STATIVE VERBS

a) Yum ! this food tastes good I like
it very much
b) INCORRECT : This foodmis tasting
good, I’m liking it very much
c) The chef is in his kitchen
(He is tasting the sauce)
d) It tastes too salty
e) He doesn’t like it
Beberapa kata kerja memiliki makna statif.
Menggambarkan keadan : kondisi atau situasi yang ada.
NB. Ketika kata kerja memiliki makna statif, maka itu tidak
akan digunakn di PROGRESSIVE TENSES
In(a). Tastes dan like memiliki arti statif yang masing masing
menggambarkan keadaan Yang ada
Kata kerja Taste memiliki makna stative, tetapi juga
memiliki makna PROGRESSIVE.
In (c). Tasting menjelaskan kegiatan chef yang sedang
menaruh sesuatu di mulutnya dan mulai merasakan
rasa(PROGRESSIVE)
In (d). Tastes menjelaskan seorang yang sadar akan kualitas
dari suatu makanan (Stative)
Kata kerja seperti Like memiliki makna stative, tapi
jarang digunakan di PROGRESSIVE TENSES
In (e). INCORRECT jika, He isn’t liking it

AM / IS / ARE BEING +ADJECTIVE

a) Ann is sick today
Alex is nervous about the exam
Tom is tall and handsome
b) Jack doesn’t fell well, but the refuses Terkadang kata kerja utama Be + an Adjective digunakan
to see a doctor. He is being foolish
c) Sue is being very quiet today. I
wonder if anything is wrong
d) INCORRECT : Mr. Smith is being old
CORRECT : Mr. Smith is old
BE – an adjective selalu menjelaskan makna statif As in
(a)
di PROGRESSIVE. Digunakan di PROGRESSIVE untuk
menjelaskan perilaku sementara yang sedang
berlangsung
In (b). Jack’s foolishness merupakan sifat sementara dan
mungkin bukan sifatnya
In (d). Umur tidak digunakan untuk menjelaskan perilaku
sementara, Be + Old tidak digunakan di PROGRESSIVE

REGULAR VERBS: PRONOUNCIATION of –ED ENDING

Akhiran –ed memiliki 3 pengucapan berbeda /t/, /d/ , dan /ed/
a) Looked > look/t/ Akhiran -ed di ucapapkan /t/ setelah suara hilang (voiceless)
Missed > miss/t/ Voiceless sound dibuat dengan mendorong udara melalui mulut
Watched > watch/t/ Contoh voiceless sound : K, P, S, CH, SH, F
b) Smelled > smell/d/ Akhiran -ed di ucapapkan /d/ setelah voice sounds
Robbed > rob/d/ Suara berasal dari tenggorokan , jika dipegang terasa getaran
Cleaned > clean/d/ Contoh Voice sound : L, V, N, B, dan huruf hidup
c) Decided > decide/ed/ Akhiran -ed di ucapapkan /ed/ setelah t dan d
Wanted > want/ed/ COMPARE : looked = one syllable > look/t/
Invited > invit/ed/ Smelled = one syllable > smell/d/
Needed = two syllable > need/ed/
Wanted = two syllable > want/ed/
 TROUBLESOME VERBS : RAISE / RISE , SET / SIT , LAY / LIE
TRANSITIVE INTRASITIVE Raise, Set dan Lay adalah kata kerja transitif,
a). Raise, Raised, Raised b). Rise, Rose, Risen yang diikuti sebuah objek
Tom raised his hand The sunrises in the east Rise, Sit, dan Lie adalahkata kerja intrasitif dan
c). Set, Set, Set d). Sit, Sat, Sat tidak diikuti sebuah objek
I will set the book on I sit in the front row In(a). raised is followed by the object hand
the desk In(b). rises is not followed by the object
e). Lay, Laid, Laid f). Lie, **Lay, Lain Note : Lay dan Lie juga merepotkan bagi
I am laying the book on He is lying on his bed penutur asli dan sering disalah gunakan
the desk

USING PROGRESSIVE VERBS WITH ALWAYS TO COMPLAIN

a) Maryalways leaves for school at 7.45
PM
b) Mary is always leaving her dirty socks Dalam keadaan khusus, pembicara dapat
on the floor for me to pick up! Who
does she think I am ? her maid ?
c) I am always / constantly / forever
picking up Mary’s dirty shock
d) I didn’t like having Sam for my
roommate last years. He was aways
leaving his dirty cloths on the floor
Kalimat yang mengacu oada waktu sekarang biasanya
menggunkan SIMPLE PRESENT digunakan dengan
ALWAYS untuk menunjukan kebiasaan atau aktivitas
sehari hari. As in (a)
menggunakan PRESENT PROGRESSIVE dengan
ALWAYS untuk mengungkapankan kekesalan / amarah
Selain ALWAYS, FOREVER dan CONSTANTLY juga
digunakan dalam PRESENT PROGRESSIVE untuk
mengekspresikan kekesalan
ALWAYS, FOREVER dan CONSTANTLY juga digunakan
di PAST PROGRESSIVE untuk mengekspresikan
gangguan atau marah

COMPARE :

1. “Mary is always leaving her dirty shock on the floor”, menunjukan gangguan (annoyance)
2. “Mary is always leaves her dirty shock on the floor”, belum tentu menunjukan gannguan,
tergantung nada pembicara

USING EXPRESSIONS OF PLACE WITH PROGRESSIVE VERBS

a) What is kay doing ?
She’s studying in her room
b) Where is kay ?
She’s in her room studying
c) What was jack doing when you arrived ?
He was reading a book in bed
d) Where was jack when you arrived ?
He was in bed reading a back
Pengekspresikan sebuah tempat terkadang
bias berada diantara kata kerja pembantu Be
dan Ing di PROGRESSIVE TENSES, as in
(b) dan (d):
is + in her room + studying
was + in bed + reading
In (a): pertanyaan dan jawaban berfokus pada
aktivitas Kay yang sedang berlangsung
In (b): pertanyaan dan jawabn berfokus pada lokasi
Kay

WILL vs BE GOING TO
To express a PREDICTION : Use either (salah satu) WILL atau BE GOING TO
 a) According to the weather report, it will Ketika pembicara membuat prediksi
be cloudy tomorrow (pernyataan tentang sesuatu yang akan terjadi di
b) According to the weather report, it is masa depan) Antara WILL dan BE GOING TO bisa
going tobe cloudy tomorrow digunakan.
c) Be carefull ! you’ll hurt yourself Tidak ada perbedaan antara (a dan b) dan (c
d) Watch out ! you’re going to hurt dan d)
yourself
To express a PRIOR (terdahulu) plan : Use only BE GOING TO
e) A: why did you buy this paint Keitka pembicara menyatakan rencana
B: I’m going to paint my bedroom sebelumya (sesuatu yang pembicara ingin
tomorrow lakukan di masa depan karena sudah diputuskan
di masa lalu) hanya meggunakna BE GOING TO
To express WILLINGNESS (kerelaan) : Use only WILL
f) A: the phone’s ringing In(f). sebelumnya dia tidak memiliki rencana
B: I’ll get it untuk menjawab telpon. Sebaliknya dia secara
g) A: I don’t understand this problem sukarela menjawab telpon tersebut
B: ask your teacher about it. She’ll help In(h). Pembicara B yakin dengan kesedian guru
you untuk membantu
Hanya menggunakan WILL

EXPRESSING THE FUTURE IN TIME CLAUSES

a) Bob will come soon. When bob come, In (a). When Bob comes adalah klausa waktu
we will see him WHEN + SUBJECT + VERB = A TIME CLAUSE
b) Linda is going to leave soon. Before she WILL atau BE GOING TO tidak digunakan di
leaves, she is going to finish her work klausa waktu. Arti dari klausa tersebut adalah
c) I will get home at 5.30 . After I get home, masa depan, tetapi digunakan bentuk waktu
I will eat dinner sekarang(SIMPLE PRESENT) yang sederhana
d) The taxi will arrive soon. As soon as it Klausa waktu diawali dengan seperti WHEN,
arrives, we’ll be able to leave for the BEFORE, AFTER, AS SOON AS(segera),
aiport UNTIL(sampai), WHILE(sementara) dan
e) They’re going to come soon. I’ll wait termasuk subjek dan kata kerja. Klausa waktu
here intil they come berada di akhir kalimat atau di bagian kedua
dari kalimat.
When he comes we’ll see him
OUR
We’ll see him when he comes
f) While i am traveling in Europe next Terkadang PRESENT PROGRESSIVE digunakan di
years, I ‘m going to save money by klausa waktu untuk menjelaskan aktivitas yang
staying in youth hostel akan berlangsung di kemudian hari, as in (f)
g) I wil go to bed after I finish my work Sesekali PRESENT PROGRESSIVE digunakan di
h) I will go to bed after I have finished my klausa waktu, as in (h). contoh (g) dan (h)
work memilii makna sama. PRESENT PREFECT di
klausa waktu menitik beratkan penyelesaian
 perbuatan tersebut sebelum perbuatan lainnya
terjadi
USING THE PRESENT PROGRESSIVE AND THE SIMPLE PRESENT TO EXPRESS FUTURE TIME
PRESENT PROGRESSIVE PRESENT PROGRESSIVE dapat digunakan untuk
a) My wife has an appointment with a mengungkapkan waktu masa depan ketika gagasan
doctor. She is seeing Dr. North next kalimat tersebut menyangkut perstiwa yang direncanakan
Tuesday, atau maksud tertentu
b) Sam has already made his plans. He NB. Kata kerja seperti RAIN tidak digunakan dalam
is leaving at moon tomorrow. PRESENT PROGESSIVE untuk menunjukan waktu yang
c) A: What are you going to do this akan datang karena hujan bukanlah peristiwa yang
afternoon? direncanakan
B: After lunch I am meeting a friend Arti masa depan untuk PRESENT PROGRWSSIVE TENSE
of mine. We are going shopping. diindikasikan dengan kata kata waktu mendatang dalam
Would you like to come along? kalimat atau dengan konteks
SIMPLE PRESENT SIMPLE PRESENT dapat digunakan untuk menyatakan
d) The museum opens at ten waktu yang akan datang dalam kalimat tentang peristiwa
tomorrow morning. yang ada pada jadwal atau jadwal tertentu. Kalimat ini
e) Classes begin next week. biasanya berisi kata waktu masa depan. Hanya beberapa
f) John's plane arrives at 6:05 P.M. kata lerja yang digunakan dengan cara ini, (open, close,
next Monday begin, end, start, finish, arrive, leave, come, return)

ADVERB CLAUSSS OF TIME: FORM

adverb clause main clause
a) When the phone rang, the baby woke up.
b) INCORRECT: When the phone rang. The
baby woke up.
c) The phone rang. The baby woke up.
d) When the phone rang, the baby woke up.
e) The baby woke up when the phone rang.
In a. When the phone rang merupakan adverb
clauses of time (klausa keterangan waktu). klausa
kata keterangan adalah salah satu jenis klausa
dependen. klausa dependen harus dilampirkan ke
klausa independen, atau utama
(b) is incorrect karena klausa kata keterangan tidak
terhubung ke kata kerja utama
(c) is correct karena tidak ada klausul kata
keterangan. dua klausa utama adalah klausa
independen
Contoh (d) dan (e) memiliki pengertian yang sama.
Klausa keterangan dapat berada di depan main
clauses (klausa utama), seperti di (d) atau diikuti
klausa utama, seperti di (e).
NOTICE bahwa koma digunakan untuk memisahkan
kedua klausa saat klausa kata keterangan muncul
lebih dulu
 USING ADVERB CLAUSES TO SHOW TIME RELATIONSHIPS
After* (a) After she graduates, she will get a job. PRESENT TENSE, bukan tense masa
(b) After she (hrad) graduated, she got a job. depan, digunakan sebagai adverb
clause of time(klausa keterangan
Before* (c) I will leave before comes. waktu), as in examples (a) and (c).
(d) I (had) left before he came. (See Chart 1-3, p. 55, for tense
usage in future
time clauses)
When (e) When I arrized, he was talking on the when = at that time (pada waktu
phone. itu)
(f) When I got there, he had already left. Notice perbedaan waktu
(8) When it began to rain, I stood under a relationships expressed by the
tree. tenses. (hubungan yang
(h) When i was in Chicago, I visited the diungkapkan oleh tenses)
museums,
(i) When I see him tomorrow, I will ask him.
While (j) While I was walking home, it began to while, as = during that time (selama
As rain. waktu itu)
(k) As l was walking home, it began to rain.
By The Time (l) By the time he arrived, we had already by the time = one event is
left completed before another
(m) By the time he comes, we will have event(satu acara selesai sebelum
already left acara lain)
Notice penggunan PAST PERFECT
dan FUTURE PERFECT di klausa
utama
Since (n) I haven't seen him since he left this since = sejak saat itu hingga saat ini
morning. In (O): selalu menambahkan
(o) I've known her ever since I was a child. emphasis (penekanan),
Note: PRESENT PERFECT digunakan
di main clause (induk kalimat).
Until (p) we stayed there until we finished our until, till = untuk waktu itu dan
Till work kemudian tidak lagi (Till lebih sering
(q) we stayed there till we finished our work digunakan dalam pembicaraan
ketimbang tulisan, umumnya tidak
digunakan dalam bahasa Inggris
formal.)
As Soon As (r) as soon as it stops raining, we will leave as soon as, once = ketika satu
Once (s) once it stops raining ,we will leave kejadian terjadi, kejadian lain
terjadi setelahnya
As Long As (t) I will never speak to him again as long as I As long as, so long as = selama
So Long As live waktu itu, dari awal hingga akhir
(u) I will never speak to him again so long as
I live
Whenever \(v) whenever I see her, I say hello Whenever = everytime
Everytime (w) everytime I see her, I say hello Kapanpun = setiap saat
 The First Time (x) the first time (that) I went to New York,I klausa kata keterangan dapat
The Last Time went to an opera diperkenalkan sebagai berikut
The Next Time (y) I saw two plays the last time (that) I went first
to New York second
(z) The next time (that) I go to New York ,I’m the third, etc. Time (that)
going to see a ballet last
next
etc

FINAL -S / -ES: USE, PRONUNCIATION, AND SPELLING

(a) NOUN + -s : Friends are akhiran -s atau -es ditambahkan ke kata benda untuk membuat kata
important. benda jamak
NOUN + - ES : I like my friend = a singular noun (kata benda tunggal)
classes. friends = a plural noun (kata benda jamak)
(b) VERB + -s : Mary works Akhiran –s atau –es ditambahkan di kata kerja SIMPLE PRESENT
at the bank. ketika subjeknya singular noun(tunggal) (Mary, my father, the
VERB + - ES : John achine) atau orang ketiga singular pronoun(kata ganti tunggal) (she,
tratches he, it)
birds. Mary works = singular She works = singular
The students work = plural They work = plural
PRONUNCIATION OF –S / -ES
(c) seats  seat/s/ Akhiran –s diucapkan /s/ setelah voiceless sounds, as in (c)
ropes  rope/s/ Contoh huruf voiceless sounds (t, p, dan k)
backs  back/s/
(d) seeds  seed/z/ Akhiran –s diucapkan /z/ setelah voiced sounds, (h)
Robes  robe/z/ Contoh huruf voiced sounds (d, b, g, dan ee)
Bags  bag/z/
Sees  see/z/
(e) dishes  dish /ez/ Akhiran -s dan -es diucapkan /ez/ setelah suara -sh, -ch, -s, -z, dan
catches  catch /ez/ -ge / -dge. Suara akhiran /ez/ menambahkan suku kata. Seperti di (e)
kisses  kiss /ez/ diucapkan dengan dua suku kata (syllabe)
mixes  mixe /ez/ COMPARE Contoh (c) dan (d) satu suku kata (syllable)
prizes  prize /ez/ Contoh (e) dua suku kata (syllable)
edges  edge /ez/
SPELLING: FINAL -S vs. –ES
(f) sing  sings untuk sebagian besar kata (baik kata kerja atau kata benda), cukup
Song songs akhir -s ditambahkan untuk mengeja kata dengan benar
(g) wash  washes akhir -es ditambahkan ke kata yang diakhiri dengan -sh, -ch, -s, -z,
Watch  watches dan –x
Class  classes
Buzz  busses
Box  boxes
(h) toy  toys untuk kata yang diakhiri dengan -y:
buy  buys dalam (h): jika -y diawali dengan vokal, hanya -s yang ditambahkan
(i) baby  babies dalam (i): jika -y diawali dengan konsonan, -y diubah menjadi -i dan -
Cry  cries es ditambahkan
See Chart 2-6, p.20, for an explanation of voiced vs voiceless sounds
 BASIC SUBJECT -VERB AGREEMENT
SINGULAR VERB PLURAL VERB
(a) My friend lives in (b) My friends live in verb + -s/-es = third person singular in the
Boston. Boston. simple present tense
noun + -s/-es = plural

(c) My brother and Dua atau lebih subjek dihubungkan dengan

sister live in Boston. DAN (membutuhkan kata kerja jamak)
(d) My brother, sister,
and cousin live in
Boston.
(e) Every man, teoman, EXCEPTION. EVERY dan EACH selalu diikuti
and child needs love. oleh singular nouns(kata kerja tunggal). (see
(f) Each book and magacin chart 7-13, p.128) dalam kasus ini, bahkan
is listed in the card ketika ada dua (atau lebih) kata benda yang
catalog. dihubungkan oleh dan, kata kerjanya adalah
tunggal
(g) That book on political (h) The ideas in that Terkadang phrase (frasa) atau clause
parties is interesting. book are interesting (klausa) separates(memisahkan) subjek dari
(i) My dog, as well as my (i) My dogs, as well as kata kerjanya. Struktur yang interrupting
cats, likes cat food. my cat, like cat food. (mengganggu) ini tidak mempengaruhi
(k) The book that I got (j) The books I bought kesepakatan dasar. Misalnya, dalam (g)
from my parents was at the bookstore the interrupting prepositional phrase (frase
very interesting. were expensive. preposisi yang mengganggu)
pada political parties tidak merubah fakta
bahwa kata kerjanya harus setuju
dengan subjek book. Dalam (k) dan (l):
Subjek dan kata kerja dipisahkan oleh
klausa kata sifat. (See chapter 13.)
(m) Gring flowers is her Gerund (bentuk kata kerja yang berakhiran –
hobby ing) digunakan sebagai subjek kalimat
tersebut membutuhkan kata kerja tunggal

SUBJECT -VERB AGREEMENT: USING EXPRESSIONS OF QUANTITY

SINGULAR VERB
(a) Some of the book is
good.
(c) A lot of the equipment
is new.
(e) Two-thirds of the
money is mine.
(g) One of my friends is
here.
(h) Each of my friends is
PLURAL VERB
(b) Some of the books Dalam kebanyakan ekspresi kuantitas,
are good. kata kerjanya adalah
(d) A lot of my friends ditentukan oleh kata benda (atau kata
are here. ganti) itu
(f) Teco-thirds of the mengikuti dari. Sebagai contoh:
pennies are mine. In (a): Beberapa dari + kata benda
tunggal = kata kerja tunggal.
In (b): Beberapa dari + jamak roun =
kata kerja jamak.
EXCEPTIONS One of, each of, dan every
one of ambil kata kerja tunggal
one of
 here. each of + plural noun = singular verb
(i) Every one of my friends every one of
is here.

(j) None of the boys is here.
(l) The number of students
in the class is fifteen.
(k) None of the boys Subjek dengan none of considered
are here. (informal) singular (dianggap tunggal) dalam
bahasa Inggris yang sangat formal,
tetapi kata kerja jamak sering digunakan
dalam penulisan pidato informal.
(m) A number of COMPARE:
students were late In (l) : The number adalah subjek.
for class. In (m): A number of adalah ekspresi
dari kuantitas yangb berarti "a lot of".
Ini diikuti oleh kata benda jamak dan
kata kerja jamak.

SUBJECT -VERB AGREEMENT: USING THERE + BE

(a) There are twenty students in my
class.
(b) There's a fly in the room.
(C) There are seven continents.
Dalam struktur there + be, yang disebut
"expletive(kata lontaran)." Itu tidak memiliki arti
sebagai kosakata. Ini memperkenalkan gagasan bahwa
sesuatu ada di tempat tertentu.
Pattern (pola):
there + be + subject + expression of place
Terkadang ekspresi tempat omitted (dihilangkan) saat
artinya jelas.
In (c): Ekspresi tersirat
tempatnya jelas di dunia.

SINGULAR VERB PLURAL VERB

(d) There is a (e) There are Subjek diikuti be ketika there digunakan
book on the some books In (d): The subject is book.
shelf. on the shelf. In (c): The subject is books.

(f) INFORMAL: There's some books on
the shelf.
Dalam bahasa Inggris lisan yang sangat informal,
beberapa penutur asli menggunakan kata kerja tunggal
meskipun subjeknya jamak,
as in (f). Penggunaan formulir ini cukup sering tetapi
umumnya tidak dianggap benar secara tata bahasa.
 SUBJECT -VERB AGREEMENT: SOME IRREGULARITIES
SINGULAR VERB
(a) The United States is big. Terkadang kata benda yang diakhiri dengan -s
(b) The Philippines consists of more than 7,000 berbentuk tunggal. Contohnya, jika kata benda
islands. (noun )diubah menjadi kata ganti(pronoun),
(c) The United Nations has its headquarters in maka kata ganti tunggal (singular pronoun) it
New York City. digunakan (bukan kata ganti jamak (plural
(d) Sears is a department store. pronoun) they) karena kata benda (noun) itu
tunggal (singular)
In (a): The United States = it (not they)
(c) The news is interesting. News adalah singular(tunggal)
(f) Mathematics is easy for her. Physics is easy Bidang studi (Fields of study) yang diakhiri
for her too. dengan -ics membutuhkan (require) kata kerja
tunggal (singular verb)
(g) Diabetes is an illness. Penyakit tertentu yang diakhiri dengan -s
bersifat tunggal: diabetes,measles, mumps,
rabies, rickets, shingles.
(h) Eight hours of sleep is enough. Ekspresi time, money, and distance biasanya
(i) Ten dollars is too much to pay membutuhkan kata kerja tunggal
(j) Five thousand miles is too far to travel.
(k) Two and two is four. Ekspresi aritmatika (Arithmetic expressions)
Two and two equals four. membutuhkan (require) kata kerja tunggal.
Two plus two is/equals four.
(l) Five time five is twenty-five.
PLURAL VERB
(m) Those people are from Canada. People, police, dan cattle jangan diakhiri
(n) The police have been called. dengan -s, merupakan kata benda jamak dan
(0) Cattle are domestic animals. membutuhkan kata kerja jamak
SINGULAR VERB PLURAL VERB
(p) English is spoken (q) The English drink In (p): English = language. In (q): The English =
in many countries tea people from England. Kata benda (noun)
(r) Chinese is his (s) The Chinese bave kebangsaan yang diakhiri dengan -sh, -ese,
native language an interesting history dan, -ch dapat berarti bahasa atau orang
(English, Spanish, Chinese, Japanese,
Vietnamese, Portuguese, French)
(t) The poor have Few (beberapa) kata sifat dapat diawali
many problem dengan The dan digunakan sebagai kata benda
(u) The rich get richer jamak (plural noun) (tanpa akhir -s) untuk
merujuk pada orang yang memiliki kualitas
tersebut. Contoh : The young, The elderly
(orang tua), The living, The dead, The blind,
The deaf, The disabled
The word “People” has a final –s (peoples) only when it is used to refer to ethnic or national groups : All the people of
the world desire peace
 REGULAR AND IREGULAR PLURAL NOUN
(a) Song  songs jamak dari kebanyakan kata benda dibentuk
dengan menambahkan -s akhir
(b) Box  boxes final -es ditambahkan ke kata benda yang
diakhiri dengan -sh, -ch, -s, -z, dan –x
(c) Baby  babies bentuk jamak dari kata-kata yang diakhiri
dengan konsonan
+ -y dieja –ies
(d) Man  men Goose  geese kata benda dalam (d) memiliki bentuk jamak
Woman  women Tooth  teeth tak beraturan yang tidak diakhiri dengan -s
Child  children Mouse  mice
Ax  axen Louse  lice
Foot  feet
(e) Echo  echoes Potato  potatoes beberapa kata benda yang diakhiri dengan -o
Hero  heroes Tomato  tomatoes add -es untuk membentuk jamak
(f) Auto  autos Kilo  kilos beberapa kata benda yang diakhiri dengan -o
Ghetto  ghettos Memo  memos menambahkan -s saja untuk membentuk
Kangaroo  kangaroos
jamak
(g) Memento  mementoes /mementos beberapa kata benda yang diakhiri dengan -o
Mosquito  mosquitoes / mosquitos tambahkan -es atau -s untuk membentuk
Tornado  tornadoes/ tornados
Volcano  volcanoes / volcanos jamak (dengan -es menjadi bentuk jamak yang
lebih umum)
(h) Calf  calves Life  lives beberapa kata benda yang diakhiri dengan -f
Half  halves Loaf  loaves atau -fe diubah menjadi -ves untuk
Knife  knives Self  selves
Leaf  leaves membentuk jamak
(i) Belief  beliefs beberapa kata benda yang diakhiri dengan -f
Chief  chiefs hanya menambahkan -s untuk membentuk
Cliff  ciliffs
jamak
(j) One deer – two deer beberapa kata benda memiliki bentuk tunggal
One fish – two fish dan jamak yang sama
One means – two means
e.g., One deer is . . . Two deer are . . .
One series - two series
(k) Criterion  criteria beberapa kata benda yang dipinjam bahasa
Phenomenon  phenomena Inggris dari bahasa lain memiliki bentuk jamak
(l) Cactus  cacti / cactuses
Stimulus  stimuli asing
Syllabus  syllabi / syllabuses
(m) Formula  formulae / formulas
Vertebra  vertebrae
(n) Appendix  appendices / appendixes
Index  indices / indexes
(o) Analysis  analyses
Basisi  bases
Criss  crises
Hypothesis  hypotheses
Oasis  oases
Parenthesis –> parentheses
Theis  theses
(p) Bacterian  bacteria
Curriculum  curricula
Darum  data
Medium  media
Memorandum  memoranda
 POSSESSIVE NOUNS
SINGULAR NOUN POSSESSIVE NOUN
(a) The girl The girl’s Untuk menunjukkan kepemilikan, tambahkan apostrof
(b) Tom Tom’s (') (tanda penyingkat) dan -s ke kata benda tunggal.
(c) My wife My wife’s The girl’s book is on the table
(d) A lady A lady’s Jika kata benda tunggal diakhiri dengan -s, ada dua
(e) Thomas Thomases /thomas’ kemungkinan bentuk
1. tambahkan apostrof dan -s : Thomas’s book
2. tambahkan hanya apostrof : Thomas’ book
PLURAL NOUN POSSESSIVE NOUN
(g) The girls The girls’ Tambahkan hanya apostrof ke kata benda jamak yang
(h) Their wives Their wives’ diakhiri dengan –s : The girls’ book are on the table
(i) The ladies The ladies’ tambahkan apostropohean dan -s ke kata benda
(j) The men The men’s jamak yang tidak diakhiri dengan –s :
(k) My children My children’s The men’s books are on the table

USING NOUNS AS MODIFIERS

The soup has vegetables in it.
(a) It is vegetable soup.
The building has offices in it.
(b) It is an office building.
The test lasted two hours.
(e) It was a two-hour test.
Her son is five years old.
(d) She has a five-year-old son.
Ketika kata benda digunakan sebagai pengubah, kata benda itu
dalam bentuk tunggalnya.
In (a): vegetable modifies soup.
In (b): office modifies building.
Ketika kata benda yang digunakan sebagai pengubah
digabungkan dengan ekspresi angka, kata benda itu tunggal
dan tanda hubung (-) (hyphen) digunakan.
INCORRECT. She has a five years old son.

COUNT AND NONCOUNT NOUNS

(a) I bought a chairs. Sam bought three chairs Chairs adalah kata benda hitungan (count
(b) We bought some furniture noun); kursi adalah barang yang bisa dihitung
INCORRECT : We bought some furnitures Furniture adalah kata benda noncount. Dalam
INCORRECT : We bought a furniture tata Bahasa (grammar), furniture tidak bisa
dihitung
SINGULAR PLURAL
COUNT A chair Ø chairs Kata benda hitungan (count noun)
NOUN One chair two chairs (1) May be precended by a/an in the
some chairs singular
a lot of (2) Takes a final –s/-es in the plural
chairs
many chairs
NONCOUNT Ø Furniture A noun count noun
NOUN Some furniture (1) Is not immediately precend by a/an
A lot of furniture (2) Has no plural form, so does not take a
Much furniture final –s/-es
 NONCOUNT NOUNS
(a) I bought some chairs, tables, and desks. In Banyak kata benda bukan hitungan (noncount
other words, I bought some furniture. noun) mengacu pada "keseluruhan (Whole)"
(b) I put some sugar in my coffee. yang dibuat hingga bagian yang berbeda.
In(a): furniture mewakili seluruh kelompok
benda itu terdiri dari barang serupa tetapi
terpisah.
In(b): sugar dan coffee mewakili seluruh massa
yang dibuat hingga partikel atau elemen
individu. *
(c) I wish you luck. Banyak kata benda bukan hitungan (noncount
noun)adalah abstraksi.
In (c): Luck adalah konsep abstrak,
"keseluruhan" abstrak. Tidak ada bentuk fisik,
Anda tidak bisa menyentuhnya. Anda tidak bisa
menghitungnya.
(d) Sunshine is warm and cheerful A phenomenon of nature (Sebuah fenomena
alam), seperti sinar matahari sering digunakan
sebagai kata benda bukan hitungan, As In (d).
(e) NONCOUNT: Ann has brown hair. Banyak kata benda yang bisa digunakan sebagai
COUNT : Tom has a hair on his jacket. noncount atau count noun, tetapi artinya
(f) NONCOUNT: I opened the curtains to let in berbeda; e.g., hair in (C) and light in (f)
some light (Kamus yang ditulis khusus untuk pelajar bahasa
COUNT: Don't forget to turn off the Inggris sebagai bahasa kedua digunakan sebagai
light before you go to bed. sumber informasi yang baik tentang count /
noncount usages of nouns.)
To express a particular quantity, some noncount nouns may be preceded (didahulukan) by unit expressions: a spoonful of
sugar, a glass of water, cap of coffee, a quart of milk, a loaf of bread, a grain of rice, a bowl of soup, a bag of flour, a
poumd of meat, a piece of furniture, a piece of paper, a piece of jewelry

SOME COMMON NONCOUNT NOUNS

Daftar ini adalah contoh kata benda yang biasa (commonly) digunakan sebagai kata noncount
noun. Banyak kata benda lain yang bias digunakan sebagai noncount noun
a) WHOLE GROUPS MADE UP OF SIMILAR ITEMS (SELURUH KELOMPOK YANG TERDIRI DARI ITEM
YANG SAMA): baggage, clothing, equipment, food, fruit, furniture, garbage, hardware, jewelry,
penk, luggage, machinery, mail, makeup, money cash change, postage, scenery, traffic, etc
(b) FLUIDS (cair): water, coffee, tea, mulk, oil, soup, gasoline, blood, etc.
(C) SOLIDS (padat): ice, bread, butter, cheese, meat, gold, iron, silver, glass, paper, wood, cotton,
wool, etc.
(d) GASES (gas): steam, air, oxygen, mitrogen, smoke, smog, pollution, etc.
(e) PARTICLES (partikel): rice, chalk, corn, dirt, dust, flour, grass, hair, pepper, salt, sand, sugar,
theat, etc.
(f) ABSTRACTIONS:
-beauty, confidence, courage, education, enjoyment, fum, happiness, health, help, honesty,
hospitality, importance, intelligence, justice, knowledge, laughter, luck, music, patience, peace,
pride, progress, recreation, significance, sleep, truth, violence, wealth, etc.
-advice, information, news, evidence, proof, etc.
-time, space, energy, etc.
-homework, work, etc.
- granmar, slang, vocabulary, etc.
(g) LANGUAGES: Arabic, Chinese, English, Spanish, ete.
(h) FIELDS OF STUDY: chemistry, engineering, history, literature, mathematics, psychology, etc.
(i) RECREATION: baseball, soccer, tennis, chess, bridge, poker, etc.
(j) ACTIVITIES: driving, studying, swimming, traveling,* talking, etc. (and other gerunds)
(k) NATURAL PHENOMENA (FENOMENA ALAM): weather, dew, fog, hail, heat, humidity,
lightning, rain, sleet, snow, thunder, wind, darkness, light, sunshine, electricity, fire, gravity, etc

BASIC ARTICLE USAGE

I. USING A or Ø: GENERIC NOUNS (KATA BENDA UMUM)
SINGULAR (a) A banana is yellow.* Kata benda umum mewakili seluruh kelas benda;
COUNT ini bukan hal yang spesifik, nyata, konkret,
NOUN melainkan simbol dari seluruh kelompok.
PLURAL (b) Ø Bananas are yellow: In (a) dan (b): The speaker is talking about any
COUNT banana, all bananas, bananas in general. In (c): The
NOUN speaker is talking about any and all fruit, fruit in
NONCOUNT (c) Ø Fruin is good for you. general.
NOUN Perhatikan bahwa tidak ada artikel (Ø) yang
digunakan untuk membuat generalisasi
(generalizations) dengan nomina hitung jamak, as
in (b), dan dengan nomina bukan hitung, as in(c).
II. USING A or SOME: INDEFINITE NOUNS (KATA BENDA TIDAK TEPAT)
SINGULAR (d) I ate a banana. Kata benda tak tentu adalah benda aktual (bukan
COUNT simbol), tapi mereka tidak diidentifikasi secara
NOUN spesifik.
PLURAL (e) I ate some bananas. Dalam (d): Pembicara tidak mengacu pada "this
COUNT banana" or "that banana" or "the banana you gave
NOUN me". Pembicara hanya mengatakan bahwa dia
NONCOUNT (f) I ate some fruit. makan satu pisang. Pendengar tidak tahu atau
NOUN tidak perlu tahu pisang spesifik mana yang
dimakan; itu hanyalah satu pisang dari seluruh
kelompok benda di dunia ini yang disebut pisang.
Dalam (e) dan (f): Some sering digunakan dengan
nomina hitung jamak tak tentu dan nomina hitung
tak tentu. Sebagai tambahannya some, a speaker
might use two, a few, several, a lot of, etc., with
plural count nouns, atau a little, a lot of, etc., with
noncount nouns. (See Chart 7-4, P.107.)
 III. USING THE: DEFINITE NOUNS (KATA BENDA DEFINIT)
SINGULAR (g) Thank you for the Kata benda pasti ketika pembicara dan
COUNT banana. pendengarnya memikirkan hal spesifik yang sama.
NOUN Dalam (g): Pembicara menggunakan The karena
PLURAL (h) Thank you for the pendengar tahu pisang spesifik mana yang
COUNT bananas. dibicarakan pembicara, yaitu, pisang khusus yang
NOUN diberikan kepada pendengar
NONCOUNT (i) Thank you for the fruit. NOTICE. bahwa The digunakan dengan kata benda
NOUN hitungan tunggal dan jamak dan dengan kata
benda bukan hitungan.
Usually a/an is used with a singular generic count noun. Examples:
A window is made of glass. A doctor heals sick people. Parents must give a child love. A box has six sides. An apple can
be red, green, or yellow
However, the is sometimes used with a singular genetic count noun (not a plural generic count noun, not a generic
noncount noun) "generic the" is commonly used with, in particular:
(1) Species of Animals : The blue whale is the largest manmal on earth
The elephant is largest land manmal
(2) Inventions : Who invented the telephone? The wheel? The refrigerator? The airplane?
The computer will play an increasingly large role in all of our lives
(3) Musical instruments : I’d like to learn to play the piano
Do you play the guitar?

GENERAL GUIDELINES(PEDOMAN) FOR ARTICLE USAGE

(a) The sun is bright today.
Please hand this book to the teacher.
Please open the door.
Omar is in the kitchen.
(b) Yesterday I saw some dogs. The dogs were PEDOMAN: Gunakan The untuk penyebutan
chasing a cat. The cat was chasing a mouse.
The mouse ran into a hole. The hole was very
small.
(c) CORRECT: Apples are my favorite fruit.
INCORRECT: The apples are my favorite fruit. benda hitung jamak (e.g., apples, or a
(d) CORRECT: Gold is a metal.
INCORRECT: The gold is a metal.
(e) CORRECT: (1) I drove a car.
(2) I drove the car.
(3) I drove that car.
(4) I drove Jim's car.
INCORRECT. I drove car:
PEDOMAN: Gunakan The saat Anda tahu atau
berasumsi bahwa pendengar Anda sudah
familiar dan memikirkan hal spesifik yang sama
atau orang yang Anda bicarakan.
kedua dari kata benda tak tentu. * Dalam (b):
penyebutan pertama = beberapa anjing,
kucing, tikus, lubang; penyebutan kedua =
anjing, kucing, tikus, lubang.
PEDOMAN: Jangan gunakan The dengan kata
noncount noun e.g., gold) saat Anda membuat
generalisasi.
(Generalisasi adalah proses penalaran yang membentuk
kesimpulan secara umum melalui suatu kejadian, hal, dan
sebagainya.)
PEDOMAN: Kata benda hitungan tunggal (e.g.,
car) adalah diawali dengan penanda:
(1) a atau an (atau penanda tunggal lainnya
seperti one, each, or every); (2) The; (3) this or
that; (4) a possessive (e.g., my, Jim's)

The is not used for the second mention of a generic noun. COMPARE:

(1) What color is a banana (generic noun)? A banana (generic noun) is yellom.

(2) Joe offered me a banana (indefinite noun) or an apple. I chose the banana (definite noun).
 EXPRESSIONS OF QUANTITY
EXPRESSIONS OF USED WITH COUNT USED WITH Ekspresi kuantitas
QUANTITY NOUNS NONCOUNT NOUNS mungkin mendahului
(a) one one apple Ø kata benda. Beberapa
each each apple Ø ekspresi kuantitas
every every apple Ø digunakan hanya
dengan count noun,
(b) two, etc. two apples Ø As in (a) dan (b).
both both apples Ø
a couple of a couple of apples Ø
a few a few apples Ø
several several apples Ø
many many apples Ø
a number of a number of apples Ø
(c) a little Ø a little rice Beberapa digunakan
much Ø much rice hanya dengan
a great deal of Ø a great deal of rice noncount nouns as in
(c).
(d) no no apples no rice Beberapa digunakan
somelany somelany apples somelany rice dengan nomina count
a lot of lots of a lot of lots of apples a lot of lots of rice dan noncount, as in
plenty of plenty of apples plenty of rice (d)
most most apples most rice
all all apples all rice

Ø = not used. For example, you can say "I ate one apple” but NOT "I ate one rice."

USING A FEW AND FEW; A LITTLE AND LITTLE

A FEW (a) She has been here only two weeks, A few dan a little memberikan ide yang
but she has already made a few friends. positif; mereka menunjukkan bahwa
(Positive idea: She has made some sesuatu itu ada, is present, as in (a) and
friends.) (b).
A LITTLE (b) I'm very pleased. I've been able to
save a little money this month.
(Positive idea: I have saved some
money instead of spending all of it.)
FEW (c) I feel sorry for her. She has very few Few dan little (without a) memberikan ide
friends. negatif; mereka menunjukkan bahwa ada
(Negative idea: She does not have sesuatu yang tidak ada.
many friends, she has almost no
friends.)
LITTLE d) I have (very) little money. I don't Very (+ few/little) membuat negatif lebih
even have enough money to buy food kuat, jumlahnya lebih kecil.
for dinner.
(Negative idea: I do not have much
money, I have almost no money.)
A few and few are used with plural count nouns. A little and little are used with noncount nouns.
 USING OF IN EXPRESSIONS OF QUANTITY
(a) CORRECT. A lot of books are paperbacks.
(b) CORRECT. A lot of my books are paperbacks.
(C) INCORRECT. A lor books are paperbacks.
(d) CORRECT: Many of my books are paperbacks.
(e) INCORRECT. Many ny books are paperbacks.
(f) CORRECT: Many books are paperbacks.
(g) INCORRECT: Many of books are paperbacks.
Beberapa ekspresi kuantitas (seperti
banyak) (such as a lot of (seperti banyak))
selalu mengandung of, as in (a) and (b). See
GROUP ONE below.
Terkadang of digunakan dengan ekspresi
kuantitas, as in (d), dan terkadang dari
tidak digunakan dengan ekspresi kuantitas
yang sama, as in (f). See GROUP TWO
below.

GROUP ONE: EXPRESSIONS OF QUANTITY THAT ALWAYS CONTAIN OF

a lot of a number of a majority of
lots of a great deal of plenty of
GROUP TWO: EXPRESSIONS OF QUANTITY THAT SOMETIMES CONTAIN OF AND SOMETIMES
NOT
all (of) many (of) one (of) both (of) some (of)
most (of) much (of) two (of) several (of) any (of)
almost all (of) a few (of) three (of)
a little (of) etc.
(h) Many of my books are in English. Of digunakan dengan ekspresi kuantitas dalam GROUP
(i) Mary of those books are in English. TWO ketika kata benda spesifik. Kata benda menjadi
(j) Many of the books on that shelf are spesifik jika didahului oleh:
in English. 1. my, John's (or any possessive), as in (h).
2. this, that, these, or those, as in (i).
3. the, as in (j)
(k) Many books are in English. Of tidak digunakan dengan ekspresi kuantitas di
GROUP TWO jika kata benda yang dimodifikasi tidak
spesifik. In (k): kata benda books tidak spesifik; yaitu,
yang tidak dimaksud oleh pembicara "your books" or
"these books" or "the books on that desk." Pembicara
tidak mengacu pada buku-buku tertentu, tetapi pada
buku-buku pada umumnya

ALL (OF) AND BOTH (OF)

(a) CORRECT. All of the students in my class are here. Ketika kata benda bersifat spesifik
(b) CORRECT. All the students in my class are here. (e.g., the students), menggunakan Of
setelah All bersifat opsional as in (a)
(c) CORRECT. All students must have an I.D. card. and (b).
(d) INCORRECT. All of students must have an I.D. card. When a noun is nonspecific, of does
NOT follow all, as in (c)
(e) I know both (of) those men. Demikian pula, penggunaan of setelah
both adalah opsional jika kata benda
(f) CORRECT. I know both men. bersifat spesifik, as in (e).
(g) INCORRECT. I know both of men. Ketika kata benda bersifat tidak
spesifik, of TIDAK mengikuti both, as in
(f).
 SINGULAR EXPRESSIONS OF QUANTITY: ONE, EACH, EVERY
(a) One student was late to class. One, each, and every are followed
(b) Each student has a schedule. immediately by singular count nouns (never
(c) Every student has a schedule. plural nouns, never noncount nouns).
(d) One of the students was late to class. One of, each of, and every one of* are
(e) Each (one) of the students has a schedule. followed by specific plural count nouns (never
(f) Every one of the students has a schedule. singular nouns; never noncount nouns).
COMPARE:
Every one (two words) is an expression of quantity; e.g., I have read every one of those books.
Everyone (one word) is an indefinite pronoun; it has the same meaning as everybody, e.g., Everyone Everybody has a schedule.
NOTE: Each and every have essentially the same meaning.
Each is used when the speaker is thinking of one person/thing at a time: Each student has a schedule. = Mary has a schedule.
Hiroshi has a schedule. Carlos has a schedule. Sabrina has a schedule. (etc.)
Every is used when the speaker means "all": Every student has a schedule. = All of the students have schedules.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS
SUBJECT OBJECT POSSESSIVE POSSESSIVE
PRONOUN PRONOUN PRONOUN ADJECTIVE
SINGULAR I Me mine my name
you you yours your name
she, he, it her, him, it hers, his, its her, his, its name

PLURAL we Us ours our names

you
they
(a) I read a book. It was good.
(b) I read some books. They were good. In (a): The pronoun it refers to the antecedent noun
(c) I like tea. Do you like tea too?
(d) John has a car. He drives to work
(e) John works in my office. I know him Kata ganti objek digunakan sebagai objek kata kerja,
well.
(f) I talk to him every day.
(g) That book is hers.
Yours is over there.
(h) INCORRECT: That book is her's.
Your's is over there.
you yours your names
them theirs their names
Kata ganti digunakan untuk menggantikan kata benda.
Kata benda yang dirujuk disebut dengan
"antecedent." ("mendahului.")
book
Kata ganti tunggal digunakan untuk merujuk pada kata
benda tunggal, as in (a). Kata ganti jamak digunakan
untuk merujuk pada kata benda jamak, as in (b).
Terkadang kata benda antecedent dipahami, tidak
dinyatakan secara eksplisit. In (c): I mengacu pada
pembicara, dan Anda mengacu pada orang yang diajak
bicara.
Kata ganti subjek digunakan sebagai subjek kalimat, as
he in (d).
as in (e), atau sebagai objek preposisi, as in (f).
Kata ganti posesif tidak langsung diikuti oleh kata
benda; mereka berdiri sendiri, as in (g).
In (h): Kata ganti posesif tidak menggunakan
apostrophes.
(See Chart 7-2, p. 103, for the use of apostrophes with
possessive nouns.)
 (i) Her book is here. Kata sifat posesif diikuti segera oleh
Your book is over there. kata benda(noun); mereka tidak berdiri sendiri.
(j) A bird uses its wings to fly. COMPARE: Its has NO APOSTROPHE when it is used as
(k) INCORRECT: A bird uses it's wings to a possessive, as in (j)
fly.

(l) It's cold today. It's has an apostrophe when it is used as a contraction
(m) The Harbour Inn is my favorite old of it is, as in (l), or it has when has is part of the
hotel. It's present perfect tense, as in (m)
been in business since 1933.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS: AGREEMENT WITH GENERIC NOUNS AND INDEFINITE PRONOUNS

(a) A student walked into the room. She was in (a) and (b): Kata ganti mengacu pada
looking for the teacher partikular. individu yang jenis kelaminnya
(b) A student walked into the room. He was diketahui. Kata benda tidak umum.
looking for the teacher.
(c) A student should always do his Kata benda umum tidak mengacu pada orang
assignments. atau benda(thing) tertentu; sebaliknya, ini
(d) A student should always do his lher mewakili seluruh kelompok. In(c): A student
assignments. adalah kata benda umum; it refers to anyone
A student should always do his or her who is a student
assignments. Dengan kata benda generik, kata ganti maskulin
tunggal telah digunakan secara tradisional,
tetapi banyak penutur bahasa Inggris sekarang
menggunakan kata ganti maskulin dan feminin
untuk merujuk ke kata benda generik tunggal,
as in (d). Penggunaan kata ganti maskulin dan
feminin dapat membuat kalimat terdengar
canggung.
(e) Students should always do their Masalah dalam memilih kata ganti maskulin dan
assignments. / atau feminin sering kali dapat dihindari dengan
menggunakan bentuk jamak daripada kata
benda umum tunggal, as in (e).
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
everyone someone Anyone no one
everybody somebody anybody nobody
everything something anything nothing
(f)Somebody left his book on the desk. Kata ganti tunggal digunakan dalam bahasa
(e) Everyone has his or her own ideas. Inggris formal untuk merujuk pada kata ganti
(h) INFORMAL: tak tentu, as in (f) and (g). Dalam bahasa Inggris
Somebody left their book on the desk. informal sehari-hari, kata ganti orang jamak
Everyone has their own ideas. sering digunakan untuk merujuk pada kata ganti
tidak pasti, as in (h).
*See Chart 7-7, p. 112, Basic Article Usage.
**No one can also be written with a hyphen in British English: No-one heard me.
 PERSONAL PRONOUNS: AGREEMENT WITH COLLECTIVE NOUNS
EXAMPLES OF COLLECTIVE NOUNS
audience couple family public
class crowd government staff
committee faculty group team
(a) My family is large. It is composed of nine Ketika kata benda kolektif mengacu pada satu
members. unit impersonal, kata ganti tunggal netral
gender (it, its) is used, as in (a).
(b) My family is loving and supportive. They Ketika kata benda kolektif mengacu pada
are always ready to help me kumpulan berbagai individu, kata ganti jamak
(they, them, their) is used, as in (b)
*NOTE: When the collective noun refers to a collection of individuals, the verb may be either singular or plural: My family
is OR are loving and supportive. A singular verb is generally preferred in American English. A plural verb is used more
frequently in British English, especially with the words government or public.
(American: The government is planning many changes. British: The government are planning many changes.)
Impersonal : tidak bersifat pribadi; tidak berkaitan dengan (tidak mengenai) seseorang
Collective Noun adalah kata benda yang menyatakan suatu kumpulan atau kelompok orang, binatang,
atau benda. Misal : Audience (hadirin), Team (tim), Fleet (armada), Cattle (kawanan ternak), Crowd
(keramaian orang), Parliament (parlemen), dan lain-lain

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
SINGULAR PLURAL
myself ourselves
yourself yourselves
herself, himself, itself, oneself themselves
(a) Larry was in the theater. I saw him. Compare (a) and (b): Biasanya kata ganti objek
I talked to him digunakan sebagai objek kata kerja atau preposisi,
as him in (a). (See Chart 8-1,p. 132.)
(b) I sous myself in the mirror. Kata ganti refleksif digunakan sebagai objek kata
I looked at myself for a long time. kerja atau preposisi jika subjek kalimat dan objek
adalah orang yang sama, as in (b)." I and myself are
(c) INCORRECT: I saw me in the mirror. the same person.
--Did someone fax the report to Mr. Lee? Kata ganti refleksif juga digunakan untuk
--Yes. penekanan. In (d): Pembicara akan berkata "I
--Are you sure? myself" dengan kuat, dengan penekanan.
(d) -Yes. I myself faxed the report to him. Kata ganti refleksif empatik bisa langsung mengikuti
(e) -I faxed the report to him myself. kata benda atau kata ganti, as in (d), or come at the
end of the clause, as in (e).
(f) Anna lives by herself. The expression by + a reflexive pronoun means
"alone."

*Sometimes, but relatively infrequently, an object pronoun is used as the object of a preposition even when the subject
and object pronoun are the same person. Examples: I took my books with me. Bob brought his books tuith him. I looked
around me. She kept her son close to her.
Reflexive pronouns digunakan untuk menyatakan "diri sendiri". Reflexive dan emphatic pronouns ditandai
dengan pronouns yang diakhiri dengan -self untuk orang tunggal dan -selves untuk orang jamak
 USING YOU, ONE, AND THEY AS IMPERSONAL PRONOUNS
(a) One should always be polite. In (a) and (b): One means "any person, people
(b) How does one get to 5th Avenue from in general." In (c) and (d): You means “any
here? person, people in general."
One is much more formal than you.
(c) You should always be polite. Impersonal you, rather than one, is used more
(d) How do you get to 5th Avenue from here? frequently in everyday English
(e) One should take care of one's health Notice the pronouns that may be used in the
(f) One should take care of his health. same sentence refer back to one: (e) is typical
(g) One should take care of his or her health in British tsage and formal American usage. (f)
is principally American usage is stylistically
awkward.
() - Did Ann lose her job? They is used as an impersonal pronoun in
Yes. They fired her spoken or very informal English to mean
"some people or somebody."
– They mine graphite in Brazil , don't they? They has no stated antecedent.
- Yes. Brazil is one of the leading graphite The antecedent is implied. In
(h): They = the people Ann worked for.
In written or more formal English, the passie is generally preferred to the use of impersonal they:
Active: They fired her Active. They wine graphite in Brazil, don't they?
Passive She was fored. Passive: Graphite is mined in Brazil, in't it?

FORMS OF OTHER
ADJECTIVE PRONOUN Bentuk dari other digunakan sebagai
SINGULAR another book (is) another (is) kata sifat atau kata ganti. Perhatikan:
PLURAL other books (are) others (are) Akhir -s digunakan hanya untuk kata
SINGULAR the other book (is) the other (is) ganti jamak (orang lain).
PLURAL the other books (are) the others (are)
(a) The students in the class come from many Arti dari another: satu lagi selain yang
countries. One of the students is from Mexico. telah disebutkan. Arti dari other /
Another student is from Iraq. Another is from Japan. others (without the): beberapa lagi
Other students are from Brazil. Others are from selain yang telah disebutkan
Algeria.
(b) I have three books. Two are mine. The other book Arti dari the other(s): semua yang
us yours. (The other is yours.) tersisa dari nomor tertentu; sisa dari
(C) I have three books. One is mine. The other books kelompok tertentu
are yours. (The others are yours.)
(d) I will be here for another three years. Another digunakan sebagai kata sifat
(e) I need another five dollars. dengan ekspresi waktu, uang, dan jarak,
(f) We drove another ten miles, meskipun ekspresi ini mengandung kata
benda jamak. Another berarti "an
additional" dalam ungkapan ini..
 COMMON EXPRESSIONS WITH OTHER
(a) We write to each other every week. Each other dan one another menunjukkan
We write to one another every week. hubungan timbal balik. In (a): I write to him
every week, and he writes to me every week
(b) Please write on every other line. Setiap orang dapat memberikan gagasan
I see her every other week. "alternatif".
In (b): Write on the first line.
Do not write on the second line.
Write on the third line
Do not write on the fourth line.
(Etc.)
(c) -Have you seen Ali recently? Yang lainnya digunakan dalam ekspresi waktu
-Yes. I saw him just the other day. seperti the other day, the other morning, the
other week, etc., untuk merujuk ke masa lalu.
In (c): the other day means "a few days ago,
not long ago."
(d) The ducklings walked in a line behind the In (d): one after the other mengungkapkan
mother duck. Then the mother duck gagasan itu tindakan terpisah terjadi sangat
slipped into the pond. The ducklings dekat pada waktunya.
followed her. They slipped into the water In (e): one after another memiliki makna yag
one after the other. sama dengan one after the other.
(e) They slipped into the water one after
another.
(f) No one knows my secret other than Rosa. In (f): other than biasanya digunakan setelah
(g) No one knows my secret except (for) Rosa. negatif berarti menjadi “except." (g) has the
same meaning.

(h) Fruit and vegetables are full of vitamins In (h): In other words digunakan untuk
and minerals. In other words, they are good menjelaskan, biasanya dalam istilah yang lebih
for you. sederhana atau lebih jelas, arti dari kalimat
sebelumnya.
In typical usage, each other and one another are interchangeable; there is no difference between them. Some native
speakers, however, use each other when they are talking about only two persons or things, and one another when there
are more than two
 INTRODUCTION
Alat bantu modal dalam bahasa Inggris adalah can, could, had better, may, might, must, ought
(to), shall, should, will, would
Alat bantu modal umumnya mengungkapkan sikap pembicara. Misalnya, modal dapat
menyatakan bahwa pembicara merasa adanecessary, advisable, permissible, possible, or
probable; and, in addition mereka dapat menyampaikan kekuatan dari sikap tersebut.
Setiap modal memiliki lebih dari satu arti atau kegunaan.See Chart 10-10, p. 199, for a summary
overview of modals.
(a) BASIC MODALS Modal tidak mengambil -s akhir, bahkan ketika
can do it. subjeknya she, he, or it.
I could do it. CORRECT: She can do it.
You had better do it. INCORRECT. She cans do it.
He may do it. Kata kerja segera diikuti oleh bentuk sederhana dari
She
It
+ might do it.
must do it.
kata kerja.
CORRECT : She can do it.
We ought to do it. INCORRECT : She can to do it. She can does it./She can
You shall do it. did it.
They should do it. Satu-satunya pengecualian adalah ought, yang diikuti
will do it. oleh infinitive (to + the simple form of a verb).
would do it. CORRECT : He ought to go to the meeting.
(b) PHRASAL MODALS Modal frase adalah ekspresi umum yang artinya mirip
be able to do it dengan beberapa modal auxiliaries. For example: be
be going to do it able to sama dengan can; be going to sama dengan
be supposed to do it will.
have to do it Sebuah infinitive (to + the simple form of a verb)
have got to do it digunakan dalam ekspresi serupa
used to do it

POLITE REQUESTS WITH “I” AS THE SUBJECT

MAY I (a) May I (please) borrow your pen ? May I dan could I digunakan untuk meminta
COULD I (b) Could I borrow your pen (please) izin. Mereka sama-sama sopan.
Note in (b): Dalam permintaan yang sopan,
could memiliki makna sekarang atau masa
depan, bukan makna masa lalu.
CAN I (c) Can I borrow your pen? Can I digunakan secara informal untuk
meminta izin, terutama jika pembicara
berbicara dengan seseorang yang cukup
dikenalnya. Can I biasanya dianggap sedikit
kurang sopan daripada may I atau could I.
TYPICAL RESPONSES Seringkali tanggapan untuk permintaan sopan
Certainly. Yes, certainly. adalah tindakan, seperti mengangguk atau
Of course. Yes, of course. menggelengkan kepala, atau sederhana "uh-
Sure. (informal) huh."
Might is also possible: Might I borrow your pen? Might I is quite formal and polite; it is used much less frequently than
may I or could I.
 POLITE REQUESTS WITH “YOU” AS THE SUBJECT
WOULD YOU (a) Would you pass the salt (please)? Arti dari would you and will you dalam
WILL YOU (b) Will you (please) pass the salt? permintaan sopan adalah sama. Would
you lebih umum dan sering dianggap
lebih sopan. Tingkat kesopanan,
bagaimanapun, sering ditentukan oleh
nada suara pembicara
COULD YOU (c) Could you pass the salt (please)? Pada dasarnya, bisakah Anda dan
maukah Anda memiliki arti yang sama.
Perbedaannya kecil:
Would you = Do you want to do this
please?
Could you = Do you want to do this
please, and is it possible for you to do
this?
Could you dan would you sama-sama
sopan.
CAN YOU (d) Can you (please) pass the salt? Can you sering digunakan secara
informal. Biasanya terdengar kurang
sopan dari could you atau would you.
TYPICAL RESPONSES Seseorang biasanya menanggapi dengan
Yes, I'd (I would) be happy to/be tegas permintaan yang sopan. Jika
glad to Certainly. tanggapan negatif diperlukan, seseorang
Sure. (informal) mungkin mulai dengan berkata "I'd like
to, but..." (e.g., "Td like to pass the salt,
but I can't reach it").
(e) INCORRECT. May you pass the Mungkin hanya digunakan dengan saya
salt? atau kami dalam permintaan yang sopan.

POLITE REQUESTS WITH WOULD YOU MIND

ASKING PERMISSION Notice in (a): Would you mind if I diikuti oleh masa
(@) Would wu mind if I closed the lalu yang sederhana.* The meaning in (a): Bolehkah
window? saya menutup jendela Apakah tidak apa-apa jika saya
(b) Iordd you mind if I used the phone? menutup jendela? Apakah akan menimbulkan
masalah atau ketidaknyamanan jika saya menutup
jendela?
TYPICAL RESPONSES Tanggapan khas lainnya mungkin "unh-unh," meaning
No, not at all of course not. “no."
No, that would be fine.
ASKING SOMEONE TO DO SOMETHING Notice in (m): Would you mind diikuti -ing (a gerund).
(c) Would you mind closing the The meaning in (c): Saya tidak ingin merepotkan Anda,
window? tetapi bisakah Anda menutup jendela? Apakah itu
(d) Excuse me. Would you mind akan menyebabkan ketidaknyamanan bagi Anda?
repeating that?
TYPICAL RESPONSES Tanggapan informal dari "Sure" dan "Okay" adalah
No. I'd be happy to umum, tetapi tidak logis: yang diinginkan pembicara
Not at all. I'd be glad to. adalah "No, I wouldn't mind (Tidak, saya tidak
 Sure. Okay. (informal) keberatan)" tetapi dia berbicara "Yes, I would mind."
Penutur asli memahami tanggapan "Sure" or "Okay"
dalam situasi ini berarti pembicara menyetujui
permintaan tersebut.
Sometimes, in informal spoken English, the simple present is used: Would you mind if I close the window) (NOTE The
simple past does not refer to past time after would you mind; it refers to present or future time. See Chart 20-3, A 415,
for more information.)

EXPRESSING NECESSITY : MUST, HAVE TO, HAVE GOT TO

(a) All applicants must take an entrance exam. Must dan have to keduanya mengungkapkan
(6) All applicants have to take an entrance keperluan, In (a) and (b): Setiap pelamar harus
exam. mengikuti ujian masuk. Tidak ada pilihan lain.
Ujian wajib diisi.
©) I'm looking for Sue. I have to talk to her Dalam pernyataan kebutuhan sehari-hari, have
about our lunch date tomorrow. I can't meet to digunakan lebih umum daripada must.
her for lunch because I have to go to a Must biasanya lebih kuat dari have to dan
business meeting at 1:00. dapat menunjukkan urgensi atau pentingnya
(d) Where's Sue? I must talk to her right away. stres. In (o): Pembicara hanya berkata, " I need
I have an urgent message for her. to do this, and I need to do that." In (d):
Pembicaranya berkata dengan tegas, "This is
very important!"
(e) I have to (“hafta") be home by eight. Note: have to biasanya diucapkan "hafta";
(f) He has to ("hasta") go to a meeting tonight. has to biasanya diucapkan "hasta."

(g) I have got to go now. I have a class in ten Have got untuk juga mengungkapkan gagasan
minutes. tentang kebutuhan: (g) and (h) memiliki makna
(h) I have to go now. I have a class in ten sama Have got to bersifat informal dan
minutes digunakan terutama dalam bahasa Inggris
lisan. Have to digunakan dalam bahasa Inggris
formal dan informal.

(i) I have got to go (“I've gotta go/I gotta go") got to biasanya diucapkan "gotta." Terkadang
now. digunakan dalam pembicaraan: "I gotta do it."
(1) PRESENT OF FUTURE Gagasan tentang kebutuhan masa lalu
I have to have got to/must study tonight. diungkapkan oleh had to. Tidak ada bentuk
(0) PAST lampau lain untuk must (bila itu berarti
I had to study last night. kebutuhan) or have got to.

LACK OF NECESSITY AND PROHIBITION: HAVE TO AND MUST IN THE NEGATIVE

LACK OF NECESSITY Ketika digunakan dalam negatif, must dan
(a) Tomorrow is a holiday. We don't have to go have to memiliki arti yang berbeda.
to class. do not have to = lack of necessity
(b) I can hear you. You don't have to shout In (a): Kami tidak perlu pergi ke kelas besok
karena ini hari libur.
PROHIBITION must not = prohibition (DO NOT DO THIS!)
(c) You must not look in the closet. Your (c): Jangan lihat di lemari. Saya melarangnya.
birthday present is hidden there. Dilarang mencari di lemari.
 (d) You must not tell anyone my secret. Do Kontraksi negatif: mustn't. (The first "r" is
you promise? silent: "muss-ant.")
Lack of necessity may also be expressed by need not + the simple form of a verb: You needn't shout. The use of needn't
as an auxiliary is chiefly British except in certain common expressions such as "You needn't worry."

ADVISABILITY: SHOULD, OUGHT TO, HAD BETTER

(a) You should study harder. Seharusnya dan seharusnya memiliki arti yang sama:
You ought to study harder. mereka mengungkapkan kelayakan. Makna berkisar
(b) Drivers should obey the speed limit. dalam kekuatan dari sugesti (“This is a good idea")
Drivers ought to obey the speed untuk pernyataan tentang tanggung jawab atau tugas
limit. (“This is a very important thing to do").
In (a): "This is a good idea. This is my advice." In (b):
"This is an important responsibility."

(C) You shouldn't leave your keys in the Kontraksi negatif: shouldn't.*
car.
(d) I ought to (otta") study tonight, but I Ought to diucapkan "otta" dalam pembicaraan
think I'll watch TV instead. informal
(e) The gas tank is almost empty. We Dalam arti, had better dekat dengan should/ought to,
had better stop at the next service tetapi had better biasanya lebih kuat. Sering had
station. better menyiratkan peringatan atau ancaman
(f) You had better take care of that cut kemungkinan konsekuensi buruk. In (e): Jika kita tidak
on your hand soon, or it will get berhenti di bengkel, pasti ada akibat yang buruk. Kami
infected. akan kehabisan bensin.
Catatan tentang penggunaan lebih baik:
Ini memiliki arti sekarang atau masa depan.
Diikuti dengan bentuk sederhana dari kata kerja.
Ini lebih umum dalam berbicara daripada menulis.
(g) You'd better take care of it. Contraction: 'd better, as in (8).
(h) You better take care of it. Sometimes in speaking, had is dropped, as in (h).
(i) You'd better not be late. Negative form: had better + not.
Ought to is not commonly used in the negative. If it is used in the negative, the to is sometimes dropped: You oughtn't
(to) leave your keys in the car.
PAST FORM OF SHOULD
(a) I had a test this morning. I didn't do well on the Past form: should have + past participle
test because I didn't study for it last night. I should In a : Saya seharusnya belajar berarti
have studied last night. belajar itu ide yang bagus, tapi saya tidak
(b) You were supposed to be here at 10 P.M., but melakukannya. Saya membuat kesalahan.
you didn't come unyil midnight. We were worried Pengucapan should have: "should-əv" or
about you. You should have called us. (You did not "should-ə."
call).
© My back hurts. I should not have carried that In (c): Saya seharusnya tidak membawa
heavy box up two flights of stairs. (I carried the bos, berarti saya membawa sesuatu, tetapi
and now I'm sorry.) ternyata itu adalah ide yang buruk. Saya
(d) We went to a movie, but it was a waste of time membuat kesalahan.
and money. We should not have gone to the movie. Biasa diucapan should not have:
"shouldn't-ay" or "shouldn't-ə."
"The past form of ought to is ought to have + past participle. (I ought to have studied.) It has the same meaning as the
past form of should. In the past, should is used more commonly than ought to. Had better is used only rarely in a past
form (e.g., He had better have taken care of it) and usually only in speaking, not writing.

EXPECTATIONS: BE SUPPOSED TO
(a) The game is supposed to begin at 10:00. Be supposed to mengungkapkan gagasan bahwa
(b) The committee is supposed to vote by seseorang (I, we, they, the teacher, lots of people,
secret ballot. my father, etc.) mengharapkan sesuatu terjadi. Be
supposed untuk sering mengungkapkan harapan
tentang acara yang dijadwalkan, as in (a), atau
prosedur yang benar, as in (b).
C) I am supposed to go to the meeting. My Be supposed to juga mengungkapkan harapan
boss told me that he wants me to tentang perilaku.
attend. In (C) and (d): be supposed to memberi gagasan
(d) The children are supposed to put away bahwa orang lain mengharapkan (meminta atau
their toys before they go to bed membutuhkan) perilaku tertentu.
(e) Jack was supposed to call me last night. Be supposed to di masa lalu (seharusnya)
I wonder why he didn't. mengungkapkan harapan yang tidak terpenuhi. In
(c): Pembicara mengharapkan Jack menelepon,
tapi ternyata tidak.

MAKING SUGGESTIONS: LET'S, WHY DON'T,SHALL I / WE

(a) Let's go to a movie Let's = let us. Let's is followed by the simple form of diikuti
(b) Let's not go to a movie. oleh bentuk sederhana dari kata kerja a verb.
Let's stay home instead. Bentuk negative : let's + not + simple verb
Arti dari let's : "I have a suggestion for us”
(c) Why don't we go to a movie? Why don't digunakan terutama dalam bahasa Inggris lisan
(d) Why don't you come around untuk membuat saran yang ramah.
seven? In (c): Why don't we go = let's go
(e) Why don't I give Mary a call? In (d): Saya sarankan Anda datang sekitar pukul tujuh.
In (e): Haruskah saya menelepon Mary? Apakah Anda setuju
dengan saran saya
(f) Shall I open the window? Is Ketika shall digunakan dengan I atau we Dalam sebuah
that okay with you? pertanyaan, pembicara biasanya memberi saran dan
(g) Shall we leave at two? Is that menanyakan orang lain apakah dia setuju dengan saran ini.
okay! Penggunaan shall relatif formal dan jarang.
(h) Let's go, shall we?
(i) Let's go, okay? Terkadang "shall we?" digunakan sebagai pertanyaan tag
setelahnya let's, as in (h). Lebih informal, "okay?" digunakan
sebagai pertanyaan, as in (i)

MAKING SUGGESTIONS: COULD vs SHOULD

….What should we do tomorrow?
(a) Why don't we go on a picnic?
(b) We could go on a picnic.
….I'm having trouble in math class.
(c) You should talk to your teacher.
(d) Maybe you should talk to your
Bisa digunakan untuk memberi saran. (a) and (b)
memiliki arti yang serupa: pembicara sedang
menyarankan piknik
Should memberikan nasehat yang pasti. In (c),
pembicara berkata: " Saya yakin penting bagi Anda
untuk melakukan ini. Ini yang saya rekomendasikan."
 teacher.
….I'm having trouble in math class.
(e) You could talk to your teacher. Or
you could ask Ann to help you with your
math lessons. Or I could try to help you.
….I failed my math class.
(f) You should have talked to your
teacher and gotten some help from her
during the term.
In (d). penggunaan maybe melembutkan nasihat.
Could menawarkan saran atau kemungkinan. In (e),
pembicara berkata: "Saya punya beberapa saran
yang mungkin untuk Anda. Itu mungkin untuk
dilakukan. Atau mungkin juga untuk melakukan itu.”
Should have memberikan "nasihat melihat ke
belakang." In (f), pembicara berkata: "Penting bagi
Anda untuk berbicara dengan guru, tetapi Anda tidak
melakukannya. Anda membuat kesalahan."

….I failed my math class. Could have penawaran "hindsight possibilities."In (g),
(g) You could have talked to your pembicara berkata: "Anda memiliki kesempatan
teacher. Or you could have asked Ann to untuk melakukan ini atau itu. Mungkin saja ini atau
help you with your math. Or I could itu terjadi. Anda melewatkan beberapa peluang
have tried to help you. bagus."
Might (but not may) can also be used to make suggestions (You might talk to your teacher), but the use of could is more
common.
"Hindsight” refers to looking at something after it happens.

DEGREES OF CERTAINTY: PRESENT TIME

-Why isn't John in class? "Degree of certainty" mengacu pada seberapa
100% sure : He is sick. yakin kita — apa yang menurut kita kemungkinan
95% sure : He must be sick. besar bahwa sesuatu itu benar.
He may be sick. Jika kita yakin ada sesuatu yang benar saat ini, kita
less than 50% sure: He might be sick. . tidak perlu menggunakan modal. Misalnya, jika
He could be sick. saya berkata, "John sakit," saya yakin; Saya
menyatakan fakta yang saya yakin benar. Tingkat
kepastian saya adalah 100%.
-Why isn's John in class? Harus mengungkapkan tingkat kepastian yang
(a) He must be sick. (Usually he is in class kuat tentang situasi saat ini, tetapi tingkat
every day, but when I saw him last night, kepastian masih kurang dari 100%.
he wasn't feeling good. So my best guess
In (a): Pembicara berkata, "Mungkin John sakit.
is that he is sick today. I can't think of
Saya punya bukti yang membuat saya percaya
another possibility.)
bahwa dia sakit. Itu kesimpulan logis saya, tapi
saya tidak tahu pasti."
-Why isn't John in class? Mungkin, mungkin, dan bisa mengungkapkan
(b) He may be sick. tingkat kepastian yang lemah.
(c) He might be sick. In (b), (c), and (d): Pembicara berkata, "Mungkin,
(d) He could be sick. (I don't really know. * mungkin John sakit. Saya hanya menebak-
He may be at home watching TV. He nebak. Saya dapat memikirkan kemungkinan lain."
might be at the library. He could be out (b), (c), and (d) memiliki makna yang sama.
of town.)
Maybe (one word) is an adverb: Maybe he is sick.
May be (two words) is a verb form: He may be sick.
 DEGREES OF CERTAINTY: PRESENT TIME NEGATIVE
100% sure: Sam isn't hungry.

99% sure: Sam couldn't be hungry.

Sam can't be hungry.

95% sure: Sam must not be hungry.

less than 50% sure: Sam may not be hungry.

Sam might not be hungry.
(a) Sam doesn't want anything to eat. He isn't In (a): Pembicara yakin Sam tidak lapar.
hungry. He told me his stomach is full. I heard
him say that he isn't hungry. I believe him.
(b) Sam couldn't can't be hungry! That's In (b): Pembicara yakin bahwa tidak ada
impossible! I just saw him ert a huge meal. He kemungkinan Sam lapar (tapi pembicara tidak
has already eaten enough to fill two grown 100% yakin). Ketika digunakan dalam negatif
men. Did he really say he'd like something to untuk menunjukkan tingkat kepastian, tidak
cat? I don't believe it. bisa dan tidak bisa dengan paksa
mengungkapkan gagasan bahwa pembicara
percaya sesuatu itu tidak mungkin.
(c) Sam isn't eating his food. He must not be In C): Pembicara mengungkapkan kesimpulan
hungry. That's the only reason I can think of. logis, "tebakan terbaik".
(d) I don't know why Sam isn't eating his food. In (d): Penggunaan speaker mungkin tidak
He may not might not be hungry right now. Or mungkin tidak sebutkan kemungkinan.
maybe he doesn't feel well. Or perhaps he ate
just before he got here. Who knows?

DEGREES OF CERTAINTY: PAST TIME

PAST TIME: AFFIRMATIVE In(a): Pasti
…Why wasn't Mary in class? In(b): Pembicara membuat kesimpulan
(a) 100%: She was sick. logis, misalnya, "Saya melihat Mary
(b) 95%: She must have been sick. kemarin dan mengetahui bahwa dia
She may have been sick. sakit. Saya berasumsi bahwa itulah
(e) less than 50%: She might have been sick. alasan mengapa dia tidak hadir. Saya
She could have been sick. tidak dapat memikirkan alasan bagus
lainnya."
In(c): Pembicara menyebutkan satu
kemungkinan.
PAST TIME: NEGATIVE In (d): Pasti
…Why didn't Sam eat? In (C): Pembicara percaya bahwa tidak
(d) 100%: Sam wasn't hungry. mungkin Sam merasa lapar.
(e) 99%: Sam couldn't have been hungry. In (f): Pembicara membuat kesimpulan
Sam can't have been hungry. logis.
(f) 95%: Sam must not have been hungry. In (g): Pembicara menyebutkan satu
Sam may not have been hungry. kemungkinan
(g) less than 50%: Sam might not have been hungry.
 DEGREES OF CERTAINTY: FUTURE TIME
100% sure: Kay will do well on the test Kay  The speaker feels sure.

should do well on the test.  The speaker is almost sure.

90% sure: Kay ought to do well on the test.

She may do well on the test.

less than 50% : She might do well on the test  The speaker is guessing.
sure: She could do well on the test.

(a) Kay has been studying hard. She
should do / ought to do well on the
test tomorrow.
(b) I wonder why Sue hasn't written us.
We should have heard / ought to have
heard from her last week.
Should / ought to dapat digunakan untuk
mengungkapkan ekspektasi tentang acara mendatang.
In (a): Pembicara berkata, "Kay mungkin akan berhasil
dalam ujian. Saya berharap dia melakukannya dengan
baik. Itulah yang menurut saya akan terjadi."
Bentuk lampau dari seharusnya seharusnya digunakan
untuk mengartikan bahwa pembicara mengharapkan
sesuatu yang tidak terjadi.

PROGRESSIVE FORMS OF MODALS

(a) Let's just knock on the door lightly. Tom may be sleeping. Progressive form, present time:
(right now) modal + be + -ing
(b) All of the lights in Ann's room are turned off. She must be Meaning: sedang diproses
sleeping. sekarang
(C) Sue wasn't at home last night when we went to visit her. Progressive form, past time:
She might have been studying at the library. modal + have been + -ing
(d) Joe wasn't at home last night. He has a lot of exams Meaning: sedang berlangsung di
coming up soon, and he is also working on a term paper. He masa lalu
must have been studying at the library

ABILITY: CAN AND COULD

(a) Tom is strong. He can liſt that heavy box. Can digunakan untuk mengekspresikan
(b) I can see Central Park from my kemampuan fisik, as in (a). Can sering digunakan
apartment. dengan kata kerja five senses: see, hear, feel,
smell, taste, as in (b).

(c) Maria can play the piano. She's been Can digunakan untuk mengekspresikan
taking lessons for many years. keterampilan yang diperoleh. In (©), can play =
knows how to play:

(d) You can buy a hammer at the hardware Can digunakan untuk mengungkapkan
store. kemungkinan. In (d), you can buy = it is possible
for one to buy
COMPARE Can digunakan untuk memberikan izin dalam
(e) I'm not quite ready to go, but you can situasi informal as in (e). Dalam situasi
leave if, you're in a hurry. I'll meet you later formal,may daripada can biasanya digunakan
(f) When you finish the test, you may leave. untuk memberi izin, as in (f).

(g) Dogs can bark, but they cannot I can't
talk.
(h) Tom could lift the box, but I couldn't.
Negative form: cannot or can't.
Bentuk masa lalu dari bisa berarti kemampuan
adalah bisa, as in (h).
Negative = could not or couldn't.

USING WOULD TO EXPRESS A REPEATED ACTION IN THE PAST

(a) When I was a child, my father
would read me a story at night
before bedtime.
(b) When I was a child, my father
used to read me a story at night
before bedtime.
(c) I used to live in California.
He used to be a Boy Scout.
They used to have a Ford.
Would dapat digunakan untuk mengekspresikan tindakan
yang diulangi secara teratur di masa lalu. Kapan would
digunakan untuk mengungkapkan ide ini, memiliki arti yang
sama dengan used to (habitual past)
(a) and (b) have the same meaning
Used to mengungkapkan situasi kebiasaan yang merugikan
di masa lalu, as in (c). Pada kasus ini,would tidak boleh
digunakan sebagai alternatif. Would digunakan hanya
untuk tindakan yang berulang secara teratur di masa lalu

EXPRESSING PREFERENCE: WOULD RATHER

(a) I would rather go to a movie tonight than
study grammar
(b) i'd rather study history than (study)
biology.
….How much do you weigh?
(C) I'd rather not tell you.
Would rather preferensi yang diungkapkan.
In (a): Perhatikan bahwa bentuk sederhana
dari kata kerja mengikuti keduanya would
rather dan than.
In (b): Jika kata kerjanya sama, biasanya tidak
diulang setelah than
Contraction: I would = I'd
Negative form: would rather + not

(d) The movie was okay, but I would rather The past form: would rather have + past
have gone to the concert last night. participle Pengucapan biasa: "I'd rather-ev”

(e) I'd rather be lying on a beach in India than Progressive form: would rather + be + -ing
(be) sitting in class right now.

COMBINING MODALS WITH PHRASAL MODALS

(a) INCORRECT: Janet Gill can help you Modal tidak dapat langsung diikuti oleh modal
tomorrow. lain. In (a): Model tidak dapat diikuti oleh can,
yang merupakan modal lain.
(b) CORRECT: Janet will be able to help you Sebuah modal bisa, bagaimanapun, diikuti oleh
tomorrow. modals phrasal be able to dan have to. In (b):
Model ini diikuti dengan benar oleh phrasal
modal be able to

(C) CORRECT. Tom isn't going to be able to Kadang-kadang juga mungkin bagi satu modal
help you tomorrow. phrasal untuk mengikuti modal phrasal
lainnya. In (c): be going to diikuti oleh be able
to.

SUMMARY CHART OF MODALS AND SIMILAR EXPRESSIONS

AUXILIARY USES PRESENT/FUTURE PAST
May (1) polite request (only May I borrow your pen
with I or we)
(permintaan sopan (hanya
dengan saya atau kami))

(2) formal permission You may leave the room.

(izin resmi)
(3) less than 50% certainty …Where's John? He may have been at
(kurang dari 50% He may be at the library the library.
kepastian)
Might (1) less than 50% certainty …Where's John? He might have been
(kurang dari 50% He might be at the library. at the library.
kepastian)
(2) polite request (rare) Might I borrow your pen?
(permintaan sopan
(jarang))
Should (1) advisability I should study tonight I should have studied
(Kelayakan) last night, but I didn't
(2) 90% certainty She should do well on the She should have done
(expectation) test. (future only, not present) well on the test.
(90% kepastian
(ekspektasi))
had better (1) advisability with threat You had better be on time, (part form uncommon)
of bad result or we will leave without
(kelayakan dengan you.
ancaman hasil yang buruk)
be (1) expectation Class is supposed to begin
supposed to (harapan) at 10:00.
(2) unfulfilled expectation Class was supposed to
(harapan yang tidak begin at 10:00, but it
terpenuhi) didn't begin until
10:15.
Must (1) strong necessity I must go to class today. (I had to go to class
(kebutuhan yang kuat) yesterday.)
(2) prohibition (negative) You must not open that
 (larangan (negatif))
(3) 95% certainty
(95% kepastian)
Have to (1) necessity
(kebutuhan)
(2) lack of necessity
(negative)
(kurangnya kebutuhan
(negatif))
have got to (1) necessity
(kebutuhan)
Will (1) 100% certainty
(100% kepastian)
(2) willingness
(kerelaan)
(3) polite request
(permintaan sopan)
be going to (1) 100% certainty
(prediction)
(100% kepastian (ramalan))
(2) definite plan (Intention)
(rencana pasti (Niat) )
(3) unfulfilled intention
(kemampuan /
kemungkinan)
саn (1) ability / possibility
(ability/possibility)
(2) informal permission
(izin informal)
(3) informal polite request
(permintaan informal
sopan)
(4) impossibility
(megante only)
(ketidakmungkinan
(hanya megante))
could (1) past ability
(kemampuan masa lalu)
(2) polite request
(permintaan sopan)
(3) suggestion (afumati only)
(saran (hanya afumati))
(4) less than 50% certainty
(kurang dari 50%
kepastian)
(5) impossibility (negativity
door.
Mary isn't in class. She Mary must have been
must be sick. (present only) sick yesterday
I have to go to class today. I had to go to class
yesterday
I don't have to go to class I didn’t have to go to
today. class yesterday
I have got to go to class (I had to go to class
today. yesterday.)
He will be here at 6:00.
(future only)
_the phone’s ringing
I’ll get it
Will you please pass the
salt
He is going to be here at
6:00. (future only)
I'm going to paint my
bedroom. (future only)
I was going to paint
my room,but I didn't
have time
I can run fast. I could run fast when I
was a child, but now I
can't
You can use my car
tomorrow.
Can I borrow your pen?
That can't be true! That can't have been
true!
I could run fast when I
was a child.
Could I borrow your pen?
Could you help me?
….I need help in math. You could have talked
You could talk to your to your teacher
teacher.
….Where's John He could have been at
He could be at home home
That couldn’t be true! That couldn’t have
 only) been true!
(ketidakmungkinan (hanya
negativitas))
be able to (1) ability I am able to help you. I will I was able to help
(kemampuan) be able to help you him.
would (1) polite request Would you please pass the
(permintaan sopan) salt?
Would you mind if I left
early?
(2) preference I would rather go to the I would rather have
(Pilihan) park than stay home. gone to the park
(3) repeated action in the When I was a child, I
past would visit my
(tindakan berulang di grandparents every
masa lalu) weekend.
(4) polite for "want" (with I would like an apple,
like) please.
(sopan untuk "keinginan"
(dengan suka))
(5) unfulfilled wish I would have liked a
(keinginan yang tidak cookie, but there
terpenuhi) were none in the
home
used to (1) repeated action in the I used to visit my
past grandparent every
(tindakan berulang di weekend.
masa lalu)
(2) past situation that no I used to live in Spain.
longer exists Now! live in Korea.
(situasi masa lalu yang
tidak ada lagi)
Shall (1) polite question to Shall I open the window?
make a suggestion
(pertanyaan sopan untuk
memberi saran)
(2) future with "I" or I shall arrite at nine
"we" as subject (will = more common)
(masa depan dengan "I"
atau "we" sebagai subjek)
NOTE: Use of modals in reported speech is discussed in Chart 12-7. 254. Use of modals in conditional sentences is
discussed in Chapter 20.

FORMING THE PASSIVE

 subject verb object Dalam pasif, objek kata kerja aktif menjadi
subjek kata kerja pasif: the boy in (a) menjadi
ACTIVE: (a) Mary helped the boy. subjek dari kata kerja pasif di (b).
Perhatikan bahwa subjek dari kata kerja aktif
subject verb diikuti oleh dalam kalimat pasif. Kata benda
PASSIVE: (b) The boy was helped by Mary yang mengikuti disebut dengan "agent." In (b):
Mary is the agent. (a) and (b) have the same
meaning.
ACTIVE : (c) An accident happened. Hanya kata kerja transitif (verbs that can be
PASSIVE : (d) (none) followed by object) digunakan dalam pasif.
Tidak mungkin menggunakan kata kerja
intransitif (such as happen, sleep, com, seem)
di pasif. (See Appendix Chart A-1, p. al.)
Form of the passive: be + past participle
ACTIVE PASSIVE
Simple present Mary helps the boy. The boy is Helped by Mary.
Present progressive Mary is helping the boy. The boy is being helped by Mary.
present perfect Mary has helped the boy. The boy has been helped by Mary.
simple past Mary helped the the boy. The boy was helped by Mary.
past progressive Mary was helping the boy. The boy was being helped by Mary.
past perfect Mary had helped the boy. The boy had been helped by Mary.
simple future Mary will the boy. The boy will be helped by Mary.
be going to Mary is going to the boy. The boy is going to be helped by Mary.
future perfect Mary will have the boy. The boy will have been helped by Mary.
(e) Was the boy helped by Mary? Dalam bentuk pertanyaan verba pasif (passive
(f) Is the boy being helped by Mary? verbs), dan verba bantu (auxiliary) mendahului
(g) Has the boy been helped by Mary? subjek. (See Appendix Chart B-1, p. A8, for
information about question forms.)
*The progressive forms of the present perfect, past perfect, future, and future perfect are very rarely used in the passive.

USING THE PASSIVE

(a) Rice is grown in India.
(6) Our house was built in 1980.
(C) This olive oil was imported
from Crete.
d) Life on the Mississippi was
written by Mark Twain.
(e) My aunt made this rug.
(active)
(f) This rug was made by my aunt.
That rug was made by my
mother.
Biasanya pasif digunakan tanpa frase. Pasif paling sering
digunakan ketika tidak diketahui atau tidak penting untuk
diketahui secara pasti siapa yang melakukan suatu tindakan.
In (a): Beras ditanam di India oleh orang, oleh petani, oleh
seseorang. Tidak diketahui atau penting untuk mengetahui
secara pasti siapa yang menanam padi di India. (a), (b), dan
(C) mengilustrasikan penggunaan pasif yang paling umum,
yaitu, tanpa frasa.
Frasa sampingan disertakan hanya jika penting untuk
mengetahui siapa yang melakukan tindakan, seperti dalam
(d), di mana by Mark Twain adalah informasi penting.
Jika pembicara mengetahui siapa yang melakukan suatu
tindakan, biasanya aktif digunakan, seperti dalam (e).
Kadang-kadang, bahkan ketika pembicara mengetahui siapa
yang melakukan suatu tindakan, dia memilih untuk
menggunakan kalimat pasif dengan frase sampingan karena
dia ingin memusatkan perhatian pada subjek kalimat. In (O):
The focus of attention is on two rugs.
 INDIRECT OBJECTS AS PASSIVE SUBJECTS
I.0. D.O. I.0. = indirect object, D.O. = direct object
(a) Someone gave Mrs. Lee an award. Objek tidak langsung atau objek langsung dapat
(b) Mrs. Lee was given an award. menjadi subjek kalimat pasif. (a), (b), (c), dan (d)
memiliki arti yang sama.
I.0. D.O. Notice in (d): Ketika objek langsung menjadi
(c) Someone gave an award to Mrs. Lee. subjek,to biasanya disimpan di depan objek tidak
(d) An award was given to Mrs. Lee. langsung.
The omission of to is more common in British English than American English: Anward was given Mrs. Lee

THE PASSIVE FORM OF MODALS AND PHRASAL MODALS

THE PASSIVE modal* + be + past participle
FORM:

(a) Tom Will be be invited to the picnic

(b) The window can't be opened
(c) Children should be taught to respect their elders.
(d) May I be excused from class?
(e) This book had better be returned to the library before Friday.
(f) This letter ought to be sent before June 1st.
(8) Mary has to be told about our change in plans.
(h) Fred is supposed to told about the meeting

THE PAST-PASSIVE modal* + Have been + past participle

FORM:
(i) The letter should Have been sent last week.
(1) This house must Have been built over 200 years ago.
(k) Jack ought to Have been invited to the party.

*See Chapter 9 and 10 for a discussion of the form, meaning, and use of models and phrasal modals.

STATIVE PASSIVE
(a) The door is old. In (a) dan (b): tua dan hijau adalah kata sifat.
(b) The door is green. Mereka menggambarkan pintu itu. In (c):
(c) The door is locked. terkunci adalah past participle. Ini digunakan
sebagai kata sifat. Ini menggambarkan pintu.
(d) I locked the door five minutes ago. Ketika bentuk pasif digunakan untuk
(e) The door was locked by me five minutes ago. menggambarkan situasi atau keadaan yang
(f) Now the door is locked. ada,as in (c), (f), dan (i), itu disebut "stative
(g) Ann broke the window yesterday. passive." Dalam statif pasif:
(h) The window was broken by Ann.  tidak ada tindakan yang terjadi; aksi itu
(i) Now the window is broken. terjadi sebelumnya.
 tidak ada frase.
 fungsi past participle sebagai kata sifat.
(j) I am interested in Chinese art. Preposisi selain by dapat mengikuti verba
(k) He is satisfied with his job. pasif statif. (See Chart 11-6, p. 228.)
 (l) Ann is married to Alex.
(m) I don't know where I am. I am lost.
(n) I can't find my purse. It is gone.
(0) I am finished with my work.
(P) I am done with my work.
(m) hingga (p) adalah contoh penggunaan
idiomatik dari bentuk pasif yang umum,
bahasa Inggris sehari-hari. Kalimat ini tidak
memiliki kalimat aktif yang setara.

COMMON STATIVE PASSIVE VERBS + PREPOSITIONS

(a) I'm interested in Greek culture. Banyak kata kerja pasif statif diikuti oleh
(b) He's corried about losing his job. preposisi selain by
COMMON STATIVE PASSIVE VERBS + PREPOSITIONS
be accustomed to be engaged to be opposed to
be acquainted with be equipped with
be addicted to be excited about be pleased with
be annoyed with, by be exhausted from be prepared for
be associated with be exposed to be protected from
be provided with
be bored with, by be filled with
be finished with be qualified for
be cluttered with be frightened of, by
be composed of be related to
be concerned about be gone from be remembered for
be connected to
be coordinated ceith be interested in be satisfied with
be covered with be involved in be scared of, by
be crowded with
be known for be terrified of, by
be dedicated to be tired of, from
be devoted to be limited to
be disappointed in, with be located in be worried about
be discriminated against
be divorced from be made of
be done with be married to
be dressed in

THE PASSIVE WITH GET

GET + ADJECTIVE
(a) I'm getting hungry. Let's eat soon.
(b) You shouldn't eat so much. You'll get fat.
(c) I stopped working because I got sleepy.
GET + PAST PARTICIPLE
(d) I stopped working because I got tired.
(e) They are getting married next month.
(f) I got worried because he was two hours late.
*Some of the common adjectives that follow get are:
angry chilly Fat
Get may be followed by certain adjectives.
Get gives the idea of change the idea of
becoming, beginning to be, growing to be.
In (a): I'm getting hungry = I wasn't hungry
before, but now I'm beginning to be hungry.
Get may also be followed by a past participle.
The past participle functions as an adjective;
it describes the subject. The passive with get
is common in spoken English, but is often not
appropriate in formal writing
hungry old thirsty
anxious cold
bald dark
better dizzy
big empty
busy
PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES
…The problem confuses the students.
(a) It is a confusing problem.
…The students are confused by the problem. melakukan sesuatu yang membingungkan. Jadi,
(b) They are confused students.
…The story amuses the children.
(c) It is an amusing story.
…The children are amused by the story.
(d) They are amused children.
independent clause
(a) Sue lives in Tokyo.
independent clause
(b) Where does Sue live?
dependent clause
(c) where Sue lives
indep. cl. dependent cl.
(d) I know where Sue lives.
noun phrase
(e) His story was interesting.
noun clause
(f) What he said was interesting.
noun phrase
full late rich warm
good light sick well
heavy mad sleepy wet
hot nervous tall worse
Present participle berfungsi sebagai kata sifat
dengan arti aktif. Kata benda yang dimodifikasi
melakukan tindakan. In (a): Kata benda problem
ini dijelaskan sebagai "confusing problem."
Past participle berfungsi sebagai kata sifat
dengan makna pasif. In (b): Para siswa bingung
dengan sesuatu. Jadi, mereka digambarkan
sebagai "confused students."
In (c): Kata benda story melakukan aksinya.
In (d): Kata benda children menerima aksi.
INTRODUCTION
Klausa adalah sekelompok kata yang berisi subjek dan kata
kerja. *
Klausa independen (atau klausa utama) adalah kalimat
lengkap. Ini berisi subjek utama dan kata kerja dari sebuah
kalimat. Examples (a) and (b) adalah kalimat lengkap. (a)
adalah pernyataan, dan (b) adalah pertanyaan.
Klausa dependen (atau klausa subordinat) bukanlah kalimat
lengkap. Ini harus terhubung ke klausa independen.Example
(c) adalah klausa dependen.
Example (d) adalah kalimat lengkap. Ini memiliki klausa
independen dengan subjek utama (I) dan kata kerja (know)
dari kalimat. Where Sue lives adalah klausa dependen yang
terhubung ke klausa independen. Where Sue lives disebut
klausa kata benda.
frase nomina digunakan sebagai subjek atau objek.
klausa kata benda. digunakan sebagai subjek atau objek.
Dengan kata lain, klausa kata benda digunakan dengan cara
yang sama seperti frasa kata benda.
In (c): His story adalah frase nomina. Ini digunakan sebagai
subjek kalimat.
In (f): What he said adalah klausa kata benda. Ini digunakan
sebagai subjek kalimat. Klausa kata benda memiliki subjeknya
sendiri (he) dan kata kerja (said).
In (g): his story adalah frase nomina. Ini digunakan sebagai
 (8) I heard his story. objek kata kerja heard.
noun clause In (h): what he said adalah klausa kata benda. Ini digunakan
noun
(h) I heard what heclause
said. sebagai objek kata kerja heard
In (i): his story adalah frase nomina. It is used as the object of
(i) I listened to his story. the preposition to.
noun phrase In (j): what he said is a noun clause. It is used as the object of
(j) I listened to what he said. the preposition to

*A phrase is a group of words that does NOT contain a subject and a verb.
**See Appendix Unit B for more information about question words and question forms.

NOUN CLAUSES BEGINNING WITH A QUESTION WORD

QUESTION NOUN CLAUSE In (a): where she lives adalah objek
What did he say? (a) I don't know where she lives. dari kata kerja tahu. Dalam klausa
When do they arrive? (b) I couldn't hear what he said. kata benda, subjek mendahului kata
(c) Do you know when they kerja. Jangan gunakan urutan kata
arrive? tanya dalam klausa kata benda.
Notice: does, did, and do digunakan
dalam pertanyaan, tetapi tidak
dalam klausa kata benda. Lihat
Lampiran Unit B untuk informasi
lebih lanjut tentang kata tanya dan
formulir pertanyaan.
S V S V In (d): Urutan kata sama di kedua
Who lives there? (d) I don't know who lives there. pertanyaan dan klausa kata benda
What happened? (e) Please tell me what karena who adalah subjek di
Who is at the door? happened. keduanya.
(f) I wonder who is at the door.
V S S V In (g): she adalah subjek
Who is she? (g) I don't know who she is. pertanyaan, jadi ditempatkan di
Who are those men? (h) I don't know who those men depan kata kerja be di klausa kata
Whose house is that? are benda.
(i) I wonder whose house that is.
What did she say? (j) What she said surprised me. In (j): Apa yang dia katakan adalah
What should they do? (k) What they should do is subjek kalimatnya. Perhatikan in (k):
obvious. Subjek klausa kata benda
menggunakan kata kerja tunggal
(e.g., is).
*COMPARI: Who is at the door? = who is the subject of the question.
Who are those mend = those men is the subject of the question, so be is plural.

NOUN CLAUSES BEGINNING WITH WHETHER OR IF

YES/NO NOUN CLAUSE Ketika a yes/no question diubah
QUESTION (a) I don't know whether she will come. menjadi klausa kata benda,
Will she come? I don't know if she will come. whether atau if digunakan untuk
(b) I wonder whether he needs help. memperkenalkan klausa.
Does he need I wonder he needs help. (Note: Whether i lebih dapat
help? diterima dalam bahasa Inggris

(c) I wonder whether or not she will
come.
(d) I wonder whether she will come or
not.
(e) I wonder if she will come or not.
(f) Whether she comes or not is
unimportant to me.
formal, tetapi if cukup umum
digunakan, terutama dalam
berbicara.)
In (c), (d), and (c): Perhatikan pola
when or not ketika digunakan
In (f): Perhatikan bahwa klausa kata
benda ada di posisi subjek

QUESTION WORDS FOLLOWED BY INFINITIVES

(a) I don't know what I should do. Kata pertanyaan (when, where,
(b) I don't know what to do. how, who, whom, whose, what,
(c) Pam can't decide whether she should go or stay home. which) and whether dapat diikuti
(d) Pam can't decide whether to go or (to) stay home. oleh infinitive.
(C) Please tell me how I can get to the bus station. Setiap pasangan kalimat dalam
(f) Please tell me how to get to the bus station. contoh memiliki arti yang sama.
(g) Jim told us where we could find it. Perhatikan bahwa arti yang
(h) Jim told us where to find it. diekspresikan oleh infinitif adalah
baik should or can/could.

NOUN CLAUSES BEGINNING WITH THAT

STATEMENT NOUN CLAUSE In (a): that he is a good actor adalah klausa
He is a good actor. (a) I think that he is a good kata benda. Ini digunakan sebagai objek
actor. kata kerja think.
(b) I think he is a good actor.
The world is (c) We know (that) the Kata that, ketika itu memperkenalkan
round. world is round. klausa kata benda, tidak memiliki arti
tersendiri. Ini hanya menandai awal klausa.
Seringkali itu dihilangkan, as in (b), terutama
dalam berbicara. (Jika digunakan dalam
berbicara, itu tanpa tekanan.)
She doesn't (d) That she doesn't In (d): Klausa kata benda (That she doesn't
understand understand spoken English understand spoken English) adalah subjek
spoken is obvious. kalimat. Kata that tidak dihilangkan saat
English. (e) It is obvious (that) she memperkenalkan klausa kata benda yang
doesn't understand digunakan sebagai subjek kalimat, as in (d)
spoken English. and (f)
The world is (f) That the torld is round is Lebih umum, kata it functions as the subject
round. a fact. berfungsi sebagai subjek dan klausa kata
(g) It is a fact that the world benda ditempatkan di akhir kalimat,and the
is round. noun clause is placed at the end of the
sentence, as in (e) and (8).

QUOTED SPEECH
 Quoted speech refers to reproducing words exactly as they were originally spoken. Quotation
marks ("...") are used.**
QUOTING ONE SENTENCE In (a): menggunakan koma setelah she said.
(a) She said, "My brother is a student." Gunakan huruf besar pada kata pertama dari
(b) "My brother is a student," she said. kalimat yang dikutip. Letakkan tanda kutip
(c) "My brother,” she said, "is a student." terakhir di luar titik di akhir kalimat.
In (b): Gunakan koma, bukan titik, di akhir
kalimat yang dikutip saat mendahului she said.
In (c): Jika kalimat yang dikutip dibagi she said,
gunakan koma setelah bagian pertama
kutipan. Jangan menggunakan huruf besar
pada kata pertama setelah dia berkata.
QUOTING MORE THAN ONE SENTENCE In (d): Tanda kutip ditempatkan di awal dan
(d) "My brother is a student. He is attending a akhir kutipan lengkap. Perhatikan: Tidak ada
university,” she said. tanda kutip setelahnya student.
(e) "My brother is a student," she said. "He is In (e): Jika she said ada di antara dua kalimat
attending a university.” kutipan, kalimat kedua diawali dengan tanda
petik dan huruf kapital.
QUOTING A QUESTION OR AN EXCLAMATION In (f): Tanda tanya ada di dalam tanda petik.In
(f) She asked, "When will you be here?” In (g): Jika tanda tanya digunakan, tidak ada
(g) "When will you be here?” she asked. koma yang digunakan sebelum dia bertanya.
(h) She said, "Watch out!” In (h): Tanda seru ada di dalam tanda kutip.
(i) "My brother is a student," said Anna, In (i): Subjek kata benda (Anna) diikuti said.
"My brother," said Anna, "is a student." Subjek kata benda sering kali mengikuti kata
kerja saat subjek dan kata kerja berada di
tengah atau di akhir kalimat yang dikutip.
(Note: Subjek kata ganti hampir selalu
mendahului kata kerja. Sangat langka: "My
brother's a student," said she.)

(i) "Let's leave," whispered Dave. Say and ask adalah kata kerja kutipan yang
(k) "Please help me," begged the unfortunate paling umum digunakan. Contoh yang lain:
(1) "Well," Jack began, "it's a long story." add, agree, announce, answer, beg, begin,
man. comment, complain, confess, continue,
explain, inquire, promise, remark, reply,
respond, shout, suggest, whisper.
*Quoted speech is also called "direct speech." Reported speech (discussed in Chart 12-7, p. 254) is also called "indirect
speech.
**In British English, quotation marks are called "inverted commas" and can consist of either double marks or a single
mark ('): She said, 'My brother is a student.'

REPORTED SPEECH: VERB FORMS IN NOUN CLAUSES

QUOTED SPEECH REPORTED SPEECH
(a) "I catch TV every day." She said she watched TV Reported speech refers
(b) "I am using TV." every day. menggunakan klausa kata
(c) "I have watched TV." She said she was watching TV benda untuk melaporkan apa
(d) "I watched TV." She said she had watched TV. yang dikatakan seseorang.
(C) "I had watched TV." She said she had watched TV. Tidak ada tanda kutip yang
 (f) "I will watch TV." She said she had watched TV. digunakan.
(g) "I’m going to watch TV." She said she would watch TV. Jika kata kerja pelaporan (kata
(h) "I can watch TV." She said she was going to kerja utama dari kalimat c.8.,
(i) "I may mwatch TV." watch TV. Said) adalah simple past, kata
(j) "I must watch TV." She said she could watch TV. kerja pada klausa kata benda
(k) "I have to watch TV “ She said she might watch TV. biasanya juga dalam bentuk
She said she had to watch TV. lampau, seperti pada contoh.
She said she had to watch TV.
(l) "I should watch TV “ She said she should watch TV. In (I): should, ought to, and
"I ought to watch TV" She said she ought to watch might jangan dirubah ke
"I might watch TV" TV. bentuk lampau.
She said she might watch TV.
(m) Immediate reporting: Mengubah kata kerja ke
-What did the teacher just say? I didn't hear him. bentuk lampau dalam pidato
--He said he wants us to read Chapter Six. yang dilaporkan adalah hal
(n) Later reporting: biasa baik dalam berbicara
-I didn't go to class yesterday. Did Mr. Jones make any maupun menulis. Namun,
assignments? terkadang dalam bahasa
-Yes. He said he wanted us to read Chapter Six. Inggris lisan, tidak ada
perubahan yang dilakukan
pada kata benda klausa kata
kerja, terutama jika pembicara
melaporkan sesuatu segera
atau segera setelah dikatakan.
(o) “The world is round." She said the world is round Juga, terkadang present tense
dipertahankan bahkan dalam
bahasa Inggris formal ketika
kalimat yang dilaporkan
berhubungan dengan
kebenaran umum,as in (o).
(p) "I reach TV every day." She says she watches TV Ketika kata kerja pelaporan
(q) "I reachi TV every day." every day. adalah simple present, present
(r) "I catch TV every day." She has said that she watches perfect, atau future, kata
TV every day. benda klausa verb tidak
She will say that she watches berubah.
TV every day.
(s) "Watch TV." She told me to watch TV. Dalam pidato yang dilaporkan,
kalimat imperatif diubah
menjadi infinitif. Tell
digunakan sebagai pengganti
say sebagai kata kerja
pelaporan. See Chart 14-7, p.
307, untuk kata kerja lain yang
diikuti dengan infinitif yang
digunakan untuk melaporkan
ucapan.
*NOTE: Tell is immediately followed by a (pro)noun object, but say is not: He told me he could be late. He said he would
be late. Also possible: He said to me he would be late.
 USING THE SUBJUNCTIVE IN NOUN CLAUSES
(a) The teacher demands thar we be on time. Kata kerja subjungtif menggunakan bentuk
(b) I insisted that he pay me the money. kata kerja sederhana. Ia tidak memiliki bentuk
(c) I recommended that she not go to the sekarang, masa lalu, atau masa depan; itu
concert bukan nar jamak tunggal. Kalimat dengan
(d) It is important that they be told the truth. verba pengandaian umumnya menekankan
pentingnya atau irgensi. Kata kerja subjungtif
digunakan dalam klausa-thai yang mengikuti
kata kerja dan ekspresi yang tercantum di
bawah ini. In (a): be adalah kata kerja
subjungtif; subjeknya adalah we. In (b) : pay
(not pays, not paid) adalah kata kerja
pengandaian; itu dalam bentuknya yang
sederhana, meskipun subjeknya (he) is
singular.
Negative: not + simple form, as in (C).
Passive: simple form of be + past participle, as
in (d).

(C) I suggested that she see a doctor. Should juga mungkin setelah suggest dan
(f) I suggested thar she should see a doctor. recommend.
COMMON VERBS AND EXPRESSIONS FOLLOWED BY THE SUBJUNCTIVE IN A NOUN CLAUSE
aderise (that) propose (that) it is essential (that) it is critical (that)
ask (that) recommend (that) it is imperative (that) it is necessary (that)
demand (that) request (that) it is important (thar) it is vital (that)
insist (that) suggest (that)
The subjunctive is more common in American English than British English. In British English, should + simple form is more
usual than the subjunctive: The macher insists that te should be en rime.
USING -EVER WORDS
The following -ever words give the idea of "any." Each pair of sentences in the examples has the
same meaning,
Whoever (a)Whoever wants to come is welcome.
Anyone who wants to come is welcome
who(m)ever (b)He makes friends casily with who(m)ever he meets."
He makes friends easily with anyone scito he meets.
whatever (c) He always says thatever comes into his mind.
He always says anythmg that comes into his mind.
whichever (d) There are four good programs on TV at eight o'clock. We can
watch whichever program (whichever one you prefer
We can watch any of the four programs that you prefer.
whenever (e) You may leave whenever you wish.
You may leave at any time that you wish.
wherever (f) She can go wherever she wants to go.
 She can go antyplace that she wants to go.
however (g) The students may dress however they please.
The students may dress m any way that they please.
In (b) whomever is the object of the verb meets. In American English, whomever is rare and very formal. In British
English, whoever (not whomever) is used as the object form: He maket friends canly twith those he wees.
INTRODUCTION
CLAUSE Klausa adalah sekelompok kata yang berisi subjek dan kata kerja.
INDEPENDENT CLAUSE Klausa independen adalah kalimat lengkap. Ini berisi subjek utama dan
kata kerja dari sebuah kalimat. (Ini juga disebut "klausa utama".)
DEPENDENT CLAUSE Klausa dependen bukanlah kalimat lengkap. Ini harus terhubung ke
klausa independen
ADJECTIVE CLAUSE Klausa kata sifat adalah klausa dependen yang memodifikasi kata
benda. Ini menjelaskan, mengidentifikasi, atau memberikan informasi
lebih lanjut tentang kata benda. (Klausa kata sifat juga disebut "klausa
relatif".)
ADJECTIVE CLAUSE Klausa kata sifat menggunakan kata ganti untuk menghubungkan
klausa dependen ke independen
PRONOUNS Klausa kata sifat. Kata ganti klausa kata sifat adalah who, whom,
which, that, and whose. (Kata ganti klausa kata sifat juga disebut "kata
ganti relatif".)

ADJECTIVE CLAUSE PRONOUNS USED AS THE SUBJECT

I thanked the woman. In (a): I thanked the woman = an independent
She helped me. clause; who helped me = an adjective clause.
↓ Klausa kata sifat mengubah kata benda
(a) I thanked the woman who wiped me. woman.
(b) I thanked the woman that celped me. In (a): who adalah subjek dari klausa kata sifat.
The book is mine. In (b): that adalah subjek dari klausa kata sifat.
It is on the table. Note: (a) and (b) have the same meaning.
↓ (c) and (d) have the same meaning,
(c) The book which the table is mine, who = digunakan untuk orang
(d) The book that the table is mine. which = digunakan untuk berbagai hal
that = digunakan untuk orang dan benda
(e) INCORRECT: The book is mine that is on the Klausa kata sifat mengikuti kata benda yang
table. dimodifikasi.

ADJECTIVE CLAUSE PRONOUNS USED AS THE OBJECT OF VERB

The man was Mr. Jones. Notice in the examples: Kata ganti
I saw him. klausa kata sifat ditempatkan di awal
↓ klausa.
(a) The man who(m) I saw was Mr. Jones. In(a): who biasanya digunakan
(b) The man that I sat was Mr. Jones. sebagai pengganti whom, terutama
(c) The man ᴓ I saw was Mr. Jones. dalam berbicara.Whom umumnya
hanya digunakan dalam bahasa
Inggris yang sangat formal.
The movie wasn't very good. In (c) and (f): Kata ganti objek sering
We saw it last night. kali dihilangkan dari klausa kata sifat.
 ↓ (Namun, kata ganti subjek tidak
boleh dihilangkan.)
d) The movie which we saw last might wasn't very good. who = digunakan untuk orang
(e) The movie that we saw last might wasn't very good. which = digunakan untuk berbagai
(f) The movie ᴓ we saw last night wasn't very good. hal
that = digunakan untuk orang dan
benda
(g) INCORRECT: The man who(m) I saw him was Mr. Jones. In (g): Kata ganti him harus
The man that I saw him was Mr. Jones. disingkirkan. Itu tidak perlu karena
The man I saw him was Mr. Jones. who(m), that, or ᴓ berfungsi sebagai
objek kata kerja saw.

ADJECTIVE CLAUSE PRONOUNS USED AS THE OBJECT OF A PREPOSITION

She is the woman. Dalam bahasa Inggris yang sangat
I told you about her formal, preposisi muncul di awal
↓ klausa kata sifat,as in (a) and (e).
(a) She is the woman about whom I told you Biasanya, bagaimanapun, dalam
(b) She is the woman who(m) I told you about penggunaan sehari-hari, preposisi
(c) She is the woman that I told you about muncul setelah subjek dan kata kerja
(d) She is the woman ᴓ I told you about dari klausa kata sifat, seperti pada
contoh lainnya..
The music was good. Note: Jika preposisi muncul di awal
We listened to it last night. klausa kata sifat, hanya whom or
↓ which dapat digunakan. Sebuah
(e) The music to which we listened last night Was good preposisi tidak pernah langsung
(f) The music which we listened last night Was good diikuti oleh that or who
(g) The music that we listened to last night Was good
(h) The music ᴓ we listened to last night Was good
INCORRECT. She is the woman about who I told you.
INCORRECT. The music to that we listened last night was good.

USUAL PATTERNS OF ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

(a) USUAL: I like the people who live next to me. Dalam penggunaan informal sehari-hari,
LESSUSUAL: I like the people that live next to me sering kali satu klausa kata sifat. pola
digunakan lebih umum daripada yang
lain.In (a): Sebagai kata ganti subjek, who
lebih umum daripada that.
(b) USUAL: I like books that have good plots In (b): Sebagai kata ganti subjek, that lebih
LESSUSUAL: I like books which have good plots. umum daripada which

(c) USUAL: I liked the people Ø I met last night. In (c) and (d): Kata ganti objek biasanya
(d) USUAL: I liked the book I read last week. dihilangkan, terutama dalam berbicara.

*Sec Chart 13-10, p. 281, for patterns of pronoun usage when an adjective clause requires commas.

USING WHOSE
I know the man. Whose digunakan untuk menunjukkan
 His bicycle was stolen. kepemilikan. Ini membawa arti yang sama
↓ seperti kata ganti posesif lainnya yang
(a) I know the man whose bicycle was stolen. digunakan sebagai kata sifat: his, her, its,
The student writes well. and their. Like his, her, its, and their, whose
I read her composition. terhubung ke kata benda:
↓ his bicycle  whose bicycle
(b) The student whose composition I read writes her composition  whose composition
well. Yang terhubung dan kata benda itu
ditempatkan di awal klausa kata sifat.
Whose tidak bisa dihilangkan.
Mr. Catt has a painting. Whose biasanya memodifikasi orang, tetapi
Its value is inestimable. juga dapat digunakan untuk memodifikasi
↓ sesuatu, as in (c).
(c) Mr. Cart has a painting whose value is
inestimable.
Sometimes a sentence has “that that” : I’ve read the book that that man wrote. In this example, the first that is an
adjective clause pronoun. The second that is demonstrative, like this or those

USING WHERE IN ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

The building is very old. Where digunakan dalam klausa kata sifat
He lives there in that building). untuk mengubah tempat (city, country,
(a) The building where he lives is very old room, house, etc.).
(b) The building in which he lives is very old Jika where digunakan, preposisi tidak
The building which he lives in is very old termasuk dalam klausa kata sifat, as in (a).
The building that he lives in is very old Jika tidak digunakan, preposisi harus
The building Ø he lives in is very old dimasukkan, as in (b).

USING WHEN IN ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

I'll never forget the day, When digunakan dalam klausa kata sifat untuk
I met you then (on that day). mengubah kata benda waktu (year, day, time,
(a) I'll never forget the when I met you. century, etc.). Penggunaan preposisi dalam
(b)I'll never forget the on which I met you. klausa kata sifat yang mengubah kata benda
(c) I'll never forget the that I met you. waktu agak berbeda dari penggunaan pada
(d)I'll never forget the Ø I met you. klausa kata sifat lainnya: preposisi digunakan
sebelum which, as in (b). Jika tidak, preposisi
dihilangkan.

USING ADJECTIVE CLAUSES TO MODIFY PRONOUNS

(a) There is someone (whom I want on to meet. Klausa kata sifat dapat mengubah kata ganti
(b) Everything he said was pure nonsense. tidak pasti (e.g.,someone, everybody). Kata
(c) Anybody cho tuants to cow is welcome. ganti objek (e.g., who(m), that, which)
biasanya dihilangkan dalam klausa kata sifat.
(d) Paula was the only one I nes at the party. Klausa kata sifat dapat dimodifikasi the one
(C) Scholarships are available for those who (S) and those.
need financial assistance.
(1) NCORRECT. I who am a fuden at this school Klausa kata sifat hampir tidak pernah
 come from a country in Asia. digunakan untuk mengubah kata ganti orang.
(g) It is I cho am respons Penutur asli bahasa Inggris tidak akan
(h) He cho laughs las: laughs best. menulis kalimat tersebut in (f). (g) mungkin,
tetapi sangat formal dan tidak umum. (h)
adalah pepatah terkenal di mana he
digunakan sebagai kata ganti tidak terbatas
(meaning anyone, any person'').
"An adjective clause with which can also be used to modify the demonstrative pronoun that. For example:
We sometimes fear that which we do not understand.
The bread my mother makes is much better than that which you can buy at a store

PUNCTUATING ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

Panduan umum untuk tanda baca pada klausa kata sifat:
(1) DO NOT USE COMMAS JIKA klausa kata sifat diperlukan untuk mengidentifikasi kata benda
yang dimodifikasi.
(2) USE COMMAS IF the klausa kata sifat hanya memberikan informasi tambahan dan tidak perlu
mengidentifikasi kata benda yang dimodifikasi.
(a) The professor who teaches Chemistry 101 is In (a): Tidak ada koma yang digunakan. Klausa
an excellent lecturer. kata sifat diperlukan untuk mengidentifikasi
(b) Professor Wilson, who teaches Chemistry profesor mana yang dimaksud.
101, is an excellent lecturer. In (b): Koma digunakan. Klausa kata sifat tidak
diperlukan untuk mengidentifikasi Profesor
Wilson. Kita sudah tahu siapa dia: dia punya
nama. Klausa kata sifat hanya memberikan
informasi tambahan.
(c) Hawaii, which consists of eight principal Guideline: Gunakan koma, as in (b), (c), and
islands, is a favorite vacation spot. (d), jika klausa kata sifat memodifikasi kata
(d) Mrs. Smith, who is a retired teacher, does benda yang tepat. (Kata benda dimulai
volunteer work at the hospital. dengan huruf kapital.) Note: Tanda koma
mencerminkan jeda dalam pidato.
who(m) In (@):Jika tidak ada koma yang digunakan,
(e) The man that I met teaches kemungkinan kata ganti dapat digunakan
chemistry. dalam klausa kata sifat. Kata ganti objek dapat
Ø dihilangkan.
(f) Mr. Lee, whom I met yesterday, teaches In (f): Jika koma diperlukan, kata ganti yang
chemistry. mungkin tidak digunakan (only who, whom,
which, whose, where, and when may be
used), and kata ganti objek tidak bisa
dihilangkan.
COMPARE THE MEANING In (g): Penggunaan koma berarti semua anak
(8) We took some children on a picnic. The ingin bermain sepak bola dan semua anak
children, who wanted to play soccer, ran to an berlari ke lapangan terbuka. Klausa kata sifat
open field as soon as we arrived at the park. digunakan hanya untuk memberikan
informasi tambahan tentang anak-anak.
(h) We took some children on a picnic. The
children who wanted to play soccer ran to an In (h): Tidak adanya koma berarti hanya
open field as soon as we arrived at the park. sebagian dari anak-anak yang ingin bermain
The others played a different game sepak bola. Klausa kata sifat digunakan untuk
 mengidentifikasi anak mana yang berlari ke
lapangan terbuka.
Adjective clauses that do not require commas are called "essential" or "restrictive" or "identifying."
**Adjective clauses that require commas are called "nonessential" or "nonrestrictive" or "nonidentifying."
NOTE: Nonessential adjective clauses are more common in writing than in speaking.
USING EXPRESSIONS OF QUANTITY IN ADJECTIVE CLAUSES
In my class there are 20 students. An adjective clause may contain an expression
Most of them are from the Far East. of quantity with of: some of, many of, most of,
(a) In my class there are 20 students none of, two of, half of, , most of whom both
of, neither of, each of, all of, secera! of, a few
He gave several reasons. of, litle of, are from Asia. a number of, etc.
Only a few of them were valid. The expression of quantity precedes the
(6) He gave several reasons, only a few of pronoun. Only whom, which, and whose are
which were valid. used in this pattern.
Adjective clauses that begin with an expression
The teachers discussed Jim. of quantity are more common in writing than
One of his problemas was poor study speaking. Commas are used.
habits.
(c) The teachers discussed Jim, one of whose
problems was poor study habits.

USING NOUN + OF WHICH

We have an antique table. An adjective clause may include a noun + of
The top of it has jade inlay. which (e.g., the top of which). This pattern
(a) We have an antique table, the top of which carries the meaning of whose (e.g., We have
has jade inlay an antique table whose top has jade mlay.).
This pattern is used in an adjective clause that
modifies a thing and occurs primarily in formal
written English. A comma is used

USING WHICH TO MODIFY A WHOLE SENTENCE

(a) Tom was late. (b) That Kata ganti that and this bisa merujuk pada gagasan seluruh
surprised me. kalimat yang muncul sebelumnya. In (b): kata that
(c) Tom was late, which surprised mengacu pada keseluruhan kalimat "Tom was late."
me. Demikian pula, klausa kata sifat dengan which dapat
(d) The elevator is out of order. (e) mengubah gagasan seluruh kalimat. In (c): kata which
This is too bad. mengacu pada keseluruhan kalimat "Tom was late."
(c) The elevator is out of order, Menggunakan which mengubah seluruh kalimat bersifat
which is too bad. informal dan paling sering muncul dalam bahasa Inggris
lisan. Struktur ini umumnya tidak sesuai dalam penulisan
formal. Setiap kali ditulis, bagaimanapun, itu diawali
dengan koma untuk mencerminkan jeda dalam pidato.

REDUCING ADJECTIVE CLAUSES TO ADJECTIVE PHRASES: INTROD

CLAUSE: Klausa adalah sekelompok kata terkait yang berisi subjek dan kata kerja
PHRASE: Frasa adalah sekelompok kata terkait yang tidak mengandung subjek dan kata kerja
(a) ADJECTIVE CLAUSE: Frasa kata sifat adalah pengurangan dari klausa
 The girl who is sitting next to me is Maria
(b) ADJECTIVE PHRASE:
The girl sitting next to me is Maria.
(c) CLAUSE: The boy who is playing the
piano is Ben.
(d) phrase: The boy playing the piano is
Ben.
(e) CLAUSE: The boy whom) I saw was Tom.
(f) PHRASE: (none)
kata sifat. Ini memodifikasi kata benda. Ini tidak
mengandung subjek dan kata kerja. Klausa kata
sifat in (a) dapat direduksi menjadi frase kata sifat
in (b). (a) and (b) have the same meaning.
Hanya klausa kata sifat yang memiliki kata ganti
subjek -who, which, or that- direduksi menjadi
memodifikasi frase kata sifat.
Klausa kata sifat in (e) tidak dapat direduksi
menjadi frase kata sifat.

CHANGING AN ADJECTIVE CLAUSES TO AN ADJECTIVE PHRASE

(a) CLAUSE: The man who is talking to John is from Korea. Ada dua cara di mana klausa
PHRASE: The man Ø Ø talking to John is from Korea. kata sifat diubah menjadi
(b) CLAUSE: The ideas which are presented in that book are good. frase kata sifat
PHRASE: The ideas Ø Ø presented in that book are good 1. Jika klausa kata sifat berisi
(c) CLAUSE: Ann is the woman who is responsible for the error. be bentuk kata kerja,
PHRASE: Ann is the woman Ø Ø responsible for the error. hilangkan kata ganti dan be
(d) CLAUSE: The books that are on that shelf are mine. form, as in examples (a), (b),
PHRASE: The books Ø Ø on that shelf are mine. (c), and (d).

(e) CLAUSE: English has an alphabet that consists of 26 letters. 2. Jika tidak ada be bentuk
PHRASE: English has an alphabet Ø consisting of 26 letters. kata kerja dalam klausa kata
(f) CLAUSE: Anyone who wants to come with us is welcome. sifat, terkadang
PHRASE: Anyone Ø wanting to come with us is welcome. dimungkinkan untuk
menghilangkan kata ganti
subjek dan mengubah kata
kerja menjadi ing form, as in
(e) and (f).
(g) George Washington, who was the first president of the United Jika klausa kata sifat
States, was a wealthy colonist and a general in the army. membutuhkan koma, as in
(h) George Washington, the first president of the United States, (g), frase kata sifat juga
was a wealthy colonist and a general in the army. membutuhkan koma, as in
(h).
(i) Paris, the capital of France, is an exciting city Frase kata sifat di mana
(j) I read a book by Mark Twain, a famous American author kata benda mengikuti kata
benda lain, as in (h), (i), and
(j), are called "appositives."
an adjective clause that contains be + a single adjective is changed, the adjective is moved to its normal position in front
of the noun it modifies
CLAUSE Fruit that is fresh tastes better than old, soft, mushy fruit.
CORRECT PHRASE Fresh fruit tastes better than old, soft, mushy fruit.
INCORRECT PHRASE Fruit fresh tastes better than old, soft, mushy fruit.

GERUNDS: INTRODUCTION
 S V Gerund adalah -ing bentuk kata kerja yang digunakan sebagai
(a) Playing tennis is fun. kata benda. gerund digunakan dengan cara yang sama seperti
S V O kata benda, yaitu, sebagai subjek atau sebagai objek.
(b) We enjoy playing tennis. In (a): playing adalah gerund. Ini digunakan sebagai subjek
PREP O kalimat. Playing tennis adalah frase gerund.
(c) He's excited about playing In (b): playing adalah gerund yang digunakan sebagai objek
tennis. kata kerja enjoy
In (c): playing adalah gerund yang digunakan sebagai objek
preposisi about.
*COMPARE the uses of the -ing form of verbs:
(1) Walking is good exercise.  walking = a gerund used as the subject of the sentence.
(2) Bob and Ann are playing tennis.  playing = a present participle used as part of the present progressive tense.
(3) I heard some surprising norus.  surprising = a present participle used as an adjective.

USING GERUNDS AS THE OBJECTS OF PREPOSITIONS

(a) We talked about going to Canada for our vacation.
(b) Sue is in charge of organizing the meeting.
(c) I'm interested in learning more about your work.
(d) I'm used to sleeping with the window open.
(e) I'm accustomed to sleeping with the window open.
(f) I look forward to going home next month.
(g) They object to changing their plans at this late date.
(h) We talked about not going to the meeting, but
finally decided we should go.
Possible in British English: I'm accustomed to sleep with the window open.
Gerund sering kali digunakan sebagai
objek preposisi.
In (d) through (g): to adalah preposisi,
bukan bagian dari bentuk infinitif, jadi
gerund mengikuti.
Negative form: tidak mendahului
gerund.

COMMON PREPOSITION COMBINATIONS FOLLOWED BY GERUNDS

be excited about doing Keep (someone) insist on doing It
be worried it Prevent (someone) from doing it
prohibit (someone) be accustomed
complain stop (someone) in addition
dream About/of be committed
talk doing it believe be devoted
to doing it
be interested look forward
in doing it
apologize participate object
blame (someone) Succeed be opposed
forgive (someone) be used
have an excuse for doing it be accused
have a reason be capable
be responsible for the purpose
thank (somcone) be guilty
instead of dong it
take advantage
take care
be tired

COMMON VERBS FOLLOWED BY GERUNDS

 VERB + GERUND Gerund digunakan sebagai objek kata kerja tertentu. In (a), enjoy
(a) I enjoy playing diikuti oleh gerund (playing). Enjoy tidak diikuti oleh infinitif.
tennis. INCORRECT. I enjoy to play tennis.
Kata kerja umum yang diikuti oleh gerund diberikan dalam daftar di
bawah ini.
(b) Joe quit smoking. (b) and (C) memiliki arti yang sama. Beberapa kata kerja frasa,
(c) Joe gave up smoking. misalnya,give up, diikuti oleh gerund. Kata kerja frase ini diberikan
dalam tanda kurung daftar di bawah ini.
VERB + GERUND
Enjoy quit (give up) avoid Consider
appreciate finish (ger through) postpone (put off) discuss
mind stop delay mention
keep (keep on) sugest
phrasal verb consists of a verb and a particle (a small word such as a preposition) that together have a special meaning
For example, put off means "postpone."
**Stop can also be followed immediately by an infinitive of purpose (in order to). See Chart 15-1, p. 326.
COMPARE the following:
(1) stop + gerund: When the professor entered the room, the students stopped talking. The room became quiet.
(2) stop + infinitive of purpose: While I was walking down the street, I ran into an old friend. I stopped to talk to him.
(I stopped walking i order to talk to him.)

GO + GERUND
(a) Did you go shopping? Go diikuti oleh gerund dalam ekspresi idiomatik tertentu
(b) We went fishing yesterday. untuk mengekspresikan, sebagian besar, aktivitas rekreasi.
GO + GERUND
go birdwatching go fishing go sailmg go skinnydipping
go boating go hiking go shopping go sledding
go bowling go hunting go sightseeing go snorkeling
go camping go jogging go skating go swimming
go canoeing kayaking go mountain climbing go skateboarding go toborgaming
go dancing go running go skiing go window shopping
*Also, in British English: go angling

SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS FOLLOWED BY –ING

(a) We had fun
We had a good time
(b) I had trouble
I had difficulty
I had a hard time
I had a difficult time
playing volleyball. -ing bentuk mengikuti ekspresi khusus tertentu:
have fun/a good time + -ing
have trouble/difficulty + -ing
have a hard time/difficult time + -ing
finding his house.

(c) Sam spends most of his time studying.
(d) I waste a lot of time watching TV.
(e) She sat at her desk writing a letter.
(f) I stood there wondering what to do next.
(g) He is lying in bed reading a novel.
(h) When I walked into my office, I found
spend + expression of time or money + -ing
waste + expression of time or money + -ing
sit + expression of place + -ing
stand + expression of place + -ing
lie + expression of place + -ing
find + (pro) noun + -ing
 George using my telephone. catch + (pro) noun + -ing
(i) When I walked into my office, I caught a In (h) and (): Both find and catch mean "discover."
thief looking through my desk drawers. Catch sering mengungkapkan kemarahan atau
ketidaksenangan.

COMMON VERBS FOLLOWED BY INFINITIVES

VERB + INFINITIVE An infinitive = to + the simple form of a verb (to
(a) I hope to see you again soon. see, to be, o, etc.).
(b)He promised to be here by ten. Beberapa kata kerja segera diikuti oleh infinitif,as
in (a) and (b). Lihat Grup A di bawah.
(c) He promised not to be late. Bentuk negatif: tidak mendahului infinitif, as in (c).
VERB + (PRO)NOUN + INFINITIVE Beberapa kata kerja diikuti oleh (pro)noun dan
(d) Mr. Lee told me to be here at ten kemudian infinitif, as in (d) and (e). Lihat Grup B di
o'clock. bawah.
(e) The police ordered the driver to stop.
(f) I was told to be here at ten o'clock Kata kerja ini segera diikuti oleh infinitif ketika
(g) The driver was ordered to stop. digunakan dalam bentuk pasif, as in (f) and (g)
(h) I expect to pass the test. Ask, expect, would like, want, and need may or
(i) I expect Mary to pass the test. may not diikuti oleh (pro)noun objek.
COMPARE :
In (h): I think I will pass the test.
In (i): I think Mary will pass the test.
GROUP A: VERB + INFINITTVE
hope to (do something) promise to seem to expect to
plan to agree to appear to would like to
intend 1to offer to pretend to want to
decide to refuse to ask 10 need to
GROUP B: VERB + (PRO)NOUN + INFINITTVE
tell someone to Encourage someone to inoite someone to ask someone to
permit someone to warn someone to order someone to expect someone to
advise someone to** remind someone to need someone to would like someone to
allow someone to require someone to force someone to want someone to
*Intend is usually followed by an infinitive (I intend to go to the meeting), but sometimes may be followed by a gerund
(I intend going to the meeting with no change in meaning.
**A gerund is used after advise (active) if there is no (pro)noun object
COMPARE :
(1) He advised buying a Fiat
(2) He advised me to buy a Fiat. I was advised to buy a fiat

COMMON VERBS FOLLOWDD BY EITHER INFINITIVES OR GERUNDS

Beberapa kata kerja dapat diikuti oleh infinitif atau gerund, terkadang tanpa perbedaan arti, as
in Group A below, dan terkadang dengan perbedaan arti as in Group B below
GROUP A: VERB + INFINITIVE OR GERUND, Kata kerja di Grup A dapat diikuti oleh infinitif
WITH NO DIFFERENCE IN atau gerund dengan sedikit atau tanpa
MEANING perbedaan makna
Begin Like Hate
start love can't bear
continue prefer* can't stand
 (a) It began to rain. / It began vaining
(b) I started to work. / I started working.
(C) It was beginning to rain.
GROUP B: VERB + INFINITIVE OR GERUND,
WITH A DIFFERENCE IN MEANING
remember regret
forget try
(d) Judy always remembers to lock the door.
(e) Sam often forgets to lock the door.
(f) I remember seeing the Alps for the first
time. The sight was impressive.
(g) I'll never forget seeing the Alps for the
first time
(h) I regret to tell you that you failed the test
(i) I regret lending him some money. He
never paid me back
(j) I’m trying to learn English
(k) The room was hot. I tired opening the
window, but that didn’t help. So I tried
turning on the fan, but I was still hot.
Finally, I turned on the air conditioner
Notice the pattern with prefer
Profer + grand I prefer staying home to going to the concert
Prefer + infonte: I'd prefer to stay home (rather thar (to) go to the concert
Forget followed by a gerund usually occurs in a negative sentence or in a question: 4.8., I'U nezer forget, I can't forget,
Have You ever forgotten, and Can you ever forget are often followed by a gerund phrase.
In (a): Tidak ada perbedaan antara began to rain
and began raining
Jika kata kerja utama bersifat progresif, biasanya
digunakan infinitif (bukan gerund), as in (c).
The verbs in Group B may be followed by either
an infinitive or a gerund, but the meaning is
different.
Remember + infinitive = remember to perform
responsibility, duty, or task, as in (d).
Forget + infinitive = forget to perform a
responsibility, duty, or task, as in (e).
Remember + gerund = remember (recall)
something that happened in the past, as in (1).
Forget + gerund = forget something that
happened in the past, as in (8).**
Regret + infinitive = regret to say, to tell
someone, to inform someone of some bad news,
as in (h)
Regret + gerund = regret something that
happenend in the past, as in (i)
Try + infinitive = make an effort, as in (j)
Try + general = experiment with a new or
different approach to see if it works, as in (k)

REFERENCE LIST OFVERBS FOLLOWED BY GERUNDS

Verbs with a bullet can also be followed by infinitives. See Chart 14-10.
1. admit He admited stealing the money.
2. advie She advised waiting until tomorrow.
3. anticipate I anticipated having a good time on vacation.
4. appreciate I appreciated hearing from them.
5. avoid He avoided answering my question.
6. can't bear I can’t bear waiting in long lines.
7. begin It began rainning
8. complete I finally completed writing my term paper.
9. consider I will consider going with you.
10. continue He continued speaking.
11. delay He delayed loving for school.
12. deny She denied committing the crime.
13. discuss They discussed opening a new business.
 14. dislike I dislike driving long distances.
15. enjoy We enjoyed visiting them.
16. finish She finished studying about ten.
17. forger I'll never forget visiting Napoleon's tomb.
18. hate I hate making silly mistakes.
19. can't help I can't help worrying about it.
20. keep I keep hoping he will come.
21. like I like going to movies.
22 love I love going to operas.
23. mention She mentioned going to a movie.
24. mind Would you wind helping me with this?
25. miss I miss being with my family.
26. postpone Let's postpone leaving until tomorrow.
27. practice The athlete practiced throwing the ball.
28. prefer Ann prefers walking to driving to work.
29. qui He quit trying to solve the problem.
30. recall I don't recall meeting him before.
31. recollect I don't recollect meeting him before.
32. recommend She recommended seeing the show.
33. regret I regret telling him my secret.
34. remember I can remember meeting him when I was a child.
35. resent I resent her interfering in my business.
36. resist I couldn't resist eating the dessert.
37. risk She risks losing all of her money.
38. can't stand I can't stand waiting in long lines.
39. Start It started raining
40. stop She stopped going to classes when she got sick.
41. suggest She suggested going to a movie.
42. tolerate She won’t tolerate cheating during an examination.
43. try I tried changing the light bulb, but the lamp still didn't work.
44. understand I don't understand his leaving school.

REFERENCE LIST OF VERBS FOLLOWED BY INFINITIVES

Verbs with a bullet (*) can also be followed by gerunds. See Chart 14-9.
A. VERBS FOLLOWED IMMEDIATELY BY AN INFINITIVE
1. afford I can't afford to buy it. 24. love I love to go to operas.
2. agree They agreed to help us. 25. manage She managed to wish her work early.
3. appear She appears to be tired. 26. mean I didn't mean to be your feelings.
4. arrange I'll arrange to meet you at the 27. need I need to have your opinion.
airport. 28. offer They offered to help us.
5. ask He asked to come with us. 29. plan I am planning to ha: a party.
6. can't bear I can't bear to wait in long lines. 30. prefer Ann prefers to wal's to work.
7. beg He begged to come with us. 31. prepare We prepared to welcome them.
8. begin It began to rain. 32. pretend He pretends not to understand.
9. care I don't care to see that show. 33. promise I promise not to be late.
10. daim She claims to knot a famous movie 34. refuse I refuse to believe his story.
star. 35. regret I regret to tell you that you failed.
She finally consemed to marry him. 36. remember I remembered to lock the door.
11. consent
He continued to speak. 37. seem That cat seems to be friendly.
12. continue
I have decided to leave on Monday. 38. can't stand I can't stand to wait in long lines.
13. decide
I demand to knots who is responsible. 39. start It started to rain
14. demand
15. deserve She desertes to win the prize. 40. struggle I struggled to stay awake.
16. expect I expect to enter graduate school in 41. swear She stvore to tell the truth.
the fall. 42. threaten She threatened to tell my parents.
17. fail She failed to return the book to the 43. try* I’m trying to larn English
library on time. 44. volunteer He volunteered to help us
I forgot to mail the letter. 45. wait I will wait to har from you
18. forget
I hate to make silly mistakes. 46. want I want to tell you something
19. hate
Don't hesitate to ask for my help 47. wish She wishes to come with us
20. hesitate
Jack hopes to arrive next week.
21. hope
He learned to play the piano.
22. learn
I like to go to the movies.
23. like

B. VERBS FOLLOWED BY A (PRO)NOUN + AN INFINITIVE

48. advise She advised me to wait until tomorrow. 61. instruct He instructed them to be careful.
49. allow She allowed me to use her car. 62. invite Harry invited the Johnsons to come to
50. ask I asked John to help us. 63. need his party
51. beg They begged us to come. 64. order We weeded Chris to help us figure out
52. camise Her laziness caused her to fail. 65. permit the solution.
53. She challenged me to race her to the 66. persuade The judge ordered me to pay a fine.
challenge corner 67. remind He permitted the children to stay up
54. convince I couldn't convince him to accept our 68. require late.
55. dare help. 69. teach I persuaded him to come for a visit.
56. He dared me to do better than he had 70. tell She reminded me to lock the door.
encourage done. 71. urge Our teacher requires us to be on time.
57. expect He encouraged me to try again. 72. want My brother taught me to sam.
58. fortid I expect you to be on time. 73. warn The doctor told me to take these pills.
59. force I forbid you to tell him. I urged her to apply for the job.
60. Fort They forced him to tell the truth. I want you to be happy
She hired a boy to mow the lawn. I raarned you nor to drite too fast.

I T + INFINITIVE; GERUNDS AND INFINITIVES AS SUBJECTS

(a) It is difficult to learn a second language.
(b) Learning a second language is difficult.
(c) To learn a sacond language is difficult.
(a) It is easy for young children to learn a
second language.
Learning a second language is easy for
young children.
To learn a second language is easy for young
children.
Seringkali frase infinitif digunakan dengan it
sebagai subjek kalimat. Kata it mengacu dan
memiliki arti yang sama dengan frasa infinitif di
akhir kalimat. In (a): It = learn a second language.
Frase gerund sering digunakan sebagai subjek
kalimat, as in (b).
Infinitif juga dapat digunakan sebagai subjek
kalimat, as in (c), tetapi jauh lebih umum frase
infinitif digunakan dengannya, as in (a).
Frasa untuk (someone) dapat digunakan untuk
menentukan dengan tepat siapa yang
dibicarakan pembicara, as in (d).

INFINITIVE OF PURPOSE: IN ORDER TO

(a) He came here in order to study English. In order to is used to express purpose. It
(b) He came here to study English. answers the question "Why?" In order is
often omitted, as in (b).
 (C) INCORRECT. He came here for studying English. Το express purpose, use (in order) to, not
(d) INCORRECT. He came here for to study English. for, with a verb.
(e) INCORRECT. He came here for study English.
(f) I went to the store for some bread. For can be used to express purpose, but it
(g) I went to the store to buy some bread. is a preposition and is followed by a noun
object, as in (f)
*Exception: The phrase be used for expresses the typical or general purpose of a thing. In this case, the preposition for is
followed by a gerund: A saw is used for cutting wood. Also possible: A saw is used to cut wood.
However, to talk about a particular thing and a particular situation, be used + an infinitive is used: A chain saw was used
to cut (NOT for cuting down the old oak tree.

ADJECTIVES FOLLOWED BY INFINITIVES

(a) We were sorry to hear the bad news. Certain adjectives can be immediately
(b) Ines surprised to see Tim at the meeting. followed by infinitives, as in @) and (b). In
general, these adjectives describe a person (or
persons), not a thing. Many of these adjectives
describe a person's feelings or attitudes.
SOME COMMON ADJECTIVES FOLLOWED BY INFINITIVES
glad to (do) sorry to ready to careful to surprised to
happy to sad to* prepared to hesitant to amazed to
pleased to upset to anxious to reluctant to astonished to
delighted to disappointed to eager to afraid to shocked to
content to willing to stunned to
relieved to proud to motivated to likely to
lucky to ashamed to determined to certain to
fortunate to
The expressions with asterisks are usually followed by infinitive phrases with verbs such as e, learn, disorder, find out,
hear

USING INFINITIVES WITH TOO AND ENOUGH

COMPARE
(a) That box is too heavy for Bob to lift.
(b) That box is very heavy, but Bob can lift it.
(c) I am strong enough to lit that box. I can lift it. Enough mengikuti kata sifat, as in (c). Usually
(d) I have enough strength to lift that box.
(C) I have strength enough to lift that box.
Dalam pikiran pembicara, penggunaan too
menyiratkan akibat negatif.
In (a): too heavy = Tidak mungkin Bob
mengangkat kotak itu
In (b): very heavy = Mungkin tapi sulit bagi
Bob untuk mengangkat kotak itu.
enough mendahului kata benda, as in (d).
Dalam bahasa Inggris formal, ini mungkin
mengikuti kata benda, as in (e).

PASSIVE AND PAST FORMS OF INFINITIVES AND GERUNDS

FORMS SIMPLE PAST

ACTIVE to see to have seen
seeing having seen

PASSIVE to be seen to have been seen

 being seen having been seen

PAST INFINITIVE: to have + past participle Peristiwa yang diekspresikan oleh past infinitive
(a) The rain seems to have stopped. atau past gerund terjadi sebelum waktu dari kata
kerja utama. In (a): The rain seems not to have
stopped beberapa menit yang lalu.
PAST GERUND: having + past participle In (b): Saya bertemu raja kemarin. I appreciate now
(b) I appreciate having had the having had the opportunity to meet the king
opportunity to meet the king yesterday. *
PASSIVE INFINITIVE: to be + past participle In (c): to be invited is passive. Frasa yang dipahami
(c) I didn't expect to be invited to his party adalah "by him”: I didn't expect to be invited by
him.
PASSIVE GERUND: being + past participle In (d): being invited is passive. Frasa yang
(d) I appreciated being invited to your dimengerti "by you": I appreciated being invited by
home. you.
PAST-PASSIVE INFINITIVE: to have been + In (e): Nadia diberi beasiswa bulan lalu oleh
past participle pemerintah. She is fortunate. Nadia is fortunate
(e) Nadia is fortunate to have been given a now to have been given a scholarship last month
scholarship by her government.
PAST-PASSIVE GERUND: having been + In (f): Saya diberitahu berita kemarin oleh
past participle seseorang.I appreciate that. I appreciare now
(f) I appreciate having been told the news. having been told the neurs yesterday by someone.
*If the main verb is past, the action of the past infinitive or gerund happened before a time in the past
The rain seemed to have stopped. = The rain seemed at six P.M. to have stopped before six P.M.
I appreciated having had the opportunity to meet the king. = I met the king in 1995. In 1997 I appreciated having had
the opportunity to meet the king in 1995.

USING GERUNDS OR PASSIVE INFINITIVES FOLLOWING NEED

(a) I need to borrow some money. Biasanya infinitif mengikuti kebutuhan, as in (a) and (b).
(b) John needs to be told the truth.
(c) The house needs painting. Dalam keadaan tertentu, gerund dapat mengikuti need.
(d) The house needs to be painted. Dalam hal ini, gerund memiliki arti pasif. Biasanya situasi
melibatkan memperbaiki atau meningkatkan sesuatu. (c)
and (d) have the same meaning.

USING A POSSESSIVE TO MODIFY A GERUND

We came to class late. Mr. Lee complained Dalam bahasa Inggris formal, kata sifat posesif
about that fact (c.g., our) digunakan untuk memodifikasi
(a) FORMAL: Mr. Lee complained about our gerund, as in (a).
coming to class late.
(b) INFORMAL: Mr. Lee complained about us Dalam bahasa Inggris informal, objek berupa
coming to class late. kata ganti (e.g., us) sering digunakan, as in (b).
(C) FORMAL: Mr. Lee complained about Mary's dalam bahasa Inggris yang sangat formal, kata
coming to class late. benda posesif (c.g., Mary's) digunakan untuk
(d) INFORMAL: Mr. Lee complained about Vary memodifikasi gerund.
coming to class late. Bentuk posesif seringkali tidak digunakan
 dalam bahasa Inggris informal, as in (d).
*Coming to dass late occurred before Mr. La complemed, so a past gerund is also possible: Mr. Lee complained about our
hautng come to class late.

USING VERBS OF PERCEPTION

(a) I saw my friend run down the street. Kata kerja persepsi tertentu diikuti oleh bentuk
(b) I saw my friend running down the sederhana dari bentuk -ing ** dari kata kerja. Sering
street ada sedikit perbedaan arti antara kedua bentuk
(c) I heard the rain fall on the roof. tersebut, kecuali bahwa bentuk -ing biasanya
(d) I heard the rain falling on the roof. memberikan gagasan tentang "while." In (b): I saw
my friend while she was running down the street.
(e) When I walked into the apartment, I Terkadang (not always) ada perbedaan yang jelas
heard my roommate singing in the the antara menggunakan bentuk –ing sederhana.
shower Penggunaan bentuk –ing memberikan gagasan
(f)I heard a famous opera star sing at the bahwa suatu kegiatan sedang berlangsung saat
concert last night dirasakan, as in (e): The singing was in progress when
I first heard it. In (f): I heard the singing from
beginning to end. I was not in progress when I first
heard it.
VERBS OF PERCEPTION FOLLOWED BY THE SIMPLE FORM OR THE-ING FORM
See Look at Hear Feel Smell
Notice observe Listen to
Watch
"Tro sample form of a tero = the infinitive form without "to." INCORRECT: I saw my friend to run down the street.
**Thing form refers to the present participle.

USING THE SIMPLE FORM AFTER LET AND HELP

(a) My father lets De drive his car. Let diikuti oleh bentuk sederhana dari kata kerja,
(b) I let strand borrow my bicycle. bukan infinitif.
(c) Let go to a movie. INCORRECT: My father lets me to drive his car.

(d) My brother helped me wash my car. Helps sering kali diikuti dengan bentuk kata kerja
(e) My brother helped me to wash my car. yang sederhana, as in (d). An infinitive is also
possible, as in (e). Both (d) and (e) are correct

USING CAUSATIVE VERBS: MAKE, HAVE, GET

(a) I made my brother carry my suitcase
(b) I had my brother carry my suitcase
(c) I got my brother to carry my suitcase "Y" melakukan sesuatu. Ketika mereka digunakan
FORMS
X makes Y do something. (simple form)
X has Y do something. (simple form)
X gets Y to do something. (infinitive)
CAUSATIVE MAKE
Make, have, and get dapat digunakan untuk
mengungkapkan gagasan bahwa "X" menyebabkan
sebagai kata kerja kausatif, artinya serupa tetapi
tidak identik.In (a): My brother had no choice. I
insisted that he carry my suitcase. In (b): My brother
carried my suitcase because I asked him to. In (c): I
managed to persuade my brother to carry my
suitcase.
Causative make make diikuti dengan bentuk
(d) Mrs. Lee made her son clean his room
(e) Sad movies make me cry
CAUSATIVE HAVE
(f) I had the plumber repair the leak
(g) Jane had the waiter bring her some
tea
CAUSATIVE GET
(h) The students got the teacher to
dismiss class early
(i) Jack got this friends to play soccer with
him after school
PASSIVE CAUSATIVES
(j) I had my watch repaired (by someone)
(k) I got my watch repaired (by someone)
sederhana dari kata kerja, bukan infinitif.
(INCORRECT: She made him to clean his room.)
Make memberikan gagasan bahwa "X" memaksa
"Y" untuk melakukan sesuatu. In (d): Mrs. Lee's son
had no choice.
Causative have diikuti oleh bentuk sederhana dari
kata kerja, bukan infinitif. (INCORRECT. I had him to
repair the leak.) Have memberi gagasan bahwa "X"
meminta "Y" untuk melakukan sesuatu. In (f). The
plumber repaired the leak because I asked him to.
Causative get diikuti oleh infinitif. Get memberikan
gagasan bahwa "X" membujuk "Y" untuk melakukan
sesuatu. In (h): The students managed to persuade
the teacher to let them leave early,
Partisip sebelumnya digunakan setelah have and get
untuk memberi arti pasif. Dalam hal ini, biasanya
hanya ada sedikit atau tidak ada perbedaan makna
di antara keduanya have and get. In (i) and (k): I
caused my watch to be repaired by someone

PARALLEL STRUCTURE
One use of a conjunction is to connect words or phrase that have the same gramatical function
in a sentence This use of conjunctions is called "parallel structure" the conjunction used in this
pattern are and, but, or, nor. These words are called "coordinating conjunctions"
(a) Steve and his friend are coming to dinner. In (a): noun + and + noun
(b) Susan raised her hand and snapped her In (b): verb + and + eerd
fingers. In (c): verb + and + verb (Bantu kedua bisa
(c) He is waving his arms and (is) shouting at dihilangkan jika sama dengan bantu pertama.)
us. In (d): adjective + but + adjective
(d) These shoes are old but comfortable. In (e): infinitive + or + infinitive (Yang kedua
(e) He wants to watch TV or (to) listen to some biasanya dihilangkan.)
music.
(f) Steve, Joe, and Alice are coming to dinner. Struktur paralel dapat berisi lebih dari dua
(8) Susan raised her hand, snapped her fingers, bagian. Dalam sebuah rangkaian, koma
and asked a question digunakan untuk memisahkan setiap unit.
(h) The colors in that fabric are red, gold, black, Koma terakhir yang mendahului konjungsi
and green. adalah opsional; also correct: Steve, Joe and
Alice are coming to dinner.
(i) INCORRECT: Steve, and Joe are coming to Note: Tidak ada koma yang digunakan jika
dinner. hanya ada dua bagian pada struktur paralel.

PAIRED CONJUNCTIONS: BOTH...AND; NOT ONLY ...BUT ALSO; EITHER... OR; NEITHER... NOR
(a) Both my mother and my sister are here. Dua subjek dihubungkan oleh both ... and
(b) Not only my mother but also my sister is ambil kata kerja jamak, as in (a).
here. Kapan subjek dihubungkan oleh not
(c) Not only my sister but also my parents are only...but also, either...or, or neither ... nor,
 here.
(d) Neither my mother nor my sister is here.
(e) Neither my sister nor my parents are here.
(f) The research project will take both time and
money.
(g)Yesterday it not only ramed but (also) snozed.
(h) I'll take either chemistry or physics next
quarter.
(i) That book is neither interesting nor accurate.
"Paired conjunctions are also called "correlative conjunctions."
subjek yang lebih dekat dengan kata kerja
menentukan apakah kata kerja itu tunggal
atau jamak.
Perhatikan struktur paralel dalam contoh.
Bentuk tata bahasa yang sama harus
mengikuti setiap bagian dari konjungsi
berpasangan.
In (f): both + noun + and + noun
In (g): not only + verb + but also + verb
In (h): either + noun + or + noun
In (i): neither + adjective + nor + adjective

COMBINING INDEPENDENT CLAUSES WITH COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

(a) It was raining hard. There was a strong Example (a) berisi dua independent clauses
wind. (i.e., two complete sentences). Perhatikan
(b) INCORRECT PUNCTUATION: tanda baca. Titik, "BUKAN KOMMA, digunakan
It was raining hard, there was a strong wind. untuk memisahkan dua klausa independen.
Tanda baca in (b) is not correct; the error in (b)
is called "a run-on sentence."
(c) It was raining hard, and there was a strong A conjunction dapat digunakan untuk
wind. menghubungkan dua klausa independen.
(d) It was raining hard and there was a strong PUNCTUATION:
wind. Biasanya koma mendahului konjungsi, as in (c).
(e) It was raining hard. And there was a strong Dalam kalimat pendek, koma terkadang
wind. dihilangkan, as in (d).
Dalam penulisan informal, konjungsi terkadang
diawali kalimat, as in @).
(f) He was tired, so he went to bed. Sebagai tambahannya and, but, or, and nor,
(g) The child hid behind his mother's skirt, for konjungsi lain digunakan untuk
he was afraid of the dog menghubungkan dua independen
(h) She did not study, yet she passed the exam. clauses: so (meaning "therefore, as a result")
for (meaning "because")
yet (meaning "but, nevertheless")
Sebuah koma hampir selalu mendahului jadi,
untuk, namun saat mereka digunakan sebagai
konjungsi koordinasi.
In British English, a period is called "a full stop."
So, for, and yet have other meanings in other structures: e.g., He is not so tall as his brother (so = as) we waited for the
bus. (for = a preposition) She hasn't arrived yet. (yet = an adverb meaning “up to this time”)

INTRODUCTION
(a) When we were in New York, we saw several When we were in New York is an adverb
plays. clause.
(b) We saw several plays when we were in New PUNCTUATION: Ketika klausa adverb
York. mendahului klausa independen, as in (a),
koma digunakan untuk memisahkan
klausa. Ketika klausa adverb mengikuti,
 as in (b), selalu menggunakan koma.
(c) Because he was sleepy, he went to bed. Like when, because memperkenalkan
(d) He went to bed because he was sleepy. klausa kata keterangan. Karena dia
mengantuk adalah klausa kata
keterangan.
(C) INCORRECT. When we were in New York. We saw Klausa keterangan adalah klausa
several plays. dependen. Mereka tidak dapat berdiri
(f) INCORRECT. He went to bed. Because he was sendiri sebagai kalimat dalam bahasa
sleepy. Inggris tertulis. Mereka harus terhubung
ke klausa independen
SUMMARY LIST OF WORDS USED TO INTRODUCE ADVERE CLAUSES**
TIME CAUSE AND CONTRAST CONDITION
EFFECT
after by the time (that) because Even though if
before Once now that although unless
when as so long as Since though only if
while whenever DIRECT CONTRAST whether or not
as every time (that) while еvеn if
as soon as the first time (that) whereas in case
since the last time (that) in the event that
until the next time (that)
*Sec Chart 13-1, p. 267, for the definition of dependent and independent clauses.
**Words that introduce adverb clauses are called "subordinating conjunctions."

USING ADVERB CLAUSES TO SHOW CAUSE AND EFFECT

because (a) Because he cas sleepy, Klausa keterangan dapat mendahului atau mengikuti
he went to bed. klausa independen. Perhatikan tanda baca in (a) and
(b) He went to bed because (b)
he was sleeps.

now that (c) Now that semester is
over, I'm going to
(d) Jack lost his job. Now
that he's unemployed, he
can't pay his bills.
Since (e) Since1 day is a holiday,
we don't have to go to
work
(f) Since w're a good cook
and I not, you should cook
the dinner.
Now that means "because now." In (c): Tidak ada
istirahat beberapa hari dan kemudian melakukan
perjalanan. bahwa semester adalah sarana kami
"because the semester is now over." Now that
digunakan untuk penyebab saat ini dari situasi
sekarang atau masa depan
Ketika since digunakan untuk maksud "because,” itu
mengungkapkan penyebab yang diketahui; itu berarti
"because it is a fact that" or "given that it is true that."
Penyebab dan akibat kalimat dengan since say: "Given
the fact that X is true, Y is the result." In (e): "Given
the fact that Monday is a holiday, we don't have to go
to work”
Note: Since has two meanings. One is "because." It is
also used in time clauses e.g., Since I came here, I
have met many people . See Chart 5-2, p. 72
 EXPRESSING CONTRAST (UNEXPECTED RESULT): USING EVEN THOUGH
(a) Because the weather was cold, I didn't go Because digunakan untuk mengungkapkan
swimming hasil yang diharapkan.
(b) Even though the weather was cold, I went Even though digunakan untuk
swimming mengungkapkan hasil yang tidak terduga.
(c) Because I wasn't tired, I didn’t go to bed. Note: Like because, even though
(d) Even though I wasn't tired, I went to bed. memperkenalkan klausa kata keterangan.

SHOWING DIRECT CONTRAST: WHILE AND WHEREAS

(a) Mary is rich, while John is poor.
(b) John is poor, while Mary rich.
(c) Mary is rich, whereas Jois poor.
(d) Whereas Mary is rich, John is poor. tentang salah satu klausa tanpa perbedaan makna.
COMPARE
(e) While I coas studyms. the phone
rang.
While and whereas digunakan untuk menunjukkan
kontras langsung: "this" adalah kebalikan dari “that."
While and whereas dapat digunakan dengan gagasan
Whereas kebanyakan terjadi dalam bahasa Inggris
tertulis formal.
Note: A comma is usually used even if the adverb
clause comes second.
While juga digunakan dalam klausa waktu dan sarana
"during the time that." as in (e). See Chart 5-2, p. 72.

EXPRESSING CONDITIONS IN ADVERB CLAUSES: IF-CLAUSES

(a) If it rains, the streets get wet. If-clauses (also called "adverb clauses of
condition") menyajikan kondisi yang
memungkinkan. Klausa utama mengungkapkan
hasil,
In (a): POSSIBLE CONDITION = it rains
RESULT = the streets get wet
(b) If a rains tomorrow, I will take my umbrella. Present tense, bukan future tense, digunakan
dalam if-clause meskipun kata kerja dalam if-
clause dapat merujuk pada peristiwa atau
situasi di masa mendatang, as in (b).
WORDS THAT INTRODUCE ADVERB CLAUSES OF CONDITION (IF-CLAUSES)
if in case Unless
whether or not in the event that only if
even if
*See Chapter 20 for uses of other verb forms in sentences with if-clauses.

ADVERB CLAUSES OF CONDITION: USING WHETHER OR NOT AND EVEN IF

wHETHER OR NOT Whether or not mengungkapkan gagasan
(a) I'm going to go swimming tomorrow bahwa baik kondisi ini maupun kondisi itu
whether or nor it is cold. tidak penting; hasilnya akan sama. In (a): "If it
(OR: whether it is cold or not.) is cold, I'm going swimming. If it is not cold, I'm
going swimming. I don't care about the
temperature. It doesn't matter."
EVEN IF Kalimat dengan even if artinya dekat dengan
(b) I have decided to go swimming tomorrow. mereka yang memiliki whether or not. Even if
 Even if the weather is cold. I'm going to go memberi gagasan bahwa kondisi tertentu tidak
swimming. penting. Hasilnya tidak akan berubah

ADVERB CLAUSES OF CONDITION: USING IN CASE AND IN THE EVENT THAT

(a) I'll be at my uncle's house in case you In case and in the event that express the idea
(should) need to reach me that something probably won't happen, but it
(b) In the event that you (should) need to might. In case/in the event that means "if by
reach me, I’ll be at my uncle's house chance this. should happen."
Notes: In the event itu lebih formal daripada in
case. Penggunaan should dalam klausa kata
keterangan menekankan ketidakpastian pembicara
bahwa sesuatu akan terjadi.

ADVERB CLAUSES OF CONDITION: USING UNLESS

(a) I'll go swimming tomorrow unless it's cold. unless = if ... not
(b) I’ll go swimming tomorrow if it isn't cold. In (a): unless it's cold means "if it isn't cold."
(a) and (b) have the same meaning.

ADVERB CLAUSES OF CONDITION: USING ONLY IF

(a) The picnic will be canceled only if it rains. Only if mengungkapkan gagasan bahwa hanya
If it's windy, we'll go on the picnic. ada satu kondisi yang akan menyebabkan
If it's cold, we'll go on the picnic. akibat tertentu.
If it's damp and foggy, we'll go on the picnic.
If it's unbearably hot, we'll go on the picnic.

(b) Only if it rains will the picnic be canceled. Ketika only if memulai kalimat, subjek dan kata
kerja dari klausa utama dibalik, as in (b) Tidak
ada koma yang digunakan.
Other subordinating conjunctions and prepositional phrases fronted by only at the beginning of a sentence require
subject- verb inversion in the main clause:
Only when the teacher dismisses us can we stand and leave the room.
Only after the phone rang did I realize thar I had fallen asleep in nty chair.
Only in pr, hometoson do I feel at case.

INTRODUCTION
(a) ADVERB CLAUSE: While I was walking to In Chapter 13, we discussed changing adjective
class, I ran into an old clauses to modifying phrases (see Chart 13-13,
friend. p. 286). Some adverb clauses may also be
(b) MODIFYING While walking to class, changed to modifying phrases, and the ways in
PHRASE: I ran into an old friend. which the changes are made are the same:
1. Omit the subject of the dependent clause
(C) ADVERB CLAUSE: Before I left for work, I and the be form of the verb, as in (b). OR
ate breakfast. 2. If there is no be form of a verb, omit the
subject and change the verb to -ing, as in (d).
(d) MODIFYING Before leaving for
PHRASE: work, I ate breakfast.
(e) CHANGE While I coussiting in Klausa adverb dapat diubah menjadi frase
POSSIBLE: class, I fell modifikasi hanya jika subjek klausa adverb dan

(f) CHANGE POSSIBLE:
asleep subjek klausa utama sama. Frase adverbia
While sitting in class, I pengubah yang merupakan reduksi dari klausa
fell asleep. adverbia memodifikasi subjek dari klausa
utama.
While Ann tuas sitting
in class, she
fell asleep. (clause)
Wirile sitting in class,
Ann fell asleep.

(8) NO CHANGE While the teacher was Tidak ada pengurangan (i.e., change)
POSSIBLE: lecturing to the class, dimungkinkan jika subjek dari klausa
I fell asleep. keterangan dan klausa utama berbeda, as in
(h) NO CHANGE While we were (g) and (h).
POSSIBLE: walking home, a frog
hopped across the
road in front of us.
(i) INCORRECT: While walking home, In (i): While walking home is called a "dangling
a frog hopped across modifier" or a "dangling participle," i.e.,
the road in front of pengubahan yang salah "hanging alone" tanpa
us. kata benda atau kata ganti subjek untuk
(j) INCORRECT: While watching TV dimodifikasi
last night, the phone
rang
*While lecturing to the class, I fell asleep means "While I was lecturing to the class, I fell asleep"

CHANGING TIME CLAUSES TO MODIFYING ADVERBIAL PHRASES

(a) CLAUSE Since Maria came to this country, Klausa keterangan dimulai dengan after,
she has made many friends. before, while, and since dapat diubah menjadi
(b) PHRASE: Since coming to this country, memodifikasi frase adverbial.
Maria has made many friends.
(C) CLAUSE: After he (had) finished luis In (c): Tidak ada perbedaan artinya between
hometcork, Peter went to bed. After he finished and After he had finished.
(d) PHRASE: After finishing his homework, (See Chart 3-3, p. 45.)
Peter went to bed. In (d) and (c): Tidak ada perbedaan arti
(e) PHRASE: After having finished his diantara keduanya After finishing and After
honetcork, Peter went to bed. having finished.
(f) PHRASE: Peter went to bed after finishing Frase adverbia yang memodifikasi dapat
his homework. mengikuti klausa utama, as in (f).

EXPRESSING THE IDEA OF "DURING THE SAME TIME” IN MODIFYING ADVERBIAL PHRASES
(a) While I was walking down the street, I ran into an old Sometimes while is omitted but the
friend. -ing phrase at the beginning of the
(b) While walking down the street, I ran into an old friend. sentence gives the same meaning
(c) Walking down the street, I ran into an old friend. (ie, "during the same time"). (a),
(d) Hiking through the woods yesterday, we saw a bear. (b), and have the same meaning.
(e) Pointing to the sentence on the board, the teacher
explained the meaning of modifying phrases.

EXPRESSING CAUSE AND EFFECT IN MODIFYING ADVERBIAL PHRASES

(f) Because she needed some money to buy a Seringkali sebuah -ing phrase at the
book, Sue cashed a check. beginning of a sentence gives the meaning of
(g) Needing some money to buy a book, Sue "because." (f) and (g) have the same
cashed a check. meaning.

(h) Because he lacked the necessary
qualifications, he was not considered for the job.
(i) Lacking the necessary qualifications, he was
not considered for the job.
(j) Having seen that movie before, I don't want
to go again.
(k) Having seen that movie before, I didn't want
to go again.
(l) Because she was unable to afford a car, she
bought a bicycle.
(m) Being unable to afford a car, she bought a
bicycle.
(n) Unable to afford a car, she bought a bicycle.
Karena tidak termasuk dalam frase
modifikasi. Itu dihilangkan, tetapi frase yang
dihasilkan mengungkapkan hubungan sebab
dan akibat, as in (g) and (i).
Having + past participle memberi arti tidak
hanya "because" tapi juga dari "before."
Bentuk dari be di klausa adverb dapat diubah
menjadi being. Penggunaan being
memperjelas hubungan sebab dan akibat. (l),
(m), and (n) have the same meaning

USING UPON + -ING IN MODIFYING ADVERBIAL PHRASES

(a) Upon reaching the age of 21, I received my Memodifikasi frase adverbial yang diawali
Inheritance dengan upon + -ing u biasanya memiliki arti
(b) When I reached the age of 21, I received yang sama dengan klausa kata keterangan
my inheritance yang diperkenalkan oleh when. (a) and (b)
have the same meaning,
(1) On reaching the age of 21, I received my Upon dapat disingkat menjadi aktif. (a), (b),
inheritance. and (c) semuanya memiliki arti yang sama

USING BECAUSE OF AND DUE TO

(a) Because the weather was cold, we stayed
home.
(b) Because of the cold weather, we stayed
home.
(c) Due to the cold weather, we stayed home.
(d) Due to the fact that the weather was cold, Terkadang, biasanya dalam bentuk tulisan yang
we stayed home
(e) We stayed home because of the cold
Because memperkenalkan klausa kata
keterangan; itu diikuti oleh subjek dan kata
kerja, as in (a).
Because of and due to adalah preposisi frase
yang diikuti oleh objek kata benda, as in (b)
and (c)
lebih formal, due to diikuti oleh klausa kata
benda yang diperkenalkan oleh the fact that.
Seperti klausa keterangan, frasa ini juga bisa
 weather. mengikuti klausa utama, as in (e).
We stayed home due to the cold weather.
We stayed home due to the fact that the
weather was cold.

USING TRANSITIONS TO SHOW CAUSE AND EFFECT: THEREFORE AND CONSEQUENTLY

(a) Al failed the test because he didn't study, (a), (b), and (c) memiliki arti yang
(b) Al didn't study. Therefore, he failed the sama.Therefore and consequently berarti "as
test. a result." Dalam tata bahasa, mereka disebut
(C) Al didn't study. Consequently, he failed the kata keterangan transisional (atau kata
test. keterangan konjungtif). Transisi
menghubungkan gagasan antara dua kalimat.
(d) Al didn't study. Therefore, he failed the Transisi terjadi pada kalimat kedua dari dua
test. kalimat terkait. Perhatikan pola dan tanda
(e) Al didn't study. He, therefore, failed the baca dalam contoh. Titik (BUKAN koma)
test. digunakan di akhir kalimat pertama. Transisi
(f) Al didn't study. He failed the test, therefore. memiliki beberapa posisi dalam kalimat.
Transisi dipisahkan dari sisa kalimat dengan
POSITIONS OF A TRANSITION koma
Transition + S + V (+ rest of sentence)
S + Transition + V (+ rest of sentence)
S + V + Transition (+ rest of sentence)
(g) Al didn’t study, so he failed the rest COMPARE: Transisi (e.g.,therefore) memiliki
beberapa kemungkinan posisi dalam kalimat
kedua pasangan, seperti pada (d), (e), dan (f).
Sebuah konjungsi (e.g., so) hanya memiliki satu
posisi yang memungkinkan: di antara dua
kalimat. (See Chart 16-3, p.355.) So tidak bisa
berpindah-pindah di kalimat kedua sebagai
"therefore " bisa
A semicolon is also possible int this situation. See the footnote to chart 19-3, p.389

SUMMARY OF PATTERNS AND PUNCTUATION

ADVERB CLAUSE (a) Because it was hot, we went swimming Klausa kata keterangan mas
(b) We went swimming because it was hot. mendahului atau mengikuti
klausa independen
PUNCTUATION: Koma
digunakan jika klausa kata
keterangan lebih dulu.
PREPOSITION (C) Because of the hot treather, we went Preposisi diikuti oleh objek
swimming kata benda, bukan subjek dan
(d) We went swimming because of the ho: kata kerja.
weather. PLNCTUATION: Tanda koma
biasanya digunakan jika frasa
preposisional mendahului
 subjek dan kata kerja dari
klausa independen.
TRANSITION (e) It was hot. Therefore, we went transisi digunakan dengan
sevimming. kalimat kedua berpasangan. Ini
(f) It was hot. We, therefore, tvent menunjukkan hubungan ide
stimming. kedua dengan ide pertama.
(g) It was hot. We went swimming, Sebuah mobil van bias
therefore. digerakkan dalam kalimat
kedua.
PUNCTUATION: Titik digunakan
antara dua klausa independen.
* Tanda koma tidak dapat
digunakan untuk memisahkan
klausa. Koma biasanya
digunakan untuk mengalihkan
transisi dari sisa kalimat.
CONJUNCTION (h) It was hot, so we went stimmung. Sebuah konjungsi muncul di
antara dua klausa independen.
PUNCTUATION: Biasanya koma
digunakan tepat di depan
konjungsi.
"A semicolon (;) may be used instead of a period between the two independent clauses
It tas het; therefore, toe went sevimming.
It wat hot; tuc, therefore, went stimming.
It was hos; ue went stimming, therefore.
In general, a semicolon can be used instead of a period between any two sentences that are closely related in meaning.
Example Peanuts are not nuts; they are beans. Notice that a small letter, not a capital letter, immediately follows a
semicolon

OTHER WAYS OF EXPRESSING CAUSE AND EFFECT: SUCH... THAT AND SO... THAT
(a) Because the weather was nice, we went to Examples (a), (b), and (©) have the same
the zoo. Meaning
(b) It was such nice weather that we went to
the zoo.
(c) The weather was so nice that we went to
the zoo.

(d) It was such good coffee that I had another Such . . . that membungkus kata benda yang
cup. dimodifikasi:
(e) It was such a foggy day that we couldn't see such + adjective + noun + that
the road.
(f) The coffee is so hot that I can't drink it. So . . . that membungkus kata sifat atau kata
(g) I'm so hungry that I could eat a horse. keterangan:
(h) She speaks so fast that I can't understand so + Adjective that
her. or
(i) He walked so quickly that I couldn't keep up adverb
with him.
(j) She made so many mistakes that she failed So . . . that digunakan dengan many, few,
 the exam. much, and little
(k) He has so few friends that he is always
lonely.
(l) She has so much money that she can buy
whatever she wants
(m) He had so little trouble with the test that
he left twenty minutes early
(n) It was such a good book (that) I couldn't Terkadang, terutama dalam berbicara, that
put it down. dihilangkan.
(o) I was so hungry (that) I didn't wait for
dinner to eat

EXPRESSING PURPOSE: USING SO THAT

(1) I turned off the TV in order to enable my In order untuk mengungkapkan tujuan. (See
nonmate to study in peace and quiet. Chart 15-1, p. 326.) In (a): I turned off the TV
untuk suatu tujuan. Tujuannya agar teman
sekamar saya bisa belajar dengan tenang dan
damai
(1) I turned off the TV SO (that) my roomnate So that juga mengungkapkan tujuan. Ini
could Study in peace and quiet. mengungkapkan arti yang sama seperti in
order to. Kata "that" sering dihilangkan,
terutama saat berbicara.
SO THAT + CAN OR COULD So that sering digunakan sebagai pengganti in
(c) I'm going to cash a check so that I can buy order ketika ide tentang kemampuan sedang
my textbooks. diekspresikan. Can digunakan dalam klausa
adverb untuk arti masa depan sekarang. In (c):
(d) I cashed a check so that I could buy my so that I can buy = in order to be able to buy.
textbooks. Could digunakan setelah so that di kalimat
terakhir **
SO THAT + WILL /SIMPLE PRESENT OT WOULD In (e): so that I won't get wet = in order to
(e) I'll take my umbrella so that I won't get make sure that I won't get met.
met. In (f): Terkadang mungkin untuk menggunakan
(f) I'll take my umbrella so that I don't get reel. simple present setelahnya so that sebagai
(g) Yesterday I took my umbrella so that I ganti kemauan, hadiah sederhana
wouldn't get wet mengungkapkan makna masa depan.
Would is used in past sentences; as in (g)
*NOTE: In order that has the same meaning as so that but is less commonly used.
Example: I turned off the TV in order that my roommate could study in peace and quiet.
Both so that and in order that introduce adverb clauses. It is unusual, but possible, to put these advert clauses at the
beginning of a sentence: So that my roommate could study in peace and quiet, I turned off the TV
**Also pouble but less common: the use of may or might in place of can or could: e.g., I cashed a check so that I might
buy my textbooks.

SHOWING CONTRAST (UNEXPECTED RESULT)

All these sentences have the same meaning. The idea of cold weather is contrasted with the idea
of going swimming. Usually if the weather is cold, one does not go swimming, so going
swimming in cold weather is an "unexpected result." It is surprising that the speaker went
swimming in cold weather.
ADVERB CLAUSES even though (a) Even though it was cold, I went swimming.
although (b) Although it was cold, I went swimming.
though (c) Though it was cold, I went swimming.
CONJUNCTIONS but . . . anyway (d) It was cold, but I went swimming anyway.
but . . . still (e) It was cold, but I still went swimming
yer . . . Still (f) It was cold, yet I still went swimming.
TRANSITIONS nevertheless (8) It was cold. Nevertheless, I went swimming.
nonetheless (h) It was cold, nonetheless, I went swimming.
horever . . . still (i) It was cold. However, I still went swimming.
PREPOSITIONS despite (j) I went swimming despite the cold weather.
in spite of (k) I went swimming in spite of the cold weather.
despite the fact that (l) I went swimming despite the fact that the
in spite of the fact that weather was cold.
(m) I went swimming in spite of the fact that the
weather was cold.

SHOWING DIRECT CONTRAST

All of the sentences have the same meaning.

ADVERB CLAUSES while (a) Mary is rich, while John is poor.

(b) John is poor, whil e Mary is rich.
whereas (c) Mary is rich, whereas John is poor.
(d) Whereas Mary is rich, John is poor.
CONJUNCTION but (e) Mary is rich, but John is poor.
(f) John is poor, but Mary is rich.
TRANSITIONS however (g) Mary is rich; however, John is poor.
(h) John is poor; Mary is rich, however.
on the other hand (i) Mary is rich. John, on the other hand, is poor.
(j) John is poor. Mary, on the other hand, is rich.

EXPRESSING CONDITIONS: USING OTHERWISE AND OR (ELSE)

ADVERB CLAUSE (a) If I don't eat breakfast, I get hungry. If and unless keadaan kondisi
(b) You'll be late if you don't hurry. yang menghasilkan hasil
(c) You'll get wet unless you take your tertentu. (See Charts17-5 and
umbrella. 17-8, pp. 367 and 370.)
TRANSITION (a) I always eat breakfast. Otherwise, I get Otherwise mengungkapkan
hungry during class. gagasan "sebaliknya adalah
(e) You'd better hurry. Otherwise, you'll be benar, maka akan ada hasil
late. tertentu."
(f) Take your umbrella. Otherwise, you'll get In (d): otherwise = if I don't
wet. eat breakfast.

CONJUNCTION (g) I always eat breakfast, or (else) I get Or else and otherwise
hungry during class. memiliki arti yang sama
(n) You'd better hurry, or (else) you'll be
 late.
(i) Take your umbrella, or (else) you'll get
wet.

SUMMARY OF CONNECTIVES: CAUSE AND EFFECT, CONTRAST, CONDITION

ADVERB CLAUSE WORDS TRANSITIONS CONJUNCTION PREPOSITION
S S
CAUSE AND because so (that) therefore so because of
EFFECT SITICE consequently for due to
now that
CONTRAST Even though whereas however but (... anyway) despite
although while nevertheless yet (... still) in spite of
though nonetheless
on the other hand
CONDITION if in case otherwise or (else)
unless in the
only if event that
even if
whether or
not

OVERVIEW OF BASIC VERB FORMS USED IN CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

SITUATION IF-CLAUSE RESULT CLAUSE EXAMPLES
True in the simple present simple present If I have enough time, I watch TV
present/future every evening
will + simple form If I have enough time, I will watch
TV later on tonight.

Untrue in the simple past would + simple If I had enough time, I would watch
Present/future form TV now or later on.

Untrue in the past perfect would have + past If I had had enough time, I would
past participle have watched TV yesterday.

TRUE IN THE PRESENT OR FUTURE

(a) II don'r car breakfast, I always get hungry Dalam kalimat bersyarat yang mengungkapkan
during class. ide-ide yang benar dan faktual di masa kini, the
(b) Water freezes or will freeze if the simple present (not the simple future) digunkan
temperature reaches 32°F/0°C. dalam if-clause.
(c) If I don't eat breakfast tomorrow Klausa result memiliki berbagai kemungkinan
morning, I will get hungry during class. bentuk kata kerja. Kata kerja klausa hasil dapat
(d) If it rains, we should stay home. berupa:
If it ruins, I might decide to stay home. 1. the simple present, untuk mengekspresikan
If it rains, we can't go. aktivitas atau situasi kebiasaan, as in (a).
 If it rains, we're going to stay home.
(e) If anyone calls please take a message.
(f) If anyone should call, please take a
message.
*See Chart 9-1, p. 151, for a list of modals and phrasal modals.
2. antara the simple present or the simple future,
untuk mengekspresikan sebuah established,
predictable fact(fakta yang bisa diprediksi) or
general truth(kebenaran umum), as in (b)
3. the simple future, untuk mengekspresikan
aktivitas atau situasi tertentu di masa depan, as
in (c).
4. modals and phrasal modals such as shoud,
might, can be going to, as in (d).
5. an imperative verb, as in (e).
Terkadang should is used in an if-clause. Ini
menunjukkan sedikit lebih banyak ketidakpastian
daripada penggunaan hadiah sederhana, but
basically the meaning of examples (e) and (f) is
the same.

UNTRUE (CONTRARY TO FACT) IN THE PRESENT OR FUTURE

(a) If I taught this class, I wouldn't give tests. In (a): In truth, I don't teach this class.
(b) If he were here right now, he would help
us.
(c) If I were you, I would accept their
invitation.
COMPARE
(d) If I had enough money, I would buy a car.
(e) If I had enough money, I could buy a car.
In (b): In truth, he is not here right now.
In (c): In truth, I am not you.
Note: Were digunakan untuk subjek tunggal
dan jamak. Was (with I, he, she, it) kadang-
kadang digunakan dalam pidato informal: If I
was you, I'd accept their invitation.
In (d): The speaker wants a car, but doesn't
have enough money. Would mengungkapkan
hasil yang diinginkan atau dapat diprediksi.
In (@): The speaker is expressing one possible
result. Could = would be able to. Could
mengungkapkan opsi yang memungkinkan.

UNTRUE (CONTRARY TO FACT) IN THE PAST

(a) If you had told me about the problem, in (a): Sebenarnya, kamu tidak memberitahuku
I would have helped you.
(b) If they had studied, they would have
passed the exam.
(c) If I hadn't slipped on the stairs, I
wouldn't have broken my arm.
COMPARE
@ If I had had enough mones, I would
have bought a car.
(e) If I had had enough money, I could
have bought a car.
tentang itu
In (b): Sebenarnya, mereka tidak belajar. Karena itu,
mereka gagal ujian.
In (c): Sebenarnya, saya terpeleset di tangga. Tangan
saya patah.
Note: Kata kerja bantu hampir selalu dikontrak
dalam ucapan. "If you'd told me, I would've helped
you (OR I'd've helped you).
In (d): would mengungkapkan keinginan atau hasil
yang dapat diprediksi.
In (e): could mengungkapkan opsi yang
memungkinkan; could have bought = akan bisa
membeli.
"In casual, informal speech, some native speakers sometimes use would have in an if-clause: If you would've told me
about the problem, I could've helped you. This verb form usage is generally considered not to be grammatically correct
standard English, but it occurs fairly commonly.

USING PROGRESSIVE VERB FORMS IN CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

Perhatikan penggunaan bentuk kata kerja progresif dalam contoh ini. Bahkan dalam kalimat
bersyarat, bentuk kata kerja progresif digunakan dalam situasi progresif. (See Chart 1-2, p. 3, for
a discussion of progressive verbs.)
(a) TRUE: It is raining right now, so I will not go for a walk.
(b) CONDITIONAL: If it were not raining right now, I would go for a walk
(C) TRUE: I am not living in Chile. I am not working at a bank.
(d) CONDITIONAL: If I were living in Chile, I would be working at a bank.
(e) TRUE: It was raining yesterday afternoon, so I did not go for a walk.
(f) CONDITIONAL: If it had not been raining, I would have gone for a walk.
(g) TRUE: I was not living in Chile last year. I was not working at a bank
(h) CONDITIONAL: If I had been living in Chile last year, I would have been working at a bank

USING "MIXED TIME” IN CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

Seringkali waktu di klausa if dan waktu di klausa hasil berbeda: satu klausa mungkin ada di saat
ini dan klausa lainnya di masa lalu. Perhatikan bahwa masa lalu dan masa kini bercampur dalam
kalimat-kalimat ini.
(a) TRUE: I did not eat breakfast several hours ago, so I am hungry now.
(b) CONDITIONAL: If I had eaten breakfast several hours ago, I would not be hungry now.
(present)
(C) TRUE: He is (past)
not a good student. He did not study for the test yesterday.
(d) CONDITIONAL: If he were a good student, he would have studied for the test yesterday.
(present) (past)

OMITTING IF
(a) Were I you, I wouldn't do that. Dengan were, had (past perfect), and should,
(b) Had I known, I would have told you. terkadang if dihilangkan dan subjek serta kata
(c) Should anyone call, please take a message kerja dibalik.
In (a): Were I you = if I were you
In (b): Had I known = if I had known.
In (c): Should anyone call = if anyone should call.

IMPLIED CONDITIONS
(a) I would have gone with you, but I had to Seringkali if-clause is tersirat, tidak disebutkan.
study Kata kerja bersyarat masih digunakan dalam
(b) I never would have succeeded without your klausa result.
help In (a): the implied condition = jika saya tidak
harus belajar
In (b): the implied condition = jika Anda tidak
membantu saya.
(c) She ran; otherwise, she would have missed Kata kerja bersyarat adalah frekuensi yang
her bus. digunakan setelah sebaliknya.
 In (C), the implied if-clause = if she had not
run.

USING AS IF AS THOUGH
(a) It looks like rain. Notice in (a): like diikuti oleh objek kata benda.
(b) It looks as if it is going to rain. Notice in (b) and (©): as if and as though diikuti
(c) It looks as though it is going to ram. dengan klausa.
(d) It looks like it is going to rain. (informal) Notice in (d): like diikuti dengan klausa.
Penggunaan like ini umum dalam bahasa Inggris
informal, tetapi umumnya tidak dianggap sesuai
dalam bahasa Inggris formal, as if or as though
lebih disukai. (a), (b), (c), and (d) all have the same
meaning.
"TRUE" STATEMENT (FACT) VERB FORM AFTER AS IF/AS THOUGH Biasanya ide yang
(e) He is not a child. Dia berbicara dengannya seolah-olah dia mengikuti seolah-olah
(f) She did not take a shower masih kecil. Ketika dia datang dari hujan / seolah-olah adalah
with her clothes on badai, dia tampak seperti baru saja "tidak benar. Dalam
(g) He has met her. mandi dengan pakaiannya. Dia bertindak hal ini, penggunaan
(h) She will be here. seolah-olah dia belum pernah bertemu kata kerja mirip
dengannya. Dia berbicara seolah dia dengan yang ada
tidak akan berada di sini. dalam kalimat
bersyarat.

VERB FORMS FOLLOWING WISH

Wish is used when the speaker wants reality to be different, to be exactly the opposite.
"TRUE" STATEMENT VERB FORM FOLLOWING WISH Wish diikuti oleh
A wish (a) She will not tell me. I wish (that) she would tell me klausa kata benda.
about the (b) He isn't going to be I crish he were going to be here. (See Chart 12-5,p.
future here. I wish she could come 248.) Bentuk kata
(c) She can't come tomorrow. kerja lampau, mirip
tomorrow. dengan kalimat
bersyarat, digunakan
A wish (d) I don't know I wish I knew French. dalam klausa kata
about the French. I wish it weren't raining right benda. Sebagai
present (e) It is raining right now. contoh, in (a): would,
now. I wish I could speak Japanese. bentuk lampau dari
(f) I can't speak will, digunakan untuk
Japanese. membuat harapan
tentang masa depan.
A wish (g) John didn't come. I wish John had come.* In (d): the simple past
about the (h) Mary couldn't I wish Mary could have come (knew) digunakan
past come. untuk membuat
keinginan. tentang
the present In (g): the
past perfect (had
come) digunakan
untuk membuat
 keinginan tentang
masa lalu.
*Sometimes in very informal speaking: I wish John would have come.

USING WOULD TO MAKE WISHES ABOUT THE FUTURE

(a) It is raining. 1. it would stop. (I want it to Would biasanya digunakan untuk
stop raining)
(b) I'm expecting a call. I torsh the phone
would ring (I want the phone to ring.)
(c) It's going to be a good party. I wish you
would come
(d) We're going to be late. I rath you would
hurry.
menunjukkan bahwa pembicara menginginkan
sesuatu terjadi atau seseorang selain
pembicara untuk melakukan sesuatu di masa
depan. Keinginan itu mungkin atau mungkin
tidak menjadi kenyataan (be realized)
In (c) and (d): I wish you would ... sering
digunakan untuk membuat permintaan.

A-1 SUBJECT, VERBS, AND OBJECT

(a) S V Almost all English sentences contain a subject (s)
Birds fly and a verb (v). The verb may (mungkin) or may not
(Noun) (Verb) be followed by an object (o).
(b) S v VERBS: Verbs that are not followed by an object, as
The baby cried in (a) and (b), arecalled "intransitive verbs."
(Noun) (Verb) Common intransitive verbs: agree, arrmue, come,
cry, exist, go, happen, live, occur, rain, rise, sleep,
stay, walk.
S V O Verbs that are followed by an object, as in (c) and
The student needs a Pen (d), are called "transitive verbs." Common
(Noun) (Verb (Noun) transitive verbs: build, cut, find, like, make,
) need, send, use, want
Some verbs can be either(antara) intransitive or
transitive.
intransitive: A student studies.
transitive: A student studies books.
(c) S V O SUBJECTS AND OBJECTS: The subjects and objects
My friend enjoyed the party of verbs are nouns (or pronouns). Examples of
nouns: person, place, thing, John, Asia, pen,
(Noun (Verb) (Noun)
)

A-2 PREPOSITIONS AND PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

COMMON PREPOSITIONS
about among beside down like over since under
above around at besides during near through until uр
across before between for of throughout upon
after behind beyond from off till with
against below by in on to within
along beneath despite into out toward(s) without

(a) S V PREP O of PREP An important element of English

The student studies in the library sentences is the prepositional
phrase. It consists(terdiri) of a
(b) S V O PREP O of PREP preposition (PREP) and its object
we enjoyed the party at your house (O). The object of a preposition is a
noun(kata benda) or pronoun(kata
ganti). In (a): in the library is a
prepositional phrase.
(c) We went To the zoo In the afternoon In (c): In most English sentences,
(place) (time) "place" comes before "time."
In (d): Sometimes a prepositional
(d) In the afternoon, we went to the zoo phrase comes at the beginning of a
sentence.

A-3 ADJECTIVES (Kata Sifat)

(a) Ann is an intelligent student. Adjectives describe nouns. In grammar, we say that
(ADJECTIVE) (NOUN) adjectives modify nouns. The word "modify" means
"change a little." Adjectives give a little different
(b) The hungry child ate fruit meaning to a noun: intelligent student, lazy student,
(ADJECTIVE) (NOUN) good student. Examples of adjectives: young, old, rich,
beautiful, brown, French, modern.
(c) I saw some beautiful pictures. An adjective is neither(bukan) singular nor plural
INCORRECT. beautifuls pictures (tunggal atau jamak). A final -s is never added to
andjective.

A-4 ADVERBS (Kata Keterangan)

(a) He walks quickly. Adverbs modify verbs. Often they answer the question
(ADVERB) "How?" In (a): How does he walk? Answer: Quickly.
(b) She opened the door quietly. Adverbs are often formed by adding -ly to an adjective.
(ADVERB adjective: quick
) adverb: quickly
(c) I am extremely happy. Adverbs are also used to modify adjectives, i.e. to give
(ADVERB) (ADJECTIVE) information about adjectives, as in (c).
(d) Ann will come tomorrow. Adverbs are also used to express time or frequency.
(ADVERB) Examples: tomorrow, today, yesterday, soon, never,
usually, always, yet.
MIDSENTENCE ADVERBS Some adverbs may occur(terjadi) in the middle of a
(e) Ann always comes on time. sentence. Midsentence(kalimat tengah) adverbs have
(f) Ann is always on time. usual positions; they
(g) Ann has always come on time. (1) come in front of simple present and simple past verbs
(h) Does she always come on time? (except be), as in (e);
(2) follow be (simple present and simple past), as in (f);
(3) come between a helping verb and a main verb, as in
(g).
 In a question, a midsentenceadverb comes
directly(langsung) after the subject, as in (h).
COMMON MIDSENTENCE ADVERBS(KETERANGAN TENGAH UMUM)
ever usually Generally seldom never already
always often sometimes rarely not ever finally
frequently occasionally hardly ever just
probably
Often : sering, kerap kali Usually : biasanya Seldom : jarang, hampir tidak pernah
Frequently : kerap kali hardly ever : hampir tidak pernah Seldom : jarang, hampir tidk pernah
Rarely : jarang jarang Ever : pernah Generally : pada umumnya, biasanya
Probably : kemungkin Occasionally : kadang – kadang frequently : sering

A-5 THE VERB BE

(a) John is a student. A sentence with be as the main verb has three basic
(BE) (NOUN) patterns
(b) John is intelligent. In (a): be + a noun
(BE) (ADJ) In (b): be + an adjective
(c) John was at the library. In (c): be + a prepositional phrase
(BE) (PREP.PHRASE)
(d) Mary is criting a letter. Be is also used as an auxiliary verb in progressive
(e) They were listening to some music. verb tenses and in the passive.
(F) That letter was review by Alice. In (d): is = auxiliary, writing = main verb
TENSE FORMS OF BE
SIMPLE PRESENT SIMPLE PAST PRESENT PERFECT
SINGULAR I am I was I have been
you are you were you have been
he, she, it is he, she, it was he, she, it has been
PLURAL we, you, they are we, you, they were we, you, they have been

A-6 LINKING VERBS

(a) The soup Smells Good Other verbs like be that may be followed
(LINKING VERB) (ADJECTIVE) immediately(langsung) by an adjective are
called "linking verbs." An adjective following a
(b) This food tastes delicious. linking verb describes the subject of a
(c) The children feel happy. sentence.*
(d) The weather became cold. Common verbs that may(yang dapat) be
followed by an adjective:
 feel, look, smell, sound, taste
• appear, seem
• become and get, turn, grow when they mean
"become")
*COMPARE
(1) The man looks angry. An adjective (angry) follows look. The adjective describes the subject (the man).
Look has the meaning of appear."
(2) The man looked at me angrily. An adverb (angrily) follows look at. The adverb describes the action of the
verb. Look at has the meaning of "regard, watch."
 B-1 FORMS OF YES/NO AND INFORMATION QUESTIONS
A yes/no question = a question that may be answered by yes or no.
A: Does he live in Chicago?
both : keduanya B: Yes, he does. OR No, he doesn't
An information question = a question that asks for information by using a
question word.
A: Where does he live?
notice : perhatian B: In Chicago.
Question word order = (Question word) + helping verb + subject + main verb
Notice that the same subject-verb order is used in both yes/no and information questions.
(QUESTION HELPING SUBJECT MAIN (REST OF
WORD) VERB VERB SENTENCE)
(a) Does she live there? If the verb is in the simple present,
(b) Where does she live? use does (with he, she, it) or do
(c) Do they live there? (with I, you, tre, they) in the
(d) Where do they live? question. If the verb is simple past,
(e) Did he live there? use did. Notice: The main verb in
(f) Where did he live? the question is in its simple form,
there is no final -s or -ed.
(g) Is he living there? If the verb has an auxiliary (a
(h) Where is he living? helping verb), the same auxiliary is
(i) Have they lived there? used in the question.There is no
(j) Where have they lited? change in the form of the main
(k) Can Mary lite there? verb. If the verb has more than
(l) Where can Mary lite? one auxiliary(bantu), only the first
(m) Will he be living there? auxiliary precedes the subject, as
(n) Where will he be living? in (m) and (n).
(o) Who Ø Ø lives there? If the question word is the subject,
(p) Who can Ø come? usual question word order is not
used; does, do, and
did are not used. The verb is in the
same form in a question as it is in
a statement.
Statement: Tom came.
Question: Who came?
(q) Are they Ø there? Main verb be in the simple present
(r) Where are they? Ø (came, is, are) and simple past
(s) Was Jim Ø there? (was, toere) precedes
(t) Where was Jim? Ø (mendahului) the subject. It has
the same position as a helping
verb.

.
B-2 QUESTION WORDS
QUESTION ANSWER
WHEN (a) When did they arrive? Yesterday. When is used to ask questions
 When will you come? Next Monday. about time
WHERE (b) Where is she? At home. Where is used to ask
Where can I find a pen? In that drawer questionsm about place.
WHY (c) Why did he leave early? Because he's ill. Why is used to ask questions
Why aren't you coming with us? I'm tired. about reason.

HOW (d) How did you come to school? By bus. How generally asks about
How does he drive? Carefully. manner(cara).
(e) How much money does it cost? Ten dollars. How is used with much and
How many people came? Fifteen. many .
(f) How old are you? Twelve. How is also used with
How cold is it? Ten below zero. adjectives and adverbs(kata
How soon can you get here? In ten minutes. sifat dan kata keterangan.).
How fast were you driving? 50 miles an hour.

(g) How long has he been here?
How often do you write home?
How far is it to Miami from
here?
Two years. How long asks about Length
of time(Lamanya waktu).
Every week. How often asks about
frequency(frekuensi)
500 miles. How far asks about
distance(jarak).

WHO (h) Who can answer that question? I can. Who is used as the subject of
Who came to visit you? Jane and Eric. a question. It refers to people.

(i) Who is coming to dinner Ann, Bob, and Who is usually followed by a
tonight? AI. Singular(tunggal) verb even if
Who wants to come with me? We do the speaker is asking about
more than one person.

WHOM (j) Who(m) did you see?
Who(m) are you visiting?
(k) Who (m) should I talk to?
To whom should I talk? (formal)
WHOS (l) Whose book did you borrow?
E Whose key is this?
(Whose is this?)
WHAT (m) What made you angry?
Ilhat went wrong?
(n) What do you need?
What did Alice buy?
I saw George Whom is used as the object of
My relatives. a verb or preposition. In
everyday spoken English,
The secretary whom is rarely used; who is
used instead (sebagai
gantinya). Whom is used only
in formal questions Note:
Whom, not who, is used if
preceded (didahului)by a
preposition.
David's. Whose asks questions about
It's mine. possession (milik)
His rudeness What is used as the subject of
Everything a question. It refers to things.
I need a pencil. What is also used as an
A book. object.
 (o) What did he talk about? His vacation.
About what did he talk?
(formal)
(p) What kind of soup is that? It's bean soup What kind of asks about the
What kind of shoes did he buy? Sandals. Particular(tertentu) variety or
type of something.

(q) What did you do last night? I studied. What + a form of do is used to
What is Mary doing? Reading a book ask questions about activities.

(r) What countries did you visit? Italy and Spain What may accompany
What time did she come? Seven o'clock. (menemani) a noun.
What color is his hair? Dark brown.

(s) What is Ed like? He's kind and What + be like asks for a
friendly general description of
(t) What is the weather like? Hot and humid. qualities (deskripsi umum
kualitas)

(u) What does Ed look like? He's tall and has What + look like asks for a
dark hair. physical description(Deskripsi
Fisik).
(v) What does her house look like? It's a two-story,
red brick house.

WHICH (w) I have two pens
Which pen do you want?
Which one do you want?
Which do you want?
(x) Which book should I buy?
The blue one. Which is used instead(sebagai
gantinya) of what when a
question concerns choosing
(kekhawatiran memilih)from a
definite(pasti), known
That one quantity or group

(y) Which countries did he visit?
What countries did he visit?
(z) Which class are you in?
What class are you in?
Peru and Chile. In some cases, there is little
difference in meaning
between which and what
This class when they accompany a
noun(menemani kata benda),
as in (y) and (2)

*American English: a roo-story house.

British English: a tto-storey house.

B-3 SHORTENED YESNO QUESTIONS

(a) Going to bed now? = Are you going to bed now? Sometimes in spoken(berbicara) English,
(b) Finish your work? = Did you finish your work? the auxiliary (kata kerja pembantu) and
(c) Want to go to the movie with us? = Do you want the subject you are dropped from a
 to go to the movie with us? yes/no question, as in (a), (b), and (c)

B-4 NEGATIVE QUESTIONS

(a) Doesn't she live in the dormitory?
(b) Does she not live in the dormitory? (very formal)
In a yes/no question in which the
verb is negative, usually a contraction
(e.g., does + not = doesn't) is used, as
in (a).
Example (b) is very formal and is
usually not used in everyday speech
Negative questions are used to
indicate the speaker's idea (i.c., what
she believes is or is not true) or
attitude (e.g., surprise, shock,
annoyance, anger).

(c) Bob returns to his dorm room after his nine o'clock In (c): Bob believes that Matt is
class. Matt, his roommate, is there. Bob is surprised. supposed(seharusnya) to be in class
Bob says, "What are you doing here? Aren't now.
yousupposed to be in class now." Expected answer: Yes

(d) Alice and Mary are at home. Mary is about to leave
on a trip, and Alice is going to take her to the
airport.
Alice says, "It's already two o'clock. We'd better
leave for the airport. Doesn't your plane leave at
three?"
In (d): Alice believes that Mary's
plane leaves at three. She is asking
the negative question to make sure
that her information is correct.
Expected ansever: Yes

(e) The teacher is talking to Jim about a test he failed. In (e): The teacher believes that Jim
The teacher is surprised that Jim failed the test did not study.
because he usually does very well. Expected answer: No.
The teacher says: "What happened? Didn't you
study?"

(f) Barb and Ron are riding in a car. Ron is driving. He In (f): Barb believes that Ron did not
comes to a corner where there is a stop sign. but he see the stop sign.
does not stop the car. Barb is shocked Expected : No.
Barb says, "What's the matter tith you? Didn't you
see that stop sign?"

B-5 TAG QUESTIONS

(a) Jack can come, can't he? A tag question is a question added at the end
(b) Fred can't come, can he? of a sentence. Speakers use tag questions
chiefly to make sure their information is
correct or to seek agreement.*
AFFIRMATIVE SENTENCE + NEGATIVE TAG  AFFIRMATIVE ANSWER EXPECTED
Mary is here, isn't she? Yes, she is.
 You like tea, don't you? Yes, I do.
They have left, haven't they? Yes, they have.
NEGATIVE SENTENCE + AFFIRMATIVE TAG  NEGATIVE ANSWER EXPECTED
Mary isn't here, is she? No, she isn't.
You don't like tea, do you? No, I don't
They haven't left, have they? No, they haven't
(C This/That is your book, isn't it? The tag pronoun for this that = it.
) Thesel Those are yours, aren't they? The tag pronoun for these those = they.
(d) There is a meeting tonight, isn't there? In sentences with there + be, there is used in
the tag.
(e) Everything is okay, isn't it? Personal pronouns are used to refer to
indefinite pronouns. They is usually used in a
(f) Everyone took the test, didn't they? tag to refer to everyone, everybody,
someone, somebody, no one, nobody.

(g) Nothing is wrong, is it? Sentences with negative words take

(h) Nobody called on the phone, did they? affirmative tags.
(i) You've never been there, have you?
(j) I am supposed to be here, am I not? In (1): am I not? is formal English.
(k) I am supposed to be here, aren't I? In (k): aren't I? is common in spoken English.
"A tag question may be spoken:
(1) with a rising intonation if the speaker is truly seeking to ascertain that his/her information, idea,
belief is CONTEST (e.g., Ann lives in an apartment, doesn't she?); OR
(2) with a falling intonation if the speaker is expressing an idea with which she is almost certain the
listener will agree (e.g., It's a nice day today, isn't it?).

C CONTRACTIONS (Penyusutan)
IN SPEAKING: In everyday spoken English, certain forms of be and auxiliary verbs are usually
contracted with pronouns, nouns, and question words.
IN WRITING: (1) In written English, contractions with pronouns are common in informal
writing, but not generally acceptable in formal writing.
(2) Contractions with nouns and question words are, for the most part, rarely
used in writing A few of these contractions may be found in quoted dialogue
in stories or in very informal writing, such as a chatty letter to a good friend,
but most of them are rarely if ever written
In the following, quotation marks indicate that the contraction is frequently spoken, but rarely if
ever written
WITH PRONOUNS WITH NOUNS WITH QUESTION WORDS
I'm reading a book Ø "What'm" I supposed to do?
is She's studying My "book's" on the table. Where's Sally?
It's going to rain. Mary's at home Who's that man?
are You're working hard. My "books're on the table. "What're” you doing?
They're waiting for us. The "teachers're" at a "Where're” they going?
meeting.
has She's been here for a My "book's" been stolen! where's Sally been living
year Sally's never met him. What's been going on?
It's been cold lately.
 have I've finished my work
They've never met you.
had He'd been waiting for us.
We'd forgotten about it.
The "books've been sold.
The "students've finished
the test.
The "books'd" been sold.
"Mary'd never met him
before.
"Where're” they been?
"How've" you been?
"Whered" you been before
that?
"Who'd been there before
you?

did Ø Ø "What'd "you do last night?

"How'd you do on the test?
will I'll come later. The "weather'll be nice "Who'll be at the meeting?
She'll help us. tomorrow. "Where'll" you be at ten?
"John'Ir" be coming soon.

would He'd like to go there. My "friends'd" come if they "Where'd" you like to go?
They'd come if they could.
could. "Mary'd like to go there,
too.

D-1 USING NOT AND OTHER NEGATIVE WORDS

(a) AFFIRMATTE: The earth is round. Not expresses a negative idea.
(b) NEGATIVE: The earth is not flat.
(c) AUX + NOT + MAIN VERB Not immediately follows an auxiliary verb or be.
I will not go there (Note: If there is more than one auxiliary, not
I have not gone there comes immediately after the first auxiliary: I will
I am not going there not be going there.)
I was not there Do or does is used with not to make a simple
I do not go there present verb (except be) negative.
HE does not go there Did is used with not to make a simple past verb
I did not go there (except be) negative.
CONTRACTIONS OF AUXILIARY VERBS WITH NOT (KONTRAKSI KATA KERJA BANTU DENGAN NOT)
are not = arent' has not = hasn't was not = can't
cannot = can't hate nor = haven't were not = weren't
could not = couldn't had not = hadn't will not = won't
did nor = didn't is not = isn't would not = wouldn't
does not = doesn't must not = mustn't
do not = don't shoudd not = shouldn't
(d) I almost never go there. In addition to not, the following are negative adverbs:
I have hardly ever gone there. never, rarely, seldom
(e) There's no chalk in the drawer. hardly (ever), scarcely (ever), barely (ever)
No also expresses a negative idea.
COMPARE: NOT VS. NO Not is used to make a verb negative, as in (f).
(f) I do not have any money.
(g) I have no money. No is used as an adjective in front of a noun (e.g., money), as in.
Note: (f) and (g) have the same meaning.
*Sometimes in spoken English you will hear "ain't." It means "am not," "isn't" or "aren't." Ain't is not
considered proper
English, but many people use ain't regularly, and it is also frequently used for humor.
D-2 AVOIDING DOUBLE NEGATIVES
(a) INCORRECT: I don't have no money. (a) is an example of a "double negative," i.e., a
(b) CORRECT: I don't have any money. confusing and grammatically incorrect sentence that
CORRECT: I have no money. contains two negatives in the same clause. One clause
should contain only one negative.
*NOTE: Negatives in two different clauses in the same sentence cause no problems; for example:
A person who doesn't have love can't be truly happy
I don’t know why he isn’t here

D-3 BEGINNING(permulaan) A SENTENCE WITH A NEGATIVE WORD

(a) Never will I do that again! When a negative word begins(mulai) a
(b) Rarely have I eaten better food. sentence, the subject and verb are
(c) Hardly ever does he come to class on time. inverted(ditukar) (i.e., question word order is
used).
"Beginning a sentence with a negative word is relatively uncommon(jarang) in everyday
usage(pemakaian), but is used when the speaker writer wishes to emphasize(menitik beratkan) the
negative element of the sentence and be expressive.

E PREPOSITION COMBINATIONS WITH ADJECTIVES AND VERBS

A be absent from be done with O object to
be accused of dream of, about Be opposed to
be accustomed to be dressed in
be acquainted with P participate in
be addicted to E be dengaged in, to be patient with
be afraid of be envious of be pleased with
agree with be equipped with be polite to
be angry at, with escape from pray for
be annoyed with, by excel in, at be prepared for
apologize for be excited about prevent from
apply to for be exhausted from prohibit from
approve of excuse for be protected from
argue with, about be exposed to be proud of
arrive in, at provide with
be associated with F be faithful to
be aware of be familiar with Q be qualified for
feel like
B believe in fight for R recover from
blame for be filled with be related to
be blessed with be finished with be relevant to
be bored with, by be fond of rely (up)on
forget about be remembered for
C be capable of forgive for rescue from
care about, for be friendly to, with respond to
be cluttered with be frightened of, by be responsible for
be cluttered with be friendly to, with
 be committed to be frightened of, by S be satisfied with
compare to, with be furnished with be scared of, by
complain about, of stare at
be composed of G be gone from stop from
be concerned about be grateful to, for subscribe to
be connected to be guilty of substitute for
consist of succeed in
be content with H hide from
contribute to hope for T take advantage of
be convinced of take care of
be coordinated with I be innocent of talk about, of
count (up) on insist (up)on be terrified of, by
be covered with be interested in thank for
be crowded with introduce to think about, of
be involved in be tired of, from
D decide (up)on
be dedicated to J be jealous of U be upset with
depend (up) on be used to
be devoted to K keep from
be disappointed in, with be known for V vote for
be discriminated against
distinguish from L be limited to W be worried about
be divorced from be located in

look forward to

M be made of, from

be married to

F-1 CONNECTIVES TO GIVE EXAMPLES

(a) There are many interesting places to visit in For example and for instance have the same
the city. For example, the botanical garden meaning. They are often used as transitions.
has numerous displays of plants from all (See Chart 19-3, p. 389.)
over the world.
(b) There are many interesting places to visit in
the city. The art museum, for instance, has
an excellent collection of modern paintings.
(c) There are many interesting places to visit in e.g. = for example
the city, e.g., the botanical garden and the (e.g. is an abbreviation(Singkatan) of the Latin
art museum. phrase exempli gratia.)*
(d) There are many interesting places to visit in (c) and (d) have the same meaning.
the city, for example, the botanical garden
or the art museum.
(e) I prefer to wear casual clothes, such as such as = for example a
jeans and sweatshirt (f), (g), and (h) have essentially the same
(f) Some countries, such as Brazil and Canada, meaning even though the pattern varies.**
 are big
(g) Countries such as Brazil and Canada are big.
(h) Such countries as Brazil and Canada are big.

*Punctuation note: Periods are used with e.g. in American English. Periods are generally not used with eg in
British English
**Punctuation note:
(1) When the "such as phrase can be omitted without substantially changing the meaning of the sentence,
commas are used Example: Some words, such as know and see, are verbs. (Commas are used.)
(2) No commas are used when the "such as phrase" gives essential information about the noun to which it
refers. Example: Words such as know and see are verbs. (No commas are used.)

F-2 CONNECTIVES TO CONTINUE THE SAME IDEA

(a) The city provides many cultural opportunities. It Moreover, furthermore, and in addition
has an excellent art museum. mean also." They are transitions. (See
Chart 19-3, p. 389.)
Moreover,
Furthermore, it has a fine symphony orchestra.
In addition,

(b) The city provides many cultural opportunities. In (b): In addition to and besides are
In addition to an excellent art museum, it has used as prepositions. They are followed
Besides by an object (museum), not a clause.
a fine symphony orchestra.

*COMPARE: Besides means "in addition to."

Beside means "next to"; c.8., I sar beside my friend.