Translated Copy of Liao2019

Jurnal Internasional Alat-Alat Mesin danTersedia
Pembuatanonline
14331(2019)
Mei 2019
63–910890-6955 / © 2019
Diterbitkan oleh Elsevier Ltd.
Daftar isi tersedia di ScienceDirect
Jurnal Internasional Alat-alat Mesin danPem
jurnal: www.elsevier.com / cari / ijmactool
Negara-of-the-art integritas permukaan di permesinan dari ma
Zhirong Liaosebuah,Ali Abdelhafeezsebuah,Haonan Lib,Yue yangb,Oriol Gavald
a Machining and Condition Monitoring Group, Fakultas Teknik, Universitas Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK b
Departemen Teknik Mekanik, Material dan Pabrikan, Universitas Nottingham Ningbo, China
T
ARTICLE INFO
Kata kunci: Komposit matriks

logam Kelelahan permesinan
permesinan Permukaan integritas
integritas
ABSTRAK
Matriks komposit logam (MMCs), sebagai pengganti canggih dari bahan logam monolitik, saat ini mendapatkan tren peningkatan
fokus penelitian serta aplikasi industri untuk menuntut aplikasi seperti dirgantara, nuklir dan otomotif karena sifat mekaniknya yang
ditingkatkan dan relatif ringan. Namun demikian, pengerjaan material MMC tetap menjadi tugas yang menantang sebagai akibat dari
heterogenitas strukturalnya yang mengarah pada penurunan integritas permukaan mesin dan keausan pahat yang cepat. Sementara
sebagian besar penelitian difokuskan pada pengujian dan investigasi analitik / numerik keausan pahat, pekerjaan terbatas difokuskan
pada integritas permukaan mesin MMC. Makalah ini menyajikan survei literatur rinci pada permesinan konvensional dan non-
konvensional dari matriks logam komposit dengan fokus utama pada aspek yang terkait dengan integritas permukaan benda kerja.
Kontribusi sifat mekanik dan struktur mikro bahan serta mekanisme penghapusan materi pada kualitas benda kerja permukaan / bawah
permukaan dibahas bersama dengan merekamemengaruhikinerja kelelahan bagian mesin.
1. Pendahuluan
Dengan keunggulan mereka ringan dan tinggispesifiksifat (misalnya

kekuatan, stiffness dan ketahanan aus), dalam beberapa dekade terakhir, Metal Matrix
Composites (MMC) mendapatkan perhatian meningkat dari kedua penelitian dan aplikasi
industri titik pandangan. Ini drive pengembangan MMC untuk mereka gunakan dalam
berbagai medanseperti industri aerospace, nuklir dan transportasi darat sebagai bahan
alternatif yang kuat. Nilai pasar MMC global telah dilaporkan pada USD 460,5 Juta pada
tahun 2016 dan nilai ini diproyeksikan mencapai USD 619,1 Juta pada tahun 2021 pada
CAGR 6,10% [1]. Selain itu, tren publikasi akademis yang berkembang dimulai sejak
tahun 1970-an pada penelitian sintesis bahan sementara laporan tentang penelitian
permesinan mulai meningkat pada tahun 1980-an dan meningkat dalam tingkat yang
dipercepat dari tahun 2000-an (Gbr. 1).
Mirip dengan komposit lain, MMC adalah kombinasi dari dua atau lebih
konstituen dengan struktur yang terdiri dari matriks (logam) dan tulangan (mis. Terutama
partikel ataukontinu / terputusputus serat-). Matriks logam mendistribusikan stres
bongkar memberikan dukungan sesuai untuk struktur sementara partikel tertanam atau yang sangataffmemengaruhi masa pakai alat [6]. Selain itu, kemampuan mesin yang
fiseratmenyampaikan lebih tinggi fisik dan / atau kinerja mekanik (misalnya kekuatan rendah dari MMC juga dapat menyebabkan cacat permukaan benda kerja yang parah
yang lebih tinggi, ketahanan aus yang lebih baik atau termal eyang (misalnya retakan mikro / makro dari matriks, penarikan partikel penguatan kembali),
lebihFFIefisiensitinggi)dalam preferensial(fiBre diperkuat) atau arah non-preferensial yang selanjutnya akan menurunkan kinerja material dalam masa pakai. Sementara itu,
(diperkuat partikel) dalam bulk material [2].material khusus ini metode mesin non-konvensional, seperti pemesinan pelepasan elektro-EDM, mesin laser
Strukturmengarah pada keuntungan mencapai kinerja yang lebih tinggi bila dibandingkan dan waterjet abrasif, juga telah digunakan untuk pembuatan jenis bahan yang bertujuan
dengan paduan logam non-diperkuat setara; lihat Gambar. 2 di mana kekuatan yang untuk mencapai produktivitas tinggi. Namun, meskipun metode ini memiliki potensi yang
meningkat dari MMC dibandingkan dengan bahan mono-litik digambarkan [3-5]. Ditinggi satu untuk MMC permesinan atas metode pemesinan konvensional[7],different proses
sisi, ini menguntungkan ketika menggunakan bahan-bahan ini dalam aplikasi yang pemesinan non-konvensional memiliki kelemahan mereka sendiri dalam aplikasi ini, yang
menuntut tetapi, di sisi lain, membuat penggunaan proses pemesinan konvensional akan mengakibatkan integritas permukaan benda kerja yang tidak menguntungkan rendah.
lebihsulit. Rintangan tertentu untuk machinability baik dari MMC meliputi, strukturTantangan di MMC manufaktur ditambahFFIkesulitan-didi
heterogen yang mengarah ke anisotropic sifat mekanik dan termal sehingga beban termal
dan mekanik variabel pada alat pemotong, serta sifat abrasif dari stituents con memperkuat
* Sesuai penulis. Universitas Nottingham, University Park, Fakultas Teknik, Nottingham NG7 2RD, Inggris Raya.
Alamat email: dragos.axinte@nottingham.ac.uk (D. Axinte).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2019.05.006 Diterima 16 Februari 2019; Diterima dalam bentuk revisi 16 Mei 2019; Diterima 27 Mei 2019
Z. Liao, et al. International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture 143 (2019) 63–91
2. Logam matriks komposit: Bahandefinisi
Sebagai jenis khusus dari komposit canggih, MMC telah diterapkan dalam
berbagai aplikasi industri dengan menyediakan kinerja yang lebih baik jika dibandingkan
dengan logam monolitik. MMC mengacu pada komposit yang terdiri dari setidaknya dua
fase, di mana matriks mempertahankan bentuk material sementara bala bantuan
memberikan sifat fisik dan mekanik yang diinginkan.Seperti ditunjukkan dalam
.Gambar4,konstituen utama yang digunakan dalam MMC adalah:
Dibandingkan dengan komposit polimer, MMC, umumnya, memiliki
quasi-isotropik stiyang lebih tinggiffness, kekuatan, kekerasan, dan tinggi tahan
panasselain, ketahanan mulur ditingkatkan, kinerja kelelahan, ketangguhan, dan sifat
listrik. Peningkatan kinerja ini menghasilkan peningkatan pemanfaatan MMC di industri
bernilai tambah tinggi seperti nuklir, pertahanan, mobil, aerospace, kelautan dan
elektronik, serta industri komersial lainnya seperti barang olahraga dan peralatan medis.
Gambar. 5 merangkum struktur yang paling umum, konstituen (yaitu matriks, tulangan),
sifat-sifat utama, dan contoh pemanfaatan untuk MMC.
Gambar. 1. Evolusi jumlah publikasi akademis dengan mengacu pada “komposit matriks
logam” dan “Pemesinan matriks matriks logam” yang menunjukkan 'pergeseran fase' antara 64
penelitian di pengembangan material dan teknologi permesinan [sumber: Scopus]. 3. Integritas pe
menghasilkan bentuk kompleks dengan pengerjaan dengan biaya rendah dan mencapai
akurasi dimensi / geometris tinggi serta integritas permukaan benda kerja yang dapat
diterima tampaknya membatasi pertumbuhan pasar dan aplikasi industri [3]. Baru-baru
ini, sejumlah besar penelitian melaporkan tentang mengoptimalkan teknologi permesinan
MMC termasuk beberapa tinjauan diterbitkan [8-11]. Namun, survei ini terutama berfokus
pada aspek machinability (misalnya kinerja alat, gaya potong) sementara integritas
permukaan dari bahan-bahan ini, yang merupakan kunci penting untuk fungsionalitasnya,
telah pada saat-saat yang aneh dikompromikan. Seperti pada Gambar 3 ditunjukkan,
terbukti kelangkaan artikel ulasan dengan survei yang hampir tidak tersedia yang berfokus
pada integritas permukaan MMC mesin (Gbr. 3).
Oleh karena itu, artikel ini didedikasikan untuk menyajikan pandangan Integritas permukaan adalah deskripsi komprehensif untuk kualitas permukaan
saat ini pada pemahaman integritas permukaan komposit matriks logam berikut operasi permesinan, termasuk topografi permukaan (misalnya kekasaran permukaan dan kerutan),
mesin konvensional dan non-konvensional serta e merekaffects pada kinerja fungsional keadaan metalurgi (mis. Struktur mikro dan cacat mikro) dan karakteristik mekanis (mis.
komponen. Survei menyeluruh diperkenalkan dengan memulai dari struktur materi Microhardness dan tegangan sisa) di bawah permukaan bebas [28-30]. Untuk MMC, yang
/definisidan diikuti oleh integritas permukaan benda kerja yang dihasilkan dari proses diakui sebagai bahan yangsulituntuk dipotong, adalah umum bahwa cacat setelah
konvensional seperti pemotongan orthogonal, memutar, pengeboran, penggilingan dan pemesinan bermanifestasi sebagai debonding antarmuka antara partikel keras dan matriks
grinding. Selanjutnya, bagian pada proses pemesinan non-konvensional termasuk laser, ulet, yang ditarik dari bala bantuan (misalnya partikel) dan microcracks dari matriks; ini
laser dibantu, waterjet abrasif, elektro-discharge machining dan mereka effects pada sangatdipengaruhiolehanisotropikMMC'saat struktur berinteraksi dengan end-
integritas permukaan diperkenalkan. Review menyimpulkan dengan bagian berfokus pada emesin.ffEC tor (misalnya alat pemotong) Sebagai contoh, beberapa partikel penguat
effect dari integritas permukaan pada kinerja kelelahan komponen MMC mesin. cenderung dipotong, ditarik keluar atau bahkan ditekan ke dalam matriks, yang dapat
meningkatkan dislokasi yang mengarah pada pengerasan kerja permukaan / bawah
permukaan [9-11]. Juga, baik tegangan sisa dan dislokasi disebabkan olehtermal cacat fisik, kimia, dan metalurgi yang dihasilkan oleh deformasi plastis, transformasi fasa,
medandapat dihasilkan di MMC selama proses pemesinan karena diffselisih ekspansi dan rekristalisasi pada permukaan bebas dan di bawah permukaan benda kerja mesin.
termal antara matriks dan bala[31,32].Oleh karena itu, pemahaman hati-hati dari effectScanning
dari electron microscopy (SEM) telah banyak digunakan untuk menguji perubahan
proses pemesinan pada permukaan MMC adalah relevansi penting untuk aplikasi industri struktur mikro dari permesinan MMC, di mana deformasi butiran, rongga, keretakan
mereka. partikel, tonjolan dan robekan matriks yang disebabkan oleh deformasi plastik yang tinggi
Topografi permukaan meliputi kekasaran permukaan dan waviness yang dapat pada matriks logam serta par penghapusan tikel telah ditemukan pada permukaan dan
permukaan benda kerja [7,8]. Dalam hal pemeriksaan kontras fase, teknik-teknik seperti
diakses dengan kontak (stylus / Laserprofi)lometers[33,34]dan non-kontak (interferometri
3D) pengukuran[35-37].Karena sifat tulangan dalam MMC, ini memungkinkan lebih Energy-Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS),Backscatter Diffreaksi(EBSD), Mikroskopi
banyak aplikasi untuk bagian yang mengalami kondisi gesekan dan pemuatan siklus tinggiElektron Transmisi (TEM) dan X-ray diffraction (XRD) telah digunakan untuk informasi
di mana topografi permukaan menjadi perhatian besar. Namun demikian, sifat heterogen tersebut. analisis kedalaman [32,38,39] (lihat Gambar 6). EBSD sekarang menjadi teknik
dari MMC dapat menyebabkan kekasaran permukaan yang lebih tinggi dan gelombang yang populer seperti yang telah banyak digunakan untuk memberikan informasi kuantitatif
selama proses pemesinan karena variasi gaya pemotongan dan kemungkinan tarik mengenai fase butir acterisation char- dari benda kerja mesin termasuk orientasi butir dan
tulangan dari matriks. Sama seperti bahan lainnya, topografi permukaan MMC bergantung faseidentifikasi[40-42].Namun, untukpenulis, pengetahuan terbaik meskipun EBSD
pada parameter pemesinan yang terkait dengan berbagai operasi pembuatan yang akan telah digunakan untuk mencirikan beberapa bahan canggih setelah proses pemesinan,
secara rinci diperkenalkan pada bagian berikut. tidak ada penelitian tersebut pada MMC. TEM juga telah digunakan untuk mengungkap
pola deformasi dari matriks pengerasan kerja [43] dan pile-up lokasi ditutup ke permukaan
Integritas permukaan dari sudut pandang metalurgi meliputi perubahan atau
mesin [44]. Selain itu,
MMC biasanya dirancang untuk diterapkan dalam kondisi yang keras untuk berbagai industri (yaitu nuklir, ruang angkasa, dan pertahanan) dengan keunggulan utama mereka
tinggi, peningkatan ketahanan sion corro-, kekuatan tinggi dansti tinggiff[25-27]. Dengan demikian, int
MMC setelah mesin merupakan aspek penting yangmemengaruhikomponen'serta kinerja fungsio
demikian, dengan struktur heterogen dari MMC, kerusakan material yang dihasilkan pada kedua perm
selama kebutuhan mesin untuk dipertimbangkan dengan cermat untuk memungkinkan kinerja benda k
Z. Liao, dkk. International Journal of Machine Tools dan Industri 143 (2019) 63-91
Gambar. 2. Sebuah contoh tentang bagaimana variasi wt% penguatan konstituen (SiC)pengaruhkurva regangan-stres dari MMC Al berdasarkan bila dibandingkan dengan murni Al matriks (a) dan keterg
dengan% konten untuk komposit berbasis Al (b) [3].
Gambar 3. Analisis publikasi penelitian pada permesinan MMC yang menunjukkan kelangkaan ulasan artikel yang berfokus pada integritas permukaan [Sumber: Scopus].
utama untuk mengakses tegangan sisa dari MMC mesin [47].
dipilih-daerah elektron diffReaction (SAED) pola TEM dapat memberikan struktur

kristal penting dari fase terbentuk dan berubah di daerah tertentu[45]MMC yang 4.konvensional dari komposit matriks logam.
diinduksi selama proses pemesinan. X-ray diffraction (XRD) digunakan untuk analisis
fase untuk mengungkapkan komposisi kimia dan analisis kuantitatif MMC mesin PemesinanOperasi pemesinan konvensional umumnya memberikan kualitas
berdasarkan evaluasi elemen dalam benda kerja yang diukur [46]. Perubahan permukaan yang diproduksi secara geografis lebih tinggi dibandingkan dengan yang non-
karakteristik mekanik MMC setelah operasi manufaktur terutama dikontribusikan oleh konvensional. Namun demikian, dengan melibatkan alat pemotong, pemesinan
stres, deformasi, dan suhu yang disebabkan oleh proses. Sebagai salah satu karakteristik konvensional dapat memperkenalkan deformasi plastik dan pembentukan panas tingkat
mekanis utama, variasi kekerasan mikro digunakan sebagai indikator ketidaksempurnaan tinggi yang mengarah pada perubahan selanjutnya pada sifat permukaan benda kerja. Pada
yang dapat diinduksi dalam permukaan permesinan. Karena adanya bala bantuan, bagian berikut, dasar-dasar removal material dan effects pada integritas permukaan MMC
kekuatan mikro MMC yang terdeteksi oleh uji indentasi mikro sangat terkait dengan disajikan melalui mempelajari pemotongan orthogonal. Kemudian, proses pemotongan
fraktur antar granular, kepadatan dislokasi dan distribusi porositas serta pembentukan miring (misalnya pembubutan, pengeboran, penggilingan dan penggilingan)
lapisan pengerasan permukaan. Tegangan sisa yang disimpan dalamsuperfisiallapisan dipertimbangkan dalam bagian selanjutnya.
bahan setelah operasi facturing manu- yang diFFIkultus untuk dimodelkan, terutama
untuk MMC karena sifat anisotropik mereka. Teknik / KASIH ukur yang fisik, yang
meliputi metode non-destruktif seperti X-ray DiffReaction, Neutron DiffReaction, dan 4.1. Pemotongan dan pembalikan orthogonal MMCs
spektroskopi Raman, dan
Sebagaidisederhanakan,proses pemotongan yangpemotongan orthogonal
menyediakan alat yang dapat diakses untuk mempelajari mekanika pemotongan dan
65
integritas permukaan,
metode destruktif seperti pengeboran lubang, menggorok, etsa selektif, adalah pendekatan
Z. Liao, dkk. Jurnal Internasional Alat Mesin dan Pembuatan 143 (2019) 63–91
memeriksa dislokasi dalam permukaan bawah mesin Alumina diperkuat AA6061 MMC.
Seperti yang digambarkan pada Gambar. 9, dengan peningkatan kepadatan atau ukuran
tulangan, panjang garis dislokasi meningkat karena energi aktivasi yang lebih besar yang
dibutuhkan untuk meluncur melewati penghalang (yaitu untuk selanjutnya merusak pada
parameter pemotongan dan alat / benda kerja yang sama).guration).
Mempertimbangkan strukturnya yang heterogen, keadaan integritas
permukaan MMC juga tergantung pada posisi partikel relatif terhadap ujung tombak.
Olehmikro-mekanik, finite analisis elemen Ghandehariun et al.[49]menunjukkan tiga
kasus interaksi partikel-alat tergantung pada posisi mereka di atas, di bawah atau di
tengah-tengah bidang pemotongan / permukaan, sedangkan mengakibatkan gigi berlubang
Gambar. 4. Struktur generik Komposit Matriks Logam.
dan tegangan sisa telah bersukaria dengan benar different pengamatan pada tiga kondisi
ini (Gbr. 10). Dalam kasus partikel di atas bidang permesinan, signifironggakan dan
(i) Matriks - mengacu pada logam monolitik yang memberikan dukungan yang sesuai untuk
tegangan tarik sisa akan dihasilkan karena tarik-keluar dari partikel dari matriks.
bala bantuan. Bahan matriks yang paling umum untuk MMC adalah logam ringan seperti Al,
Sebaliknya, tidak ada rongga yang diproduksi untuk dua kasus lain karena alat
Mg, Ti dan paduannya. (ii) Penguatan - mengacu pada konstituen tertanam dalam matriks baik
Kompimendorong partikel ke dalam matriks, yang mengakibatkan tegangan sisa tekan.
sebagai partikel terputus (misalnya SiC, Al 2O3,NiTi, Fullerene, TiO2,dan gra- phite), Posisi relatif dari partikel memperkuat sehubungan dengan cutting edge jugapengaruh-
monofiratapankontinyu fiserat(misalnya SiC, W ) atau kumis (misalnya C, SiC, W). Penguatan pengaruhkekasaran permukaan sebagai partikel penguat dapat memanjang, dicukur atau
ditambahkan terutama untuk mengubah erties prop- fisik seperti konduktivitas termal dan dicabut selama proses chining ma, sepertidicontohkanuntuk mengubah pada Gambar. 10
ekspansi koefisienFFIsien (partikel CNT, C fi)serat dan / atau memodifikasi kinerja mekanik [50] Selain itu, hasil juga menunjukkan bahwa menambahkan Bismuth (Bi) ke paduan
seperti kekuatan yield (partikel TiC, SiC fiserat), ketahanan aus (partikel SiC, W fiserat),
(Al-20% Mg2Si-0,4% Bi bukannya Al-20% Mg2Si MMC) dapat mengubah
ketahanan mulur (Al2O3 partikel, C fi),serat matriks-penguat antar muka kekuatan ikatan (B4C
66
partikel, C kumis).
morfologiMgkasa
52% sementara m
yang tidak hanya dikendalikan oleh parameter proses tetapi juga oleh geometri, sifat fisik 174% dan 4%. O
dan konsentrasi volumetrik dari konstituen yang memperkuat. penampang dariB
Secara umum, dalam pemotongan ortogonal MMC, cacat geometris menyebabkan gay
seperti retakan mikro, rongga, lubang, dan kawah sebagian besar terbentuk karena fraktur tepi yang dibangu
partikel, penarikan penuh dan penguatan / pengikatan matriks dengan partikel yang selama belok [50]
tertinggal di dalam matriks, seperti yang ditunjukkan pada Gbr. 7 [48]. Cacat ini terutama Di antara proses pemotongan konvensional lainnya, pergantian MMC adalah
relevan dengan konstituen penguat (misalnya ukuran partikel rata-rata dan fraksi volume) menghadapi tantangan keausan pahat yang intens dengan perubahan yang melekat pada
serta pemilihan parameter pemotongan, yang dapat menyebabkan gaya potong dan suhu integritas permukaan untuk umur pahat yang diberikan. Ge et al. [51] menunjukkan bahwa
yang berlebihan. Ditemukan bahwa variasi pengerasan regangan dan kedalaman lapisan penggunaan alat berlian kristal tunggal (SCD) menyebabkan pengurangan penarikan
yang diperkeras meningkat dengan menurunnya kecepatan potong, meningkatkan partikel / pembentukan rongga di permukaan mesin ketika memutar SiC / Al MMC.
ketebalan chip yang tidak terdeformasi dan penurunan fraksi volume partikel. Effect fraksi Sementara hasil ini tidak dijelaskan secara mendalam, alasan untuk ini mungkin
volume dan ukuran partikel pada perubahan microhardness bawah permukaan mesin disebabkan oleh ditingkatkan alat thermal diffusivity dan mengurangi radius hidung alat /
bebas(Gambar.8)disebabkan kecenderungan matriks untuk plastis flow antara partikel ketajaman yang lebih tinggi dari SCD dibandingkan dengan alat PCD. Itu juga
yang bertindak sebagai hambatan deformasi. Hal ini mengarah pada lokalisasi / penahan digambarkan bahwa peningkatan fraksi volume tulangan akan menyebabkan permukaan
plastik deformasi, sehingga pengerasan kerja lebih sedikit, dari bahan dengan peningkatan mesin lebih memburuk sebagai akibat dari lebih banyak partikel tarik-keluar [51].
ukuran partikel dan / atau fraksi volume.
Kannan dan Kishawy[52]mengamati bahwa penggunaan pendingin detrimen-
Penjelasan ini didukung olehkemudian temuanKannan et al. [43] ketika penghitungan sebuahfftercermin integritas permukaan saat memutar AA7075-10%
Alumina dan AA6061-10% Alumina. Dari Kannan dan Kishawy sudut oleh melewati sebelumnya serta alat-partikel penurunan interaksi kurang melewati
pandang[52],diharapkan bahwa sampel dipotong dalam kondisi kering akan lebih tinggipemotongan yang diperlukan untuk menghapus volume tertentu bahan. Selain itu,
tarik tegangan sisa dalam matriks aluminium dari dalam kondisi basah karena ekspansi
peningkatan suhu pada benda kerja-benda yang bertentangan dengan kenaikan laju umpan
termal darifflapisanected. Pengenalan tegangan sisa tarik yang lebih tinggi menyebabkan
menyebabkan nilai tegangan sisa tekan yang lebih rendah. Namun, perubahan ini secara
robeknya bahan yang melunak di bawahtool fldan pembentukan retak permukaan dalam keseluruhan relatif kecil seperti yang terlihat pada Gambar. 12.
kondisi kering, seperti yang ditunjukkan pada Gambar 11. Dari bagian titik akurasi geometris pandang, beban termal yang lebih besar pada
Mempertimbangkan bahwa mekanisme permesinan dan deformasi MMC lebih benda kerja selama proses pemesinan bisa juga overcompensated
rumit dibandingkan dengan yang ditemukan untuk material monolitik (tidak diperkuat), olehsignifikanficantlylebih rendah koefisienFFIkoefisienekspansi termal dari MMC
mekanisme generasi tegangan sisa cenderung lebih rumit untuk yang pertama karena yangdipengaruhioleh konstituen penguatan. Ini
interaksi antara matriks dan bala bantuan. . Effects parameter pemesinan pada tegangansecarasignifikanmenurunkanFFIkoefisienekspansi termal penyebab ekspansi lebih kecil
sisa permukaan disajikan untuk menjadi different ketika membandingkan materi monolitikdari benda kerja MMC, meskipun beban termal yang lebih besar. Penurunan ekspansi /
(misalnya AA6061) ke MMC (misalnya AA6061-20% SiC), seperti ditunjukkan pada distorsi termal ini akan mengarah ke akurasi geometris yang lebih tinggi untuk MMC
Gambar. 12 [53].Tiga faktor utama mengontrol deformasi mekanik dan dengan demikian, dibandingkan dengan paduan yang tidak diperkuat. Telah dilaporkan bahwa balik dari Al-
tegangan sisa selama chining ma dari AA6061-20% SiC MMC: (a) pembatasan matriks MMC 30/3 tunduk 12,8% lebih besar beban termal dari benda kerja non-diperkuat paduan
flow karena adanya partikel, (b) lekukan dari partikel di ma yang permukaan chined, Namun,koefisienFFIefisienekspansi termal dari komposit adalah 52,5% lebih rendah[54].
seperti dirinci sebelumnya dan diamati pada Gambar. 10, dan (c) kompresi tinggi Ini dari diffselisih dalamFFIkoefisienekspansi termal adalah suFFIefisien untuk
overcompensate beban termal yang lebih besar pada benda kerja. Penguatan aluminium
matriks ditemukan di antara partikel dan alat. Pada tingkat umpan alat yang rendah, faktor-
menggunakan persentase volume partikel 17% (rata-rata dari Al-MMCs 17 / 0,6 dan 17/3)
faktor ini menjadi sangat menonjol. Peningkatan persentase fraktur partikel dan debonding
menunjukkan alat yang lebih tinggi-- interaksi partikel di feed rendah. Namun, dengan mengurangi penyimpangan diameter rata-rata sebesar 17% dibandingkan dengan
meningkatnya laju umpan, lekukan effects partikel dan bekerja pengerasan disebabkan
Gambar. 5. Jenis matriks tipikal, kategori perkuatan dan sifat-sifat utama serta aplikasi umum MMC berbasis Al, Mg, Ti, dan Co [2,5,6,12-24].
4.2. Pengeboran, penggilingan dan
penggilingan
paduan non-diperkuat atas semua kondisi pemotongan yang diselidiki. Fase penguatan 30
persen vol mengurangi deviasi diameter sebesar 11%. Perbandingan dari Al-MMCs 17 /
0.6 dan 17/3 mengungkapkan bahwa ukuran partikel rata-rata yang lebih besar Pengeboran dan penggilingan melibatkan alat multi-cutting edge dengan fitur
menyebabkan 13% lebih rendah penyimpangan dari diameter nominal [54] karena suhu geometris yang kompleks dan lintasan perpindahan alat, di mana penumpukan suhu atau
pahat yang lebih rendah, dan akibatnya juga suhu pahat yang lebih rendah. . beban dinamis dapat dihasilkan yang akanmemengaruhipermukaan ikan, misalnya tanda
obrolan alat , serta pengemasan chip pada alat
67
Gambar. 6. Karakteristik metalurgi permukaan dari MMC terdeteksi oleh berbagai teknik pengukuran: fitur mikrostruktur TiCp / Inconel MMCs oleh SEM (a), distribusi unsur TiCp / Inconel MMC oleh p
butir dari TiCp / Inconel MMCs oleh EBSD (c), Analisis komponen dari TiCp / Inconel MMCs oleh XRD (d), dan struktur mikro SiC / Al MMCs oleh TEM (e) [38,39].
umpan yang tinggi. Hal ini terbukti ketika berseliweran sebuah Al6061 / Al2O3/ Gr
flutesdan peningkatan kekuatan pemotongan berikutnya dan integritas permukaan
pada kecepatan
memburuk. iniFFIKesulitan-diakan menyulitkan proses analisis secara umum dan MMC meskipun bahwa kekasaran permukaan giling berkurang
permukaan penyelidikan integritas pada khususnya. Rajmohan et al. [55] mempelajari pemotongan yang lebih tinggi dan harga pakan yang lebih rendah karena mengasah effect
pengeboran MMC Al356 / SiC-Mica menggunakan bor dilapisi dan tidak dilapisi di oleh partikel terperangkap antara cutter dan permukaan benda kerja [32].
Selain itu, jenis
samping alat PCD. Di satu sisi, persentase meningkat dari Mika di MMC mengurangi
kekuatan pemotongan, alat aus dan kekasaran permukaansignifikanficantly karena bahan tulangan (misalnya logam atau keramik) di MMC memiliki dampak utama
kemungkinan padat lubrica- tion effect. Di sisi lain, peningkatan laju umpan dipamerkan terhadap integritas permukaan mesin dalam permesinan konvensional. Di satu sisi,
kerusakan permukaan bersayap mantan karena peningkatan tekanan kontak pada hidung sedangkan penggunaan konstituen penguatan keramik akan menguntungkan (misalnya
alat /flank. Hasil selanjutnya di permukaan retak karena pengerasan kerja dan generasi lebih tinggi kekerasan, kekuatan dan rendah sebuahFFInityuntuk kimia bereaksi dengan
panas yang menyebabkan antarmuka penguatan matriks di bawah ekspansi termal yang matriks) untuk MMC, pembentukan lubang permukaan dan bawah permukaan mikro retak
tidak cocok dan partikel berikutnya menarik. yangumum flawskarena untuk memperkuat penarikan parsial atau fraktur ikatan antar
Sebaliknya, kehadiran partikel-partikel penguat keras memburuk muka. Di sisi lain, penggunaan bala bantuan ulet akan
permukaan mesin dengan membentuk lubang dan alur ketika berakhir dengan kecepatan
Gambar. 7. Kerusakan permukaan mesin / bawah permukaan yang biasa ditemui ketika pemotongan ortogonal dari alumina yang diperkuat aluminium 6061 komposit matriks (kecepatan potong {v}: 60 m
putaran, kedalaman potong {DoC}: 3 mm): celah dan celah mikro (a) dan kawah (b) [48].
68
Z. Liao, et al. International Journal of Machine Tools dan Industri 143 (2019) 63-91
Gambar 8.(v. Effect sifat penguatan Alumina pada 6061 aluminium matriks microhardness di bawah permukaan mesin 60 m / min, f: 0,1 mm / rev, DoC: 3 mm): Ukuran partikel rata-rata dalam μm (a); F
kecil dan hancur B4partikel C terdeteksi juga. Anehnya,

diminta untuk meningkatkan kinerja mekanik beberapa MMC melalui peningkatan meningkatkan konten penguatan mengakibatkan mesin yang lebih baik kualitas wajah sur-
matriks-penguatan kekuatan ikatan antar muka dan kedalaman karena diffusion / paduan karena kurang alat / benda kerja gesekan koefisienFFIefisien serta kurang heat diffusivity
dari antarmuka. Namun demikian ulet inforcements re- juga membawa mereka yang mengurangi alat membangun tepi, matriks mencair dan kemudian partikel tarik-
sendiriFFIkesulitan-diketika permesinan MMC tersebut. Membandingkan kinerja ketika keluar.
milling MMC logam-logam (tulangan-matriks) dengan kinerja yang sesuai dari MMC Jenis cacat serupa digambarkan dalam literatur lain [58], seperti yang
keramik-logam, yang pertama akan mempercepat pengukuran permukaan yang lebih ditunjukkan pada Gambar. 15. Selain itu, pembentukan bintik oksida terdeteksi karena
tinggi dengan formasi retak dan burr atas. Di sepertikesulitan-FFIdiamati ketika mikro-
slot penggilingan kembar (flusikan akhir-mill diameter 1mm) dari logam (Ti) suhu transien tinggi (700 ° C) yang timbul selama penggilingan Al7050 / TiB 4 MMC.
dibandingkan keramik (TiB2)bala bantuan di MMC berbasis Mg, Mg / Ti[56].Hal ini Panas transien ini, terutama padalebih rendah umpan yangdan kecepatan potong
disebabkan termal dilebihffusivityrendah,daktilitas tinggi dan adhesi Ti. Sementara itu yang lebih tinggi, menghasilkan tegangan sisa tarik sebaliknya terhadap tegangan sisa
pelunakan termal dari kedua matriks dan tulangan memfasilitasi pembentukan gerinda dan tekan umum yang dialami dalam kondisi pemotongan normal / tidak agresif.
retak permukaan oleh adhesi dan drag material, seperti yang ditunjukkan pada Gambar. Tinggi dimensi akurasi dan permukaan finish umumnya dicapai dengan
13. menggunakan proses penggilingan. Namun demikian, sifat fisik dan mekanik yang
Namun demikian, tidak hanya jenis materi penguatan tetapi juga ikatan berbeda dari penguat (keras) versus matriks (lunak) dari komposit mempersulit proses
penggilingan komposit matriks logam. In fact, during the grinding process the soft matrix
antar muka[57]sebuahffects integritas permukaan. Ketika milling dari Al6061 / B4C
tend to adhere to the grains and close the grinding wheel structure, thus increasing the
MMC, mayoritasB4partikelC dalamaluminium matriksdipisahkan dari kekosongan forces and consequently the temperature of the ground material [59].
pembentuk matriks karena ikatan antar muka yang lemah, seperti yang ditunjukkan pada Recent studies on grinding of MMC are scarce and mostly focused on
Gambar 14. Beberapa B4partikelC dikeluarkan dari matriks dan menyeret bawah ujung comparing different types of grinding wheels with limited analysis of the specifics of the
tombak, dengan demikian, merusak permukaan benda kerja; selain itu, beberapa rongga material removal mechanisms and surface
Fig. 9. Line defects/dislocations formation during cutting Alumina reinforced 6061 MMC (v: 30–60 m/min, uncut chip thickness: 0.1 mm, DoC: 3 mm) with particle size 9.5 μm (a), 25 μm (b), volume frac
Alumina (d) [43].
69
Fig. 10. Different scenarios of tool-particle interactions with the corresponding machined surface micrographs featuring particles shearing/cut-off (top), pull-out (middle) and elongation/deformation (bottom
turning of Al–20% Mg2Si at v: 210 m/min, f: 0.2 mm/rev [49,50].
integrities. Electroplated wheels are generally used for grinding of MMCs due to their In contrast with conventional machining of MMCs which would cause rapid
high hardness, low wear rate and high thermal conductivity. Conversely, using resin- tool wear and unavoidable surface damage, nonconventional machining methods which
bonded abrasive wheels [60] and single-layer brazed wheels [61] has been reported to include laser (assisted) machining, abrasive waterjet machining and electro discharge
show better performance in terms of reduced cutting forces, reduced workpiece tem- machining (EDM), provide non or less tool wear and lower cost compared to the con-
perature and enhanced surface finish. This was attributed to the higher grain protrusion of ventional machining methods. However, due to the different nature and material removal
the brazed/resin-bonded abrasive compared to the electroplated grinding wheels (eg mechanisms, most of these nonconventional machining processes yield relatively severe
protrusion of 20–30% of abrasive grain size in electroplated vs. 50–70% in brazed machining defect and further investigations are needed in order to understand their surface
wheels). This led to efficient coolant delivery to the cutting zone and bigger space for chip damage mechanisms thus to attain the “optimal” machining results.
formation which, overall, lowered the generated heat and force, for MMCs machining, as
shown in Fig. 16a [61]. In general, common surface defects when grinding MMCs are
5.1. Laser (assisted) machining
reinforcement particles pull- out and/or fracture, micro-cracks and adhesion of abrasive
particles on workpiece surface, examples shown in Fig. 16b. These defects generally
increased at higher feed and/or depth of cut and low cutting speed [62]. Further in-depth Laser beam processing delivers a high density energy focused on the workpiece
surface integrity research is recommended on this aspect. with the ability to soften, melt and vaporise the reinforcement particles and matrix
5. Non-conventional machining of metal matrix composites material. This provides the possibility of either assisting the conventional machining
process (laser assisted
Fig. 11. Influence of coolant on the nature of the defects on the machined surface (7075-Alumina MMC): Dry cutting (a) and Wet cutting (b) [52].
70
Fig. 12. Effect of feed rate on residual stresses of machined AA6061-20% SiC MMC at cutting speed 400 m/min and depth of cut 1 mm: longitudinal (a); transverse directions (b) relative to the cutting spee
Fig. 13. SEM micrographs of micro-milled slots for Mg/TiB2 MMCs and Mg/Ti MMCs at cutting speed of 250 m/min and depth of cut of 200 μm [56].
machining) or machining directly using the laser beam (laser cutting/ ablation). 71
machining (eg turning, milling).
In MMCs the two components (ie matrix and reinforcement) usually have
5.1.1. Laser assisted machining
different melting temperatures, which causes different thermal reactions during the LAM
Laser assisted machining (LAM) is based on the idea of increasing the process. For instance, in an A359/ 20SiCp the SiC particles are melted at 2600 °C while
temperature of the workpiece by laser heating the workpiece in front of the cutting tool, the AlSi Mg matrix melts at 575–620°C. Thus, in general during the LAM of MMCs the
9
thus, to soften the material and reduce the cutting forces, as shown in Fig. 17 [39,63]. This
mechanism happening would be that the matrix material is melted while the reinforcing
process has the ability of improving the surface roughness and material removal rates
particles still keep their solid state, which results in the separation of these two
while decreasing the specific cutting energy and tool wear in the machining of difficult-to-
components, eg particles sinking when the matrix has a lower density or particle ejection
cut materials [64–66], where it was reported that the cutting forces could be significantly
when the matrix density is higher. Przestacki et al. [68] showed that in LAM of an A359/
reduced (ca. 50%) while the tool life could be improved (ca. 30%) [67] when compared
20SiCp composite the SiC particles sunk into an overheated-liquid area of the metal
with conventional
matrix, as shown in Fig. 18, where two different zones are
plane, due to the high cutting force and brittle nature of these fibres. However, these fibre
breakages are found significantly decreased in the laser assisted machining of fibre re-
inforced MMCs due to the material softening effect by the laser heating, as shown in Fig.
23 [72]. In particular, this softening effect mainly occurred in the metal matrix as the fibres
in general are more difficult to be softened as they have a much higher melting temperature
(eg 2000 °C of Al2O3 fibres) compared with the matrix material (eg Cu with a melting
temperature of 1085 °C).
The optimization of the LAM process to achieve better surface integrity
has mainly focused in studying the influence of the different laser parameters (eg laser
power, laser beam diameter) and cutting conditions (eg feed speed, the cutting speed,
depth of cut) by using design of experiments [39,73] or by employing finite element
models to
72
predict the sub-surface damage [70,72]. Nevertheless, there are very few in-depth studies
on analytical modelling as the material removal mechanism in LAM for MMCs has not
been proposed in the literature. Przestacki et al. [68] developed a model including the
effect of gravity, buoyancy, resistive force of liquid matrix and centrifugal force of the
formed: (A) minor percentage contribution of the reinforcing phase and (B) higher
rotating work material, in which instantaneous sedimentation speed and the depth of
contribution of the SiC particles.
sedimented SiC particles could be calculated. By this model the cutting depth and tool
Similar to what is was reported in conventional machining, three main distance from the laser beam could be selected to perform the cutting in the particle free
surface damages are observed in LAM of particle reinforced MMCs including debonding, layer to achieve a better surface, as shown in Fig. 24, where a more homogenous and
particle pull-out and particle fracture. However, all these three damage mechanisms were crack-free surface were observed after the LAM process.
found less significantly in A359/SiC/20p MMC parts produced by LAM when comparing
with the conventional machining results, as shown in Fig. 19. This is because the increased
5.1.2. Laser machining
cutting temperature by laser heating leads to the higher material softening and lower
deformation between the matrix material and the particles [69,70]. It is also interesting to While in LAM the laser is mainly employed to soften the material for assisting
comment that in the LAM of Titanium MMCs there is no particle debonding but only the material removal by a solid (conventional) cutting tool, in the laser machining of
particle breakage was observed; this was manifested by the broken particles being left MMCs, the material is removed by the laser ablation and this experiences three different
inside the matrix (Fig. 20a) or being pushed back into the matrix (Fig. 20b). Some non- stages: melting, vaporization and chemical degradation. Moreover, with an increase of
broken particles which are pushed into the matrix (Fig. 20c) have also been found [63]. the laser fluence, instead of material vaporization, a phase explosion (explosive boiling)
would happen [74], in which a melting pool will be formed (Fig. 25). In this case, by
Although similar types of surface defects were found in both con-
applying a high pressure assistant gas (eg 1 MPa Ar), the liquid in the melting pool could
ventional machining and LAM of MMCs, the magnitudes of these defects and their
be blown away thus, to enhance the ablation depth and improve the material removal rate
formation mechanisms are significantly different in these two processes. Kong et al. [39]
reported that in LAM of a SiCp/Al the strain misfit in the matrix around the particles is [75].In addition, since MMCs consist of reinforcing particles and a metal matrix,
relaxed due to the high temperature dynamic recovery happening in the aluminium crystal. the temperature rises on these two components are with different rates (eg time reaching
This results in a decreased strength of the MMC structure, thus the applied low cutting melting point, boiling point and ablation state) due to the variation of their thermal
stress is not enough to break the particles in LAM, while in conventional machining the properties. For instance, in the laser cutting of an AlSi alloy/SiCp MMC, although the SiC
reduced ductile deformation of the material leads to severe crack damage. A more in-depth particles heat up faster than the AlSi matrix (due to the higher thermal conductivity and
analysis of the surface metallurgy with TEM found that, due to the lower plastic de- absorptivity), the time needed for melting SiC particles is almost two times longer than
formations in LAM, the dislocation density piling up in the matrix material was decreased that of AlSi matrix due to the higher melting point of SiC particles (Fig. 26) [76].
compared with conventional machining (Fig. 21). Furthermore, as shown in Fig. 22,
Considering above mentioned heterogeneous nature of the MMCs, the laser
although serrated chips are formed in both LAM and conventional machining of MMCs
machined surface yields a comparative poor quality with melting and vaporizing the
[39,71], in LAM a secondary crack is generated in the back of the chip due to the higher
matrix and reinforcements in differential manners. In general, the machined surface is
thermal gradients.
found with three different types of defects, as shown in Fig. 27:
In contrast to the results found for particle-reinforced MMCs, in
conventional machining of fibre-reinforced MMCs it was found that the main surface
a) Striations and dross: As the embedded particles usually have a higher melting
damage was caused by fibre breakages (eg deboning or fibre fracture) below the cutting
point, small unburned particles would be present at the edge of the surface when
high pressure of the protective gas jet forces the molten material towards the bottombetween the particles and matrix induced by the high thermal effect results in a large
of the cut through surface. This makes the expulsion of molten material difficult number of voids and cracks [79,80]; c) Recast layer: Recast layers are usually
which results in large striations marks and dross [77,78]. b) Cracks and voids: The generated by the high
stress concentration initiated by the reinforcement particles and the de-bonding
Fig. 14. SEM micrograph of machined surface of Al6061/10 wt% B4C at high magnification showing the anomalies on the surface [57].
Fig. 15. Surface defects when end milling of AA7050 - 6% TiB2 MMC: pit (a); micro-cracks (b); matrix tearing (c); feed marks (d); matrix smearing (e); protuberances and void (f); oxidation and cu
(h) [58].
73
obstruction of the molten material from the remained unburned SiC particles, while the
thermal effect of laser beam [77,80] where the surface layer has been recrystallized cracks were also observed which are initiated from unburned and broken SiC particles. In
with fine grain sizes of the matrix.
the Al/Al2O3/0–20% MMC (Fig. 28b) higher accumulation of Al2O3 particles was
As one of the main contributors to the MMCs performance, the different observed on the machined surface as well as large size of cracks due to the poor bonding
selection of reinforcement particles results in varying material properties (eg strength,
hardness, melt temperature, phase explosion threshold etc.) while also leading to diverse energy between Al2O3 particles and Al matrix. In Al/ZrO2/0–20% MMCs the
workpiece surface damage mechanisms when laser cutting. For example, Sharma and observed height of dross was much lower compared to the other two MMCs, which is
Vinod Kumar [81] investigated the laser beam machining on AA5052 MMCs reinforced
believed due to the higher rate of agglom- eration of the ZrO2 particles and the resulted
with different particles, ie SiC, Al2O3, and ZrO2. As shown in Fig. 28a, it was found that
in the Al/SiC/0–20% MMC the primary defects were the striations and dross caused by
higher viscosity and surface tension, as shown in Fig. 28c.
the liquid flow
Furthermore, due to the high temperature incurred during laser cutting of
MMCs, in the melting pool, the matrix (eg Aluminium) and
Fig. 16. Tool-workpiece contact zone for electroplated vs. brazed grinding wheels (a) and surface defects encountered (b) when grinding MMCs [61].
Fig. 18. Schematic of LAM process on A359/20SiCp composite (a) and micrographic section of surface layer after laser heating (b) [68].
74
Fig. 17. Laser assisted turning: (a) schematic diagram [63] and (b) temperature map during machining [39].
Fig. 20. An example of particles behaviour of LAM TiMMCs: (a) particle breakage inside the
matrix, (b) broken particles pushed back into the matrix and (c) non-broken particles pushed
back into the matrix [63].
75
reinforcing particles (eg Silicon) could coexist in a liquid state facil- itating their chemical
interaction. Because high pressures of gases are applied to assist the blowing of molten
material, the atmospheric oxygen reacts with the material constituents in melting pool.
Fig. 29 shows the possible oxygen reaction during the laser machining of SiC/ Al alloy
matrix MMC [75]. Further with XRD measurement (2θ value at 42.1° and 48.9°, as shown
in Fig. 30) it was also found that the C reacted with the Al and formed a new compound
(ie Al4C3), which would produce a weaken bond between the reinforcement and matrix
material [80].To optimize the surface quality of MMCs after laser machining, the
laser feed speed is the main factor to be concerned, while the laser energetic parameters
(eg laser power, frequency of pulse laser) also play significant roles [77]. However, due to
the complicated physical, chemical and mechanical interaction between the MMCs
material and
Fig. 21. TEM micrographs of cross-sectional samples showing the dislocation sub-structure: (a and c) around particles and (b and d) aluminium matrix [39].
Fig. 19. Cross section of (a) conventional machining and (b) LAM of A359/SiC/20p MMC at v: 150 m/min, DoC: 0.76 mm, and f: 0.05 mm/rev [69].
the cutting speed influences the machined surface quality. Thus, without an in-depth
understanding of the mechanism governing the laser cutting process in MMCs it is still
difficult to predict its surface quality.
5.2. Abrasive waterjet machining
Although the laser beam cutting has been applied for cutting different
MMCs successfully, the thermal nature of the material removal induces high thermal local
damages in the machined surface. Abrasive waterjet (AWJ) machining, with its advantage
of low thermal effect and high material removal rate, has received an increasing attention
in the machining of a wide range of materials with AWJ turning and AWJ through cutting
being the most popular. The key factors of this process that affect the material removal
rate and machined surface quality are related to the abrasive type/size, abrasive mass flow
rate, jet feed speed, standoff distance, jet pressure as well as its impact angle relative to
the target surface [82,83].
In this process, since the material is removed by hard abrasives (eg
76
garnet and olivine) mixed waterjet, the resulted surface consists of a large number of
scratches/cutting traces left by abrasive grains [85]. Moreover, since the abrasion (wear)
cutting is the phenomena accom- panying the material removal process, as shown in Fig.
32-Fig. 34 [85–87], the surface could be mainly damaged as: a) plastic deformations of
the matrix due to the ploughing action of the particles; b) cracking of reinforcing particles
due to their brittle nature; c) protrusion of the reinforcing particles due to the preferential
erosion of the matrix; d) pits and voids due to the removal of reinforcement particles from
matrix by the high energy impact; e) abrasive embedment due to the impact of the hard
abrasive into the relatively soft matrix (see Fig. 33); f) micro-melting of the matrix due to
the localized high temperature from impingement of abrasive particles on the workpiece
surface when the matrix is a metal with high affinity on oxygen, eg Ti or Mg based MMC
[87].
By adding an additional degree of freedom in the rotational direction of the
workpiece, the AWJ process can also resemble the turning operation which combines the
advantages of AWJ cutting with the ki- nematics of a conventional turning process, as
shown in Fig. 35 [84]. This allows the use of abrasive waterjet as a 'universal tool' to
achieve various cylindrical shapes while keeping the advantage of high material removal
the laser beam, currently the research related to surface quality optimization is still only rate as well as low thermal influence for the machining of MMCs. Moreover, in contrast
studied via design of experiments while there is no research on the analytical modelling to conventional turning, in AWJ turning the depth of cut is highly dependent on the water
to enable the understanding of the mechanisms that governs this process. As shown in Fig. pressure, impact angle as well as the transverse speed, enabling the achievement of
31, Sharma and Kumar [80] carried out a series of experiments to identify the thermal different levels of surface integrity and material removal rate by varying the combination
effects of laser cutting on AA5052/SiC composite with a 2.5 kW continuous CO2 wave of these parameters.
laser, showing that higher laser power (to 2.5 kW), cutting speed (to 3000 mm/min) and Since the AWJ turning has the same material removal mechanism of that AWJ
lower reinforced particle density (to 0% of SiC particles) generate a better cut kerf. through cutting, similar surface damages, eg pits, cracks, craters and ploughing, can be
Moreover, it was commented that the improved surface integrity with higher laser power found in this operation [88], as shown in Fig. 36. Moreover, the plastic deformations
is due to the sufficient laser energy has been provided for the cutting through the material. observed on the machined surface from the impingement of the abrasives can also induce
The increased particles content initiates more stress concentrations and rises the viscosity high
of the melt material with resulting in worse surface. However, it is still not clear the how
Fig. 22. Chip formation mechanism in conventional machining (a) and LAM (b) of SiCp/Al MMC [39,71].
Fig. 23. Simulation and SEM measurement of surface damage of conventional machining (a), (b) and LAM (c) (d) of fibre reinforced MMCs [72].
Fig. 24. Examples of machined surface of conventional machining on top surface (a) and cross section (b), and optimized LAM on top surface (c) and cross section (d) [68].
77
same tendency as the residual stresses but only with a small variation (9%) due to the
non-significant microstructural changes during AWJ process which makes it a more
effective method of MMCs machining preferable over other techniques (eg conventional
machining).
On the other hand, in AWJ turning the workpiece is kept rotating during
the jet impacting and moving along the length of the workpiece. This leads to tilted
trajectories of the abrasive traces relative to the direction of the sample rotation due to the
deflection of the moving jet in contact with the machined surface with combining the
energy loss (speed loss) of the jet. An average angle around 15°–25° between the cutting
traces and the direction of the rotation were observed in Ref. [84] with a jet transverse
speed of 10 mm/min and a rotation speed of 400 rpm at a 14.5 mm diameter
A359/B4C/Al2O3 MMC workpiece, as shown in Fig. 38, where the bottom and sides
of the traces contain fine parallel grooves, oriented parallel to the traces.
78
Electro-Discharge Machining (EDM) is one of the most widely-used non-
conventional machining processes [89] that relies on thermal erosion (vaporization) of the
material due to a series of discrete electric discharges between electrode and workpiece
while immersed in dielectric fluid. EDM is mainly set on two different configurations:
wire EDM (Fig. 39a) which is preponderantly used to cut through metals to produce
prismatic geometries while die sinking EDM (Fig. 39b) is mainly used in the production
of parts with complex geometries of inverse shape to that of the electrode (eg cavity and
core) [90]. Due to the non-contact nature, EDM machining enjoys some advantages in
comparison with conventional machining including [91,92]: in- dependent tool-wear from
workpiece materials hardness; negligible machining forces; ability to machine
complicated shapes at high aspect ratios and accuracies. The above advantages might also
explain why EDM has attracted increasing attentions recently as a promising method for
machining of MMCs.
The working principle of EDM (Fig. 39c), regardless of the nature of the
workpiece material (monolithic, composite, etc.), could be summarised as below:
- Pulsed voltage difference between the tool (normally cathode) and the electrically
Fig. 26. An example indicating the SiC reinforcing particles reach the melting temperature by
conductive workpiece (normally anode) within the spark gap is developed beyond the
laser irradiation slower than the AlSi-alloy matrix although it has higher thermal conductivity
and absorptivity [76]. breakdown voltage of the dielectric medium around them. - As a result, small-scale
electric discharge happens in the short-term near the workpiece surface, generating
local ultra-high temperature (as high as 20000 °C [93]) which can, at micro-scale, melt
residual stresses. As shown in Fig. 37 [88], when machining an A359/ B4C/Al2O3 MMC, or even vaporise the workpiece forming small debris. - Finally, the solidified debris are
removed by dielectric flushing the
compressive residual stresses were observed due to the high impact of abrasive cutting area. Because of employing pulsed voltage, typical material removal rate of
waterjet, which reached peak values at the subsurface about 50 μm below the machined EDM is 10−6 to 10−4 mm3 per discharge and generally can achieve a machined
surface. The compressive residual stresses decrease with the increase of jet transverse surface roughness Ra of around 0.01–0.1 μm using sophisticated techniques. The
speed due to the reduction of the dwell time of AWJ impact upon the workpiece which EDM mechanism in MMCs is in general similar to that of monolithic materials,
leads to reduced number of abrasives hitting the material at a certain area. The influence however, some specific aspects of the process depend on elevated hardness and
of microhardness in the machined A359/ B4C/Al2O3 MMCs subsurface shows the thermal stability of particle or fibre reinforcements. Surprisingly, EDM mechanism
of MMCs with fibre/whisker reinforcements has been occasionally reported.
Fig. 25. Pulsed laser ablation of materials without (a) and with (b) assistant of gas [75].
5.3. Electro-discharge machining

Considering that reinforcement particles size is usually 10 times smaller than the EDM wire diameter, particles material removal modes
Fig. 27. SEM surface of laser cutting MMCs (AA5052/SiC) shows unburned SiC reinforced particles and restricted flow (a–c), dross and striations formation (d), formation of recast layer (e) and crack init
gradually exposed from the matrix when the wire is fed and hence, it makes it exposed
to the sharp edges of the particles leading to the wire damage. Other
are, generally, different of the corresponding removal modes of matrix phase in MMCs.
The removal modes of particles in wire EDM is detailed below:
79
(i) Two distinct zones in the cut slot during wire EDM of MMCs can be distinguished; researchers thought the electrode failure could be attributed to the delay of the plasma
zone 1 (width equal to wire diameter) which is formed due to spark erosion in the feed formation induced by the melting process of the metallic matrix, leading to an
direction, and zone 2 (equivalent to kerf slot) which is formed due to spark erosion in insufficient flushing effect and an ineffective removal of the melted debris which could
the lateral-to-feed direction and/or due to wire deflection/vibration. (ii) For zone 1 (Fig. scratch the electrode surfaces. (iii) For zone 2, the interaction between the particle
40a), when the wire is fed with the breakdown action of the dielectric between wire and reinforcement and the electrode is quite similar to the one in zone 1. However, instead of
workpiece, both the metallic matrix and the reinforcements can be properly removed, in being removed, part of the particles in zone 2 are probably held by the matrix while the
theory. However, substantial experiments proved that wire breakage would happen other part is exposed to the sparks. This difference was believed to be related with the
within this zone (zone 1). The explanation can be that, the particle reinforcement was sudden variance of the cutting path and the cross-section profile shift of the machined
workpiece, because the protruded particles could micro-deviate the electrode from its the particle reinforcement size and therefore no half-exposed half-held reinforcement
planned paths (straight moving path) of the electrode. However, the opposite opinionparticles can contact the electrode [94].
stated that zone 2 might not exist because in most cases the spark gaps were larger than
evidence [96] is the decrease of the machined surface roughness Ra (around 50%) induced
by the SiC reinforcements when compared to Al2O3 particles (see Fig. 41a). This could be
because [96]: the good electric conductivity of the SiC particles exposed in the spark gap
lower the fluidity of the melt and the spreading of the discharge channel, and therefore,
shallower melting depth and smaller craters are created, leading to lower Ra values. On
the contrary, as seen in Fig. 41b, the poor conductivity of the Al2O3 reinforcements
facilitates the concentration of the plasma energy induced by the dielectric medium
breakdown, leads to obviously large pits on the machined surface and therefore, poor
surface finish [96].
In addition to the material of the reinforcement, its proportion/
80
volume ratio can also influence the machined surface quality. It was reported that in EDM
of Al6061-B4C MMCs the weight ratio of the B4C reinforcement contributed by 80% to
the enhanced surface quality in comparison with peak current and spark gap voltage in
EDM [97].
Because the material removal mechanism in EDM relies on the electric sparks,
the process parameters (voltage and current signal characteristics) were also found
dominant to the machined surface integrity. As seen in Fig. 42, the recast layer was found
thicker when increasing the pulse-on time and the peak current in EDM of Al/SiC MMC
[98].
Apart from recast layers, other types of surface defects induced by wire EDM
were also reported, including:
(i) Microcracks (see Fig. 43a) on/beneath the machined surface [98] -
The material of the reinforcement employed on MMCs was reported to be

the most influential factor when referring to the machined surface integrity. One typical
Fig. 28. Laser machined surface of AA5052 metal matrix composites with SiC particles (a), Al2O3 particles (b) and ZrO2 particles (c) [81].
Fig. 30. New phase generation during the laser machining of SiC/Al alloy matrix MMC: (a) XRD plot and (b) EDX analysis of laser machined surface [80].
Fig. 31. Deviations of cut kerf for different cutting conditions where: A Cutting speed, B Laser power, C Standoff distance, D Nozzle diameter, E Gas pressure, F Reinforcing particles [80].
81
Fig. 29. Oxidization of the SiC/Al alloy matrix MMC material during laser machining [75].
Fig. 32. SEM micrograph of the AWJ cut Al6082/WC MMC surface showing different surface defects [87].
resulted from the high tensile stresses on the machined surface exceeding the matrix 82
cohesion limit when using the higher value of pulse-on time and peak current, which continuous discharge of energy) or the contamination of the spark gap due to the melted
might lead to the dete- rioration of the machined surface topography and morphology; debris; black spots could be related to un- wanted material phase transformations; (iii)
(ii) Black spots (see Fig. 43b) upon the machined surface [98] - resulted from either the Wire shifting marks (see Fig. 43c) on the machined surface [98] – resulted from either
wire failure induced by the abnormal arcing (eg the wire feed direction shift due to the exposed reinforcement particles in the
theoretical trajectory of the
wire motion, or the wire deflection caused by the plasma-induced pressure generated
in the dielectric fluid during EDM [98], and might decrease both the geometrical and
morphological qualities of the machined surface.
When it comes to microscale, as seen in Fig. 44, different defects were also
observed in the micro wire EDM process of Al alloy 2024- based matrix composite with
SiCp reinforcement, including:
83
On the sinking EDM process front (macro scale), the effects of the process
parameters on the workpiece surface integrity were also reported to give similar effects.
Rough machined surface with the sign of large-sized craters was found in the Al6351
matrix composites with a 5 wt% SiC and a 5 wt% B4C reinforcements when the high
current was employed (see Fig. 45) [100]. This was explained by the fact that, an increased
current generated a substantial amount of energy and therefore, molten more material
which formed larger pits on the machined surface. Similar outcome was also found for
the Al 7075 matrix composite with B4C reinforcements [101], as shown in Fig. 46.
6. Effect of surface integrity on the functional performance of MMCs
As previously mentioned, the MMCs, with their lightweight and high strength
Fig. 34. Micro-melting of matrix material after AWJ cutting of Mg-6Al/0.66% Al2O3 MMC and stiffness, have been widely applied for the aerospace and ground transportation
industries in which structural integrity of the components under cycled thermal and
at a high cutting speed [87]. mechanical loads [2,3] is of high importance. The harsh applications of MMCs could
results in the oc- currence of fatigue failure which is linked with quality/integrity of
Fig. 35. Abrasive water jet turning of MMCs specimen: machining setup (a) and different impact angle of jet to the workpiece (b) [82,84].
Fig. 33. SEM (a) and EDS (b) of AWJ cut Mg-6Al/0.66% Al2O3 MMC surface showing abrasive particle embedment [87].
(i) Micro-pores and globules of debris– resulted from the gas bubbles in the raw MMCs, or the escape
EDM process [99]; (ii) Micro-cracking – resulted from the thermal stress generated by the sharp temp
surface when the dielectric medium contacts the workpiece [99]; (iii) Shallow craters – resulted from
inforcement particles due to the removal of the molten metal matrix in micro wire EDM [99].
smooth glossy flat, and 3) small grains of abrasives stuck in the surface [84].
84
As for other metallic materials, the residual stresses have a significant
influence on the fatigue performance of the machined MMCs components where the
compressive stress would favour the extension of fatigue life while the tensile stress have
the opposite effect [107,108]. However, differently from monolithic metallic materials,
fatigue cracks of MMCs do not follow the traces left by conventional machining process,
which means surface roughness has limited effects on fatigue life (Fig. 47) [102,109].
Instead, the propagation of fatigue crack is usually arrested or deflected by reinforced
particles towards an easy debonding direction and this effect becomes more evident with
the increase of reinforcement particles size. More interestingly, when it comes to non-
conventional machining (eg EDM) the surface roughness then makes a difference on the
fatigue life, ie better surface roughness results in longer fatigue life (Fig. 48), as less
surface defects are caused by the recast layer of the matrix and pull-out of the
reinforcement particles in this machining process [110].
Fig. 38. Surface defects generated by AWJ turning showing: 1) front of a cutting trace, 2)
Fig. 37. Residual stresses (a) and microhardness (b) for AWJ turning surfaces of A359/B4C/Al2O3 MMC under different jet transverse speeds [88].
Fig. 36. SEM micrograph of the AWJ turning surface on A359/B4C/Al2O3 MMC [88].
machined surfaces (ie residual stress, surface topography and defects) [102,103]. Thus, the effect
fabricating MMCs specimens subjected to fatigue is of importance to the community. Although ther
fatigue performance of the MMCs, most of them were performed with polished surface for elimina
reach the fatigue perforce of the bulk material [104–106], while only few papers have focused on the i
the fatigue life.
Fig. 39. Schematics of Electro-Discharge Machining (EDM) mainly including (a) wire EDM and (b) sinking EDM and (c) the working principle during the EDM of monolithic materials.
Fig. 40. Working principle during the EDM of MMCs with particle reinforcements (a), and theoretical (b) [94] and deviation of cut profile when wire EDM of Al2O3/ 6061Al MMC (c) [95].
In general the fatigue failure of MMCs occurs with an initial damage

induced by voids nucleation in the material, while these voids will then grow and
subsequently coalesce in the matrix materials or separate the particle/matrix interface, as
shown in Fig. 49. Particularly, the specific surface defects of MMCs generated during
machining process, such as micro-crack, recast layer, pits and voids, which cause variation
in stress
85
concentration at localized regions (especially in the interface of matrix and reinforcement
particles [109]), can also be the initial damage when in fatigue application, leading to
deleterious effect for fatigue life. As shown in Fig. 50, where the fracture morphologies
after fatigue testing of machined Al6061/SiC/10p are presented, the fracture has pre-
dominantly a ductile nature which started from microscopic cracks caused by fracture and
debonding of reinforcements at particle-matrix interfaces [102]. It is also found the fatigue
Surface condition Surface roughness life of MMCs are much shorter than that of corresponding matrix material due to the
Ra (μm) fracture and detachment of reinforcing particles from the matrix.
Polished 0.28 Fine Sparked 3.71 Coarse Sparked 14.5

Fig. 41. SEM micrographs of surface morphology after EDM: the Al/SiC composite (a) and the Al/Al2O3 composite (b) [95,96].
Fig. 42. Comparison of recast layer of machined surfaces (material: Al/SiC-MMC) with different discharge duty cycle and peak current: 2.1%, 120A (a) and 7.5%, 180A (b) [98].
Fig. 43. Other types of EDM-induced surface defects (material: Al/SiC-MMC): crack defects on the machined surface (a), black spots defects on the machined surface (b), and wire shifting marks on the m
Fig. 44. Micro-WEDMed surface microtopography of SiCp/Al2024 MMC: micropores (a), micro cracking (b), shallow craters (c), and globules of debris (d) [99].
7. Summary and outlook

86
end applications, the surface integrity of MMCs is highly influential on the functional
With their enhanced properties (eg high strength, wear resistance), MMCs performance and service life of the machined components. Thus, understanding the
are emerging as substitutes of monolithic metal materials while, in the same time, pose machining process and the resulting surface integrity is important to the community.
significant challenges in terms of low machinability and severe workpiece surface
Based on the mapping of the existing published literature related to machining
damage. As they are used for high-
and surface integrity of MMCs (Fig. 51), it can be seen that,
Fig. 45. Craters on the machined surface of Al(6351)–SiC–B4C MMC when the high current was employed (a), and the cross section morphology when the low current was employed on which recast laye
[100].
Fig. 47. Fatigue test of milled Al6061/SiC/10p MMCs at displacement amplitude of 0.58 mm showing that there is no conclusive evidence to prove the effects of surface roughness on fatigue life of drilled
propagation on specimens does not follow the machining traces (b) [102].
87
Fig. 48. Stress vs fatigue life of polished and coarse and fine EDM samples of A356/SiC/15p MMC [110].
Fig. 46. Machined surface topography showing craters formed due to impact
EDM when the pulse voltage is 60V, the current is 12 A, the pulse on time is 8
and the pulse voltage is 40V, the current is 6 A, the pulse on time is 4 μs and the
Fig. 49. Schematic fatigue of Al6061/SiC/15p MMC induced by repetition-pulsed laser and mechanical load, fatigue damage initial position and damage models (a), fatigue crack propagation (b) [111].
Fig. 51. An overview of published papers over the last 10 years in relation to conventional and non-conventional machining of MMCs, classified by MMCs type and country.
industries due to their advantages of light weight, high wear resistance, strength and
durability, etc.
on one hand, the amount of published research publications in the field of machining
MMCs has considerably grown during the last five years, particularly for Thus, based on the in-depth review on conventional and non-conventional
mechanical/conventional machining processes. On the other hand, it can be observed that machining of MMCs, it can be concluded that the surface integrity of MMCs machining
is drawing an increasing attention. Moreover, the major conclusions of the previous work
the MMCs attracting more interest for the machining research are the Al/Al2O3 followed
and the future
by the Al/SiC, which are widely used in the automobile, aerospace and electricity
88
Fig. 50. Fracture morphology of flexural fatigue testing on machined Al6061/SiC/10p under different cutting conditions [102].
89 directions
could be summarised:
Acknowledgement
• Conventional machining is the leading technology for MMCs when

N/A. dimensional and geometrical accuracy of machined surfaces func- tionality is essential. Nevertheless, the tool/workpiece mechanical
Appendix A. Supplementary data contact could lead to rapid tool wear and unfavourable surface integrity issues especially. Besides the increased tool wear, the pre-
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https:// sence of particle phase in the workpiece promotes some particular
doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2019.05.006. surface defects namely, but not exclusively, particles pull-out, pits, grooves, craters and micro-cracks. The reinforcement particles also
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jurnal: www.elsevier.com / cari / ijmactool

Negara-of-the-art integritas permukaan di permesinan dari ma

Zhirong Liaosebuah,Ali Abdelhafeezsebuah,Haonan Lib,Yue yangb,Oriol Gavald

Kata kunci: Komposit matriks

Dengan keunggulan mereka ringan dan tinggispesifiksifat (misalnya

2. Logam matriks komposit: Bahandefinisi

dipilih-daerah elektron diffReaction (SAED) pola TEM dapat memberikan struktur

kecil dan hancur B4partikel C terdeteksi juga. Anehnya,

5.2. Abrasive waterjet machining

5.3. Electro-discharge machining

The material of the reinforcement employed on MMCs was reported to be

6. Effect of surface integrity on the functional performance of MMCs

In general the fatigue failure of MMCs occurs with an initial damage

Polished 0.28 Fine Sparked 3.71 Coarse Sparked 14.5

7. Summary and outlook

• Conventional machining is the leading technology for MMCs when

• is The also fatigue changed. performance of MMCs is significantly influenced by the

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