs when the flow changes from

supercritical to subcritical flow.

The most typical cases for the location of hydraulic jump are:
1. Jump below a sluice gate.
2. Jump at the toe of a spillway.
3. Jump at a glacis.
(glacis is the name given to sloping floors provided in hydraulic structures.)

47
The net force in the direction of flow = the rate of change of moment in that direction
Q
= (V2 V1)
g
The net force in the direction of the flow, neglecting frictional resistance and the
component of weight of water in the direction of flow,
R = F1 - F2 .
Therefore, the impulse-moment yields
Q
F1 F2 = (V2 V1 )
g
Where F1 and F2 are the pressure forces at section 1 and 2, respectively.
Q
A1 y1 A2 y2 = (V2 V1 )
g
Q2 1 1
A1 y1 A2 y2 = ( )
g A2 A1
Q2 Q2
+ A1 y1 = + A2 y2
gA1 gA2
48
y = the distance from the water surface to the centroid of the flow area
 Q2 Q2
+ A1 y1 = + A2 y2
gA1 gA2

Comments:
This is the general equation governing the hydraulic jump for any
shape of channel.
The sum of two terms is called specific force (M). So, the equation can
be written as:
M1 = M2
This equation shows that the specific force before the hydraulic jump
is equal to that after the jump.

49
 Hydraulic Jump in Rectangular Channels

A1 = B y1 y1 y2
y1 = A2 = B y2 y2 =
2 2
Q2 Q2 Q2 y1 Q2 y2
+ A1 y1 = + A2 y2 + ( By1 )( ) = + ( By2 )( )
gA1 gA2 g B y1 2 g B y2 2

Q q 2 y2 y1 y22 y12
using q= =
B g y1 y2 2

2 q2
= y1 y2 ( y2 + y1 )
g
, we get

2
2 q
y2 y12 + y22 y1 =0
g 50
This is a quadratic equation, the solution of which may be written as:

y1 y1
2
2q 2 y2 1 8 q 2
y2 = + + = 1 + 1+
2
y1 2 g y13
2 g y1

y2 2
y 2
2 q 2 y1 1 8 q 2
y1 = + + = 1 + 1+
2 y2 2 g y23
2 g y2

where y1 is the initial depth and y2 is called the conjugate depth. Both are called
conjugate depths.
These equations can be used to get the various characteristics of hydraulic jump.

51
 2
q
But for rectangular channels, we have yc3 =
g

3

= 1+ 1+8 c
Therefore,
y 2
1 y
y1 2 y1

3
y1 1 yc
= 1 + 1 + 8
y2 2 y2

These equations can also be written in terms of Froudes number as:

y2 1
(
= 1+ 1+8F1
y1 2
2
) F1=
V1
g y1

8 F22
y1 1 F2 =
V2
= 1 + 1+
y2 2 g y2

52
 Head Loss in a hydraulic jump (HL):

Due to the turbulent flow in hydraulic jump, a dissipation (loss) of energy

occurs:
H L = E = E1 E2

Where, E = specific energy

q2
For rectangular channels: E s =y+
2 g y2

q 2
q2
hence, H L = y1 + y2 +
2 g y1
2
2 g y2
3

( y2 y1 )3
After simplifying, we obtain E = H L =
4 y1 y2
53
 Height of hydraulic jump (hj):
The difference of depths before and after the jump is known as the
height of the jump,

hj = y2 y1

Length of hydraulic jump (Lj):

The distance between the front face of the jump to a point on the
downstream where the rollers (eddies) terminate and the flow becomes
uniform is known as the length of the hydraulic jump. The length of the
jump varies from 5 to 7 times its height. An average value is usually
taken:

Lj 6hj
54
 6.6 Gradually Varied Flow
Non-uniform flow is a flow for which the depth of flow is varied.
This varied flow can be either Gradually varied flow (GVF) or
Rapidly varied flow (RVF).
Such situations occur when:
- control structures are used in the channel or,
- when any obstruction is found in the channel,
- when a sharp change in the channel slope takes place.

55
 Classification of Channel-Bed Slopes

The slope of the channel bed is very important in determining the

characteristics of the flow.
Let
S0 : the slope of the channel bed ,
Sc : the critical slope or the slope of the channel that
sustains a given discharge (Q) as uniform flow at the critical
depth (yc).
yn is is the normal depth when the discharge Q flows as
uniform flow on slope S0.

56
The slope of the channel bed can be classified as:
1) Critical Slope C : the bottom slope of the channel is equal to the critical slope.

S0 = Sc or yn = yc
2) Mild Slope M : the bottom slope of the channel is less than the critical slope.

S0 < Sc or yn > yc
3) Steep Slope S : the bottom slope of the channel is greater than the critical slope.
S0 > Sc or yn < yc
4) Horizontal Slope H : the bottom slope of the channel is equal to zero.

S0 = 0.0
5) Adverse Slope A : the bottom slope of the channel rises in the direction of the
flow (slope is opposite to direction of flow).

S0 = negative

57
58
Classification of Flow Profiles (water surface profiles)
The surface curves of water are called flow profiles (or water surface
profiles).
The shape of water surface profiles is mainly determined by the slope of
the channel bed So.
For a given discharge, the normal depth yn and the critical depth yc
may be calculated. Then the following steps are followed to classify the
flow profiles:
1- A line parallel to the channel bottom with a height of yn is drawn and is
designated as the normal depth line (N.D.L.)
2- A line parallel to the channel bottom with a height of yc is drawn and is
designated as the critical depth line (C.D.L.)
3- The vertical space in a longitudinal section is divided into 3 zones
using the two lines drawn in steps 1 & 2 (see the next figure)
59
4- Depending upon the zone and the slope of the bed, the water profiles
are classified into 13 types as follows:
(a) Mild slope curves M1 , M2 , M3 .
(b) Steep slope curves S1 , S2 , S3 .
(c) Critical slope curves C1 , C2 , C3 .
(d) Horizontal slope curves H2 , H3 .
(e) Averse slope curves A2 , A3 .

In all these curves, the letter indicates the slope type and the subscript
indicates the zone. For example S2 curve occurs in the zone 2 of the
steep slope.
60
 Flow Profiles in Mild slope

Flow Profiles in Steep slope

61
 Flow Profiles in Critical slope

Flow Profiles in Horizontal slope

62
Flow Profiles in Adverse slope
 Dynamic Equation of Gradually Varied Flow
Objective: get the relationship between the water surface slope and other
characteristics of flow.

The following assumptions are made in the derivation of the equation

1. The flow is steady.
2. The streamlines are practically parallel (true when the variation in
depth along the direction of flow is very gradual). Thus the hydrostatic
distribution of pressure is assumed over the section.
3. The loss of head at any section, due to friction, is equal to that in the
corresponding uniform flow with the same depth and flow
characteristics. (Mannings formula may be used to calculate the slope
of the energy line)
4. The slope of the channel is small.
5. The channel is prismatic.
.
6. The velocity distribution across the section is fixed.
7. The roughness coefficient is constant in the reach. 63
Consider the profile of a gradually varied flow in a small length dx of an open
channel the channel as shown in the figure below.

The total head (H) at any

section is given by:

V2
H=Z+y+
2g

Taking x-axis along the bed of the channel and differentiating the equation with
respect to x:

dH dZ dy d V 2
= + +
dx dx dx dx 2g
64
 dH/dx = the slope of the energy line (Sf).
dZ/dx = the bed slope (S0) .
Therefore,
dy d V 2
S f = S0 + +
dx dx 2 g

Multiplying the velocity term by dy/dy and transposing, we get

dy dy d V 2 dy d V 2
+ = S0 S f 1+ = S0 S f
dx dy dx 2 g dx dy 2 g
or
dy S0 S f
=
dx d V 2
1+
dy 2 g

This Equation is known as the dynamic equation of gradually varied flow. It

gives the variation of depth (y) with respect to the distance along the bottom of
the channel (x).
65
The dynamic equation can be expressed in terms of the discharge Q:

dy S0 S f
=
dx Q2 T
1
g A3

The dynamic equation also can be expressed in terms of the specific energy E :

dy dE / dx
=
dx Q2 T
1 3
gA

66
 Depending upon the type of flow, dy/dx may take the values:
dy
(a) =0 The slope of the water surface is equal to the bottom
dx slope. (the water surface is parallel to the channel bed)
or the flow is uniform.

dy
(b) = positive The slope of the water surface is less than the bottom slope
dx (S0) . (The water surface rises in the direction of flow) or the
profile obtained is called the backwater curve.

dy
(c) = negative The slope of the water surface is greater than the bottom
dx slope. (The water surface falls in direction of flow) or the
profile obtained is called the draw-down curve.

67
Notice that the slope of water surface with respect to horizontal (Sw) is different
from the slope of water surface with respect to the bottom of the channel (dy/dx).

A relationship between the two slopes can be obtained:

Consider a small length dx of

the open channel.
The line ab shows the free
surface,
The line ad is drawn parallel
to the bottom at a slope of S0
with the horizontal.
The line ac is horizontal.
bc cd bd
The water surface slope (Sw) is given by Sw = sin = =
ab ab
Let be the angle which the bottom makes with the horizontal. Thus
cd cd
S0 = sin =
ad ab
68
The slope of the water surface with respect to the channel bottom is given by

dy bd bd
=
dx ad ab

dy This equation can be used to calculate the water

S w = S0 surface slope with respect to horizontal.
dx

dy
= S0 S w
dx
69
Water Profile Computations (Gradually Varied Flow)

Engineers often require to know the distance up to which a surface

profile of a gradually varied flow will extend.

To accomplish this we have to integrate the dynamic equation of

gradually varied flow, so to obtain the values of y at different locations
of x along the channel bed.

The figure below gives a sketch of calculating the M1 curve over a

given weir.

70
 Direct Step Method
One of the most important method used to compute the water profiles is
the direct step method.

In this method, the channel is divided into short intervals and the
computation of surface profiles is carried out step by step from one section
to another.

For prismatic channels:

Consider a short length of channel, dx , as shown in the figure.

71
dx
Applying Bernoullis equation between section 1 and 2 , we write:

V12 V22
S0 dx + y1 + = y2 + + S f dx
2g 2g

or S0 dx + E1 = E2 + S f dx

E2 E1
or dx =
S0 S f

where E1 and E2 are the specific energies at section 1 and,

respectively.
This equation will be used to compute the water profile curves.

72
The following steps summarize the direct step method:
1. Calculate the specific energy at section where depth is known.
For example at section 1-1, find E1, where the depth is known (y1). This
section is usually a control section.

2. Assume an appropriate value of the depth y2 at the other end of the small
reach.
Note that:
y2 > y1 if the profile is a rising curve and,
y2 < y1 if the profile is a falling curve.

3. Calculate the specific energy (E2) at section 2-2 for the assumed depth (y2).

4. Calculate the slope of the energy line (Sf) at sections 1-1 and 2-2 using
Mannings formula

1 2/3 1 2/3
V1 = R1 Sf1 and V2 = R2 Sf2
n n
Sf1 + Sf 2
And the average slope in reach is calculated S fm = 73
2
5. Compute the length of the curve between section 1-1 and 2-2

E2 E1 E2 E1
L1,2 = dx = or L1,2 =
S0 S fm Sf 1+Sf 2
S0
2

6. Now, we know the depth at section 2-2, assume the depth at the next
section, say 3-3. Then repeat the procedure to find the length L2,3.

7. Repeating the procedure, the total length of the curve may be obtained.
Thus

L = L1, 2 + L2 , 3 +....... + Ln 1,n

where (n-1) is the number of intervals into which the channel is divided.

74