Tujuan Pembelajaran
Introduction
Perkenalan
The Japanese management paradigm, which has been developed over the
last 60 years, is a very different animal. Its stress on long-term growth over short-
term profitability and com- mitment to collective well-being over the pursuit of
individual success challenges the pre- cepts of both Culture-Excellence and
neoliberalism. Although its success is seen as stemming from the unique culture
of Japanese firms, it also relied heavily on government intervention and state
planning rather than being a product of free market forces (Abegglen and
Stalk, 1984; Francks, 1992). Because of the success of the Japanese economy
and Japanese compa- nies in the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, the Japanese
approach attracted much interest in the West – a classic case of ‘if you can’t
beat them, join them’. This was especially the case in the United Kingdom,
where Japanese inward investment, by household names such as Honda, Nissan
and Toyota, generated a great deal of debate regarding the impact and merits
of ‘Japanisation’ and whether or not the culture of Japanese firms could be
replicated in Western settings (Ackroyd et al, 1988; Dale and Cooper, 1992;
Hannam, 1993; Turnbull, 1986; Whitehill, 1991). This was also the case in
the United States, where Japan and Japanese methods were seen, in turn, as
either a threat or a lifeline to American industrial pre- eminence (Kanter et al,
1992; Pascale and Athos, 1982; Peters, 1993; Schonberger, 1982).
It is hard now to believe that in the 1980s and 1990s, many people
believed that if Western industry was to survive, it could do so only by
copying Japanese management techniques (Abegglen and Stalk, 1984;
Ackroyd et al, 1988; Hatvany and Pucik, 1981; Holden and Burgess, 1994;
Pascale and Athos, 1982; Smith and Misumi, 1989). Although Japan had been
reduced almost to ashes at the end of the Second World War, by the 1980s, Japan
had built an industrial empire second to none and was threatening to sweep all
before it, including and especially the mighty US car industry (Francks, 1992;
Womack et al, 1990). Hence, the pros- pect of ‘Japanisation’ was looked on with
both fear and envy by ailing Western economies and industries (Abegglen and
Stalk, 1984; Ackroyd et al, 1988; Buckley and Mirza, 1985; Fruin, 1992;
Horsley and Buckley, 1990; Johnson and Ouchi, 1974; Kamata, 1982; Pascale
and Athos, 1982). As we can see from looking at Western businesses, the
wholesale Japanisation of the West never came to pass. Nevertheless, Japan’s
approach to enterprise management is still seen as providing formidable
benefits. Even now, despite nearly three decades of very low growth, it is the
world’s third largest economy, and on key measures, such as unemploy- ment,
living standards, exports and life-expectancy, it outperforms the United States,
the world’s premier economy (Bajpai, 2016; CIA, 2012; The Economist, 2008;
Fingleton, 2012; OECD, 2015). This is a remarkable achievement given that, as
Morgan (1986: 111) remarks:
Dengan hampir tidak ada sumber daya alam, tanpa energi, dan lebih
dari 110 juta orang memadati empat pulau kecil pegunungan, Jepang berhasil
mencapai tingkat pertumbuhan tertinggi, tingkat pengangguran terendah dan,
setidaknya di beberapa organisasi yang lebih besar dan lebih sukses, salah
satu dari populasi pekerja dengan gaji terbaik dan tersehat di dunia.
For all its deliberate isolation, Japan was a sophisticated and well-
educated country with a high degree of literacy. Education was based on a
set of Confucian principles which stressed unquestioning obedience to the
family; total loyalty to one’s superiors; and rever- ence for education and self-
development. The abiding influence of these can still be seen in Japanese
society today, and it underpins the strength of Japanese organisations (Smith and
Misumi, 1989). However, from the mid-nineteenth century, Japan began to
experience internal tensions. The feudal aristocracy experienced escalating
financial difficulties while the merchant class, considered social inferiors, began
to prosper. At the same time, it became clear that the growing military might of
other countries posed a potential threat to Japan. In response to these
developments, Japan adopted a twin-track policy of economic and mili- tary
growth, not dissimilar to that being developed in Germany at this time (Hunter,
1989).
Untuk semua isolasi yang disengaja, Jepang adalah negara yang
canggih dan berpendidikan tinggi dengan tingkat melek huruf yang tinggi.
Pendidikan didasarkan pada seperangkat prinsip Konfusianisme yang
menekankan kepatuhan yang tidak perlu dipertanyakan kepada keluarga;
kesetiaan total kepada atasan seseorang; dan penghormatan untuk pendidikan
dan pengembangan diri. Pengaruh tetap ini masih dapat dilihat dalam
masyarakat Jepang hari ini, dan itu menopang kekuatan organisasi Jepang
(Smith dan Misumi, 1989). Namun, dari pertengahan abad ke-19, Jepang
mulai mengalami ketegangan internal. Aristokrasi feodal mengalami kesulitan
keuangan yang meningkat sementara kelas pedagang, dianggap inferior sosial,
mulai makmur. Pada saat yang sama, menjadi jelas bahwa kekuatan militer
yang tumbuh di negara lain berpotensi mengancam Jepang. Menanggapi
perkembangan ini, Jepang mengadopsi kebijakan jalur kembar pertumbuhan
ekonomi dan militer, tidak berbeda dengan yang sedang dikembangkan di
Jerman saat ini (Hunter, 1989).
Misi dikirim ke luar negeri untuk belajar dan membawa teknologi dan
praktik kembali ke Jepang. Pada satu kunjungan semacam itu pada tahun
1911, Yukinori Hoshino, seorang direktur Bank Kojima, berkenalan dengan
karya Frederick Taylor dan memperoleh izin untuk mentransmisikan karyanya
ke dalam bahasa Jepang. Setelah ini, prinsip-prinsip Manajemen Ilmiah
Taylor, dan pendekatan sekutu untuk studi kerja dan manajemen produksi,
dengan cepat dan antusias diadopsi oleh Jepang (McMillan, 1985). Memang,
itulah dampak dari karya Taylor sehingga, menurut Wren (1994: 205), itu
"mengarah ke revolusi manajemen, menggantikan usia yang didominasi
pengusaha". Pada 1920-an, Jepang telah beralih dari ekonomi agraris ke
ekonomi yang didominasi oleh industri. Seperti di banyak negara Barat,
industrialisasi disertai dengan konflik industri yang cukup besar, kadang-
kadang kekerasan (Urabe, 1986). Namun, berbeda dengan sebagian besar
negara-negara Barat, ini tidak disertai dengan demokratisasi masyarakat yang
berkembang. Alih-alih, kecenderungan demokratik dihancurkan oleh koalisi
yang berkembang antara industri dan militer yang mempromosikan
nasionalisme yang kuat dan, hampir tak terelakkan, mengarah ke keterlibatan
Jepang dalam Perang Dunia Kedua. Setelah kekalahan Jepang, masyarakatnya
yang hancur dihuni oleh Amerika Serikat, yang menelanjangi Kaisar dari
kekuatan tradisionalnya dan membangun demokrasi gaya Barat (Sheridan,
1993; Whitehill, 1991).
Given the state of the Japanese economy after the Second World War,
the success of its reconstruction is nothing short of miraculous. The Korean
War in the 1950s provided a major impetus to the Japanese economy, in that
the United States used Japan as an impor- tant staging post for troops and
supplies, which injected billions of American dollars into Japan. However,
perhaps much more important was America’s contribution to manage- ment
education in Japan. In the immediate post-war years, Japanese companies
acquired a reputation for bitter industrial disputes, shoddy workmanship and
poor quality. The main responsibility for tackling these problems lay with US
engineers working for the Civilian Communications Section of the Occupation
Administration (Sheldrake, 1996). Four men in particular have been credited
with turning this situation around and creating the basis of Japan’s fearsome
reputation for the productivity of its workforce and quality of its products:
Charles Protzman, Homer Sarasohn, Joseph Juran and W Edward Deming.
Interestingly, the last three of these had all worked at Western Electric’s
Hawthorne Works and were, therefore, familiar, although not necessarily
always in agreement, with the Human Relations approach. All of them were far
removed from the narrow concept of the engineer. They took a wide view of
how enterprises should be run and in particular of the need for managers to
show leadership and gain the commitment of their workforces. Their
approach, which covered business policy and organisation as well as
production methods and techniques, was enthusiastically received, adopted
and disseminated by the senior managers who attended their courses and
lectures. As Horsley and Buckley (1990: 51) notes, Deming, especially, met
with enormous success:
Perhaps the most influential work, and still the best-selling book, on
Japanese manage- ment was William Ouchi’s (1981) Theory Z: How American
Business Can Meet the Japanese Challenge. Drawing on the theoretical
insights of Douglas McGregor and Chris Argyris, Ouchi argues that Japanese
success stemmed from:
the belief that workers want to build cooperative and close working
relationships.
Many other writers have also tried to capture the essence of Japanese
management.
lifetime employment;
Pang and Oliver (1988) agree with McKenna but also draw attention to:
training and education;
Pang dan Oliver (1988) setuju dengan McKenna tetapi juga menarik
perhatian pada:
● lingkaran kualitas;
● long-term planning;
● lifetime employment; and
● collective responsibility.
Other commentators have come up with similar lists. One of the most
quoted of these is by Pascale and Athos (1982), who used the McKinsey 7 S
Framework (see Ideas and perspectives 4.2, Chapter 4), which they had
developed jointly with Tom Peters and Robert Waterman, to analyse Japanese
management. Like Peters and Waterman’s Culture-Excellence approach,
Pascale and Athos stressed the four ‘soft’ Ss (staff, style, shared values and
skills). This was not to dismiss the ‘hard’ Ss (strategy, structure and systems)
but to emphasise that the real difference between Japanese companies and
their Western counterparts was that the latter tended to concentrate on the
‘hard’ Ss and ignore the ‘soft’ Ss. Pascale and Athos argued that, in contrast,
Japanese compa- nies had developed the ability to combine and blend the
‘soft’ and ‘hard’ Ss to their competitive benefit. Their work differed from
other studies of Japanese management at the time by examining the
management style of Japanese companies operating in the United States. In a
similar vein, Peter Wickens, who was Personnel Director of Nissan Motor
Manufacturing (UK) Ltd for more than 10 years, also commented on the
transfer of Japanese management to the West. In his 1987 book, The Road to
Nissan, written when he was still at Nissan, he argued that the Japanese
approach can be characterised by three factors:
● teamwork;
● quality consciousness; and
● flexibility.
Komentator lain telah membuat daftar serupa. Salah satu yang paling
dikutip dari ini adalah oleh Pascale dan Athos (1982), yang menggunakan
Kerangka McKinsey 7 S (lihat Gagasan dan Perspektif 4.2, Bab 4), yang
mereka kembangkan bersama dengan Tom Peters dan Robert Waterman,
untuk menganalisis manajemen Jepang. . Seperti pendekatan Peters and
Waterman's Culture-Excellence, Pascale dan Athos menekankan empat 'soft'
Ss (staf, gaya, nilai-nilai dan keterampilan bersama). Ini bukan untuk
meniadakan 'keras' Ss (strategi, struktur dan sistem) tetapi untuk menekankan
bahwa perbedaan nyata antara perusahaan Jepang dan rekan-rekan Barat
mereka adalah bahwa yang terakhir cenderung berkonsentrasi pada Ss 'keras'
dan mengabaikan 'lunak'. Ss. Pascale dan Athos berpendapat bahwa,
sebaliknya, perusahaan Jepang telah mengembangkan kemampuan untuk
menggabungkan dan memadukan S 'soft' dan 's hard' untuk keuntungan
kompetitif mereka. Pekerjaan mereka berbeda dari penelitian lain tentang
manajemen Jepang pada saat itu dengan memeriksa gaya manajemen
perusahaan Jepang yang beroperasi di Amerika Serikat. Dalam nada yang
sama, Peter Wickens, yang adalah Direktur Personalia Nissan Motor
Manufacturing (UK) Ltd selama lebih dari 10 tahun, juga berkomentar tentang
pengalihan manajemen Jepang ke Barat. Dalam bukunya tahun 1987, The
Road to Nissan, ditulis ketika dia masih di Nissan, dia berpendapat bahwa
pendekatan Jepang dapat ditandai oleh tiga faktor:
● kerja tim;
AsFigure5.1shows,thefactorsidentifiedbytheabovewriterscanbeseparatedintotw
o categories: tho serelating toper sonnelis suesand those relating tobusiness practices.
Personnel issues
2. Internal labour markets. Most positions are filled from inside the
company. This is a corollary to lifetime employment which demonstrates to
the employee that satisfactory