Indonesian Mining Journal Vol. 16, No. 2, June 2013 PDF

Coal Geochemistry
Indonesian
of the Unconventional
Mining Journal
Muaraenim
Vol. 16,
Coalbed
No. 2,Reservoir
June 2013
... :Imam
71 - 81
B. Sosrowidjojo
COAL GEOCHEMISTRY OF THE UNCONVENTIONAL

MUARAENIM COALBED RESERVOIR, SOUTH
SUMATERA BASIN: A CASE STUDY FROM THE
RAMBUTAN FIELD
GEOKIMIA RESERVOAR NON-KONVENSIONAL BATUBARA
MUARAENIM, CEKUNGAN SUMATERA SELATAN: STUDI KASUS
LAPANGAN RAMBUTAN
IMAM B. SOSROWIDJOJO
R & D Centre for Oil and Gas Technology, LEMIGAS
Jalan Ciledug Raya Kav. 109, Cipulir - Kebayoran Lama, Jakarta Selatan 12230
Ph. 021 7228614, Fax. 021 7228614
e-mail: ibs@lemigas.esdm.go.id
ABSTRACT
Muaraenim coalbeds in Rambutan Field have typically high vitrinitic coal geochemical features that indicates
the main target for CBM development. The presence of vitrinite coals in South Sumatra Basin is indicated by
high huminite concentration (up to 83 vol.%). The coalbeds are of sub-bituminous rank (Ro<0.5%). They are
geochemically characterized by high moisture content (up to 21%) and less than 80 wt.% (daf) carbon content.
Minerals are found only in small amounts (<5 vol.%), mostly iron sulfide. Cleat fillings are dominated by kaolinite.
This behavior can either be related to the increase coal moisture content to the depth or significant variation in
vitrinite content within the deeper seams.
Keywords: geochemistry, CBM, South Sumatra Basin, Muaraenim coal, low rank, unconventional reservoir,
Rambutan Field
Sari
Kandungan vitrinit yang tinggi merupakan ciri utama geokimia lapisan batubara Muaraenim di Lapangan Rambutan pada cekungan Sumatra Selatan dan biasanya mengindikasikan adanya target utama pada pengembangan
gas metana batubara (GMB). Kehadiran vitrinit ini ditunjukkan dengan tingginya konsentrasi huminit (hingga 83
vol.%). Peringkat batubara Muaraenim tersebut adalah subbituminus (Ro<0,5%), yang secara geokimia ditandai
oleh kadar air tinggi (hingga 21%) dan kandungan karbon kurang dari 80 berat.% (daf). Mineral yang ditemukan
hanya dalam jumlah kecil (<5% vol.), sebagian besar sebagai besi sulfida. Material pengisi rekahan (cleat)
didominasi oleh kaolinit. Perilaku ini dapat berhubungan dengan meningkatnya kadar air batubara terhadap
kedalaman atau dengan variasi kandungan vitrinit yang signifikan pada lapisan batubara yang lebih dalam.
Kata kunci: geokimia, GMB, Cekungan Sumatra Selatan, batubara Muaraenim, peringkat rendah, reservoar
non-konvensional, Lapangan Rambutan
Received : 28 February 2013, first revision : 02 April 2013, second revision : 05 June 2013, accepted : June 2013
71
Indonesian Mining Journal Vol. 16, No. 2, June 2013 : 71 - 81
Introduction
Coal is one of the most complex and challenging
natural materials to be analyzed. Each coal has a
unique characters, due to different plant sources
over geologic time. This diversity presents a
challenge to construct a coherent picture of coal
geochemistry and the processes that influence
chemical composition of coal (Orem and Finkelman, 2003).
South Sumatra Basin is very interesting, contains
some thick gassy coals at optimal depth in existing
oil fields due to having the Indonesias best combination of resource size and quality, data control,
well services, and pipeline infrastructure. In the
basin, the coals occur in the Lahat, Talangakar
and Muaraenim Formations. The main sizable
coal seams are concentrated into two horizons
within the Muaraenim Formation.
The coal-bearing Muaraenim Formation was deposited during the Late Miocene-Early Pliocene.
Through detailed outcrop study, integration of
sedimentological observations and palaeontological information has led to the recognition of
a number of sub-environments within the delta
system. It has been interpreted as representing
deposition in a humid tropical regressive deltaic
system (Boyd and Peacock, 1986).
The main economically significant coal deposits
for coalbed methane (CBM) target on the South
Sumatra Basin occur in the Muaraenim coal
(Stevens and Hadiyanto, 2004). Other important
coal deposit in the basin is in the Talangakar
coal, showing relatively thinner net thickness of
single seams. The coal thickness is often below
2 m and total net thickness is usually less than
5 m. In the two areas evaluated in this study, the
depth of the top of the coal sequence is deeper
than the typical CBM depth window (deeper than
1,500m) (Sosrowidjojo, 2006). For these reasons,
the Talangakar coal prospectivity for CBM must
be rated lower than the Muaraenim coal.
Early published data on the gas storage capacity
of Indonesian coals concluded that the Southern
Sumatra coal mines are the most suitable for CBM
exploration in Indonesia (Stevens et al., 2001;
Kurnely et al., 2003; Stevens and Hadiyanto,
2004; Sosrowidjojo, 2006). Nowadays, as many
as 54 CBM working areas have been signed in
Indonesia. Some 19 working areas of them are
in the South Sumatra Basin. A map showing all
72
the working areas is presented in Figure 1. However, in spite of these indications showing the
existence of economical CBM resources in the
South Sumatra Basin, until recently, no systematic
drilling and exploration of these resources had
been undertaken. The purpose of this paper is
to provide the coal geochemical characteristic of
Muaraenim coal in the South Sumatra Basin with
focus on the Muaraenim coalbed reservoir system
in the Rambutan Field.
Geological Settings
The geological setting, stratigraphy and tectonic
evolution of the South Sumatra Basin have been
described by numerous authors (e.g. Adiwidjaja
and de Coster, 1973; Boyd and Peacock, 1986;
Bishop, 2000; Pulunggono et al., 1992; Barber
et al., 2005; Wibowo et al., 2008; Angraini and
Yonatan, 2011). Only a brief summary is presented here.
The South Sumatra Basin is regarded as a foreland (back-arc) basin bounded by the Barisan
Mountains to the southwest, and the pre-Tertiary
Sunda Shelf to the northeast. The basin was
formed by east-west extension during the Late
Cretaceous to Early Tertiary. Orogenic activity
during the Late Cretaceous-Eocene divided the
basin into four sub-basins.
The structural features present in the basin are
the result of the main tectonic events: MiddleMesozoic orogeny, Late Cretaceous-Eocene
tectonism and Plio-Pleistocene orogeny. The first
two events provided the basement configuration
including the formation of half grabens, horsts and
fault blocks. The last event, the Plio-Pleistocene
orogeny, resulted in the formation of the present
northwest-southeast structural features and the
depression to the northeast.
The sediments of the South Sumatra Basin
(Figure 2A) comprise an economic basement of
pre-Tertiary rocks that is overlain unconformably
by a thick Tertiary sequence. The first Tertiary
sedimentation occurred during the Middle Eocene
and gave rise to the Lahat Formation consisting
mainly of volcanic rocks, claystone and shale
that was deposited locally in the graben areas.
The Talangakar Formation of Late Oligocene and
Early Miocene overlies the basement, where the
Lahat Formation is missing. It is a transgressive
sequence resulting from the Late Oligocene to
Coal Geochemistry of the Unconventional Muaraenim Coalbed Reservoir ... Imam B. Sosrowidjojo
Figure 1. Map showing 54 CBM working areas in some prolific coal basins in Western Indonesia, 19 of them are
in the South Sumatra Basin (modified from Sirait, 2013)
Middle Miocene subsidence. The later sedimentation during the Middle Miocene to present
produced a regressive sequence including the
Muaraenim Formation. The coal seams are found
within the Muaraenim Formation and were formed
during the Late Miocene and Early Pliocene. A
generalized stratigraphy of the Palembang Group
of the South Sumatra Basin is shown in Figure 2
where the coal seams of the Muaraenim Formation are shown.
The Muaraenim Formation (MEF) may be coalbearing over its total thickness or only partially
coal-bearing, depending on the area, with a total
coal thickness ranging between 0 and 120 m. Coal
seams typically account for 10% to 20% of MEF
gross thickness. This is the formation, which contains the large brown coal or lignite resources of
the South Sumatra region which were the principal
target of Shell Coal Mining Exploration in the past.
The thickness of the formation varies from 200
to over 800 m and generally decreases, together
with the percentage of coal from south (South
Palembang depression) to north (Jambi area)
across the basin, reflecting a transition from delta
plain to marine dominated environments. The
formation is present throughout the Palembang
sub-basins and along the west coast of Sumatra
where the more marine facies (Eburna Marls) are
thought to be equivalent to both the Muaraenim
Coal member and the Kasai Tuff member (Steinhauser and van Delden, 1973).
73
Figure 2. (A) Stratigraphy of the South Sumatra Basin (redrawn from van Gorsel, 1988);

(B) Stratigraphy of the Muaraenim Formation and its coal seam nomenclatures based on Shell Mijnbouw (Franks, 1978).
According to Amijaya (2005), the development

of these thick coal deposits and its extremely
low content of mineral matter are explained by
the doming paleo-peat geomorphology of this
deposit. By analogy to recent conditions, these
morphological conditions limited the influx of
suspended sediment from river water keeping any
overbank deposits thin, so that the peat could not
be enriched in mineral matter.
The andesitic intrusions in the Tanjungenim area,
South Sumatra, which represents the late stage
manifestation of post Miocene volcanic activity, is
presumed to be of Pleistocene to Early Quaternary
age, causing further uplift, faulting and folding as
well as formation of some shallow domes (Darman
and Sidi, 2000), but most importantly the local
metamorphism of the strata in the Bukit Asam coal
mine areas (Gafoer and Purbohadiwidjoyo, 1986).
Moreover, Pujobroto and Hutton (2000) report the
occurrence of three main intrusive bodies near
the Bukit Asam coal mines (Air Laya and Suban).
Those are Bukit Asam dyke, Suban sill and a vertical parasitic cone to the west of Air Laya Dome.
The Bukit Asam dyke is the largest intrusive body
and its outcrop forms a hill. The presence of the
andesite intrusion in the Bukit Asam area has
resulted in locally change rank of the coals (e.g.
Santoso and Daulay, 2005). These coal seams
can be classified into medium-volatile bituminous
74
to anthracite coals up to 5.18% Ro (Amijaya and

Littke, 2006). Coal seam with indirect contact with
the andesitic intrusion may have been coalified
by hydrothermal metamorphism (e.g. Hower and
Gayer, 2002).
MethodOLOGY
The sample preparation, canister gas desorption, canister gas composition, adsorption isotherm, proximate and microscopic examination
followed the procedures described elsewhere
(Sosrowidjojo, 2006). Coal particles of about 1
mm in diameter were used for preparation of
polished sections, which were embedded in a
silicone mould using epoxy resin as an embedding medium. After hardening, the samples were
ground flat and polished.
Five gas exploration boreholes, namely, CBM-1,
CBM-2, CBM-3, CBM-4 and CBM-5 at a spacing
of ~300 to 650 m, were drilled in the Rambutan
Field (Figure 3). The boreholes were drilled to a
maximum depth of 1,000 m and traversed five
laterally extensive continuous coal seams and
one thick but discontinuous coal seam (hanging
seam). Coring jobs were using conventional coring equipment instead of a wireline-coring one,
and the five continuous core-coal seams were
Figure 3. Map of South Palembang Sub-basin showing (A) the first CBM Pilot Test in Indonesia. (B) A set of five CBM wells (CBM-1 to CBM-5) were drilled and (C)
CBM well log to illustrate Palembang coalbed (Seam-2 and Seam-3) and Pengadang coalbed reservoirs (Seam-5).
75
called Seam 1 to Seam 5. Measured gas composition from wells was selected for coalbed reservoir
production only i.e. Seam 2, Seam 3 and Seam 5.
The depths and thicknesses of the selected coalbed reservoirs are presented in Table 1. Moreover,
the Seam 1 through the Seam 4 that is classified
as M2 has nick name as Palembang coal while
the Seam 5 (M1) is called Pengadang Coal. This
study focused on the Seam 2, the Seam 3 and the
Seam 5 only that are used pilot coalbed reservoir
development test in the Rambutan Field.
The petrographic composition of the coalbed has

been studied in detail in order to classify favourable reservoir properties for gas storage and
production. These coalbeds are rich in vitrinite
ranging from 59 to 83% or vitrinite with in mineral
free condition to be between 79 and 86%. The
inertinite composition changes from 5.6 to 19%,
except for the deepest coal for which the inertinite
composition is 39.2%. The coals with high vitrinite
and low mineral contents can have favourable reservoir properties for gas storage and production.
The coalbed samples are characterized by low
vitrinite (huminite) reflectance (Ro=0.31- 0.49%).
Hence, coal rank for the coalbed samples is low,
ranging from lignite to sub-bituminous. These low
rank coals are dominated by huminite. Less abundance are liptinite and inertinite (see Mazumder
and Sosrowidjojo, 2010). In addition, minerals
are found only in small amounts; mostly as iron
sulfide. Kaolinite occurs as cleat fillings at some
places.
Results and Discussion

a. Muaraenim Coalbed Geochemical Properties
Proximate analysis from several surfaces and
subsurface coal samples is presented on Table
2. The volatile matter of the seams are in the
range of 29.3-45.8% with maximum fixed carbon
is 46.54% and described as bright and lustrous.
From those data, it can be seen that the coal in this
area is classified as lignite-sub-bituminous. Ash
contents are very low, except for one coal sample
which is relatively as high as 19.8%. The coalbed
is relatively high in volatile matter content. In short,
these factors maybe promote good cleating and
can enhance permeability.
The rank and maceral composition of coal affect

amongst other factors its gas generation potential. Most information on the subject of rank and
maceral composition has been obtained around
the existing Muaraenim Coal Mining Area near
the Bukit Asam mine (Brom, 1976; Amijaya, 2005)
and from the concession area awarded to Shell
Mijnbouw N.V (Franks, 1978). The coals encountered at shallow depth (<200m) within the South
Sumatra Basin are of low rank, except for some
bituminous coals and anthracites, which originate
from contact metamorphism due to emplacement
of an igneous intrusion (Louis, 1996; Amijaya,
2005).
Coalbed porosity in the Rambutan Field ranges

from 5 to 10%, and classified as high porosity. High porosity means coalbed reservoir will
produce more water compare to low porosity.
Common coalbed reservoir porosity in the CBM
well testing is less than 5%, lower than any result
from the Rambutan Field. Permeability test in
the Rambutan area shows low around <10 mD.
Porosity, permeability and adsorption isotherm
parameters from the Rambutan Field are presented in Table 2.
Methane in coal is derived from both biogenic and

thermogenic processes. The proportion of these
gases present in coal depends on the extent of
coalification (rank), maceral composition, permeability, depositional environment, burial history
Table 1. Depths and thicknesses of the coalbed reservoirs for the fifth CBM wells in the Rambutan Field
CBM-1
CBM-2
CBM-3
CBM-4
CBM-5
Seam ID
Depth Thickness Depth Thickness Depth Thickness Depth Thickness Depth Thickness
Seam 2
519.7
9.14
491.6
14.02
503.7
10.67
532.6
10.67
540.3
10.67
Seam 3
537.2
7.62
510.1
10.06
522.7
9.14
554.0
13.72
556.3
9.14
Seam 5
922.0
9.14
903.0
13.72
903.7
12.19
929.6
12.19
939.5
10.67
(m)
76
Table 2. Storage and Compositional Properties of the selected Muaraenim coalbeds from the fifth CBM wells in
the Rambutan Field (representing 27 samples from all Seam 2, Seam 3 and Seam 5 only)
Reservoir Properties
Values
Coalbed Reservoir (Seam) Depth

a. Top depth Seam 2 (m)
488 541
b. Top depth Seam 3 (m)
498 555
c. Top depth Seam 5 (m)
904 944
Coal Seam Thickness (m)

Gas Content (measured from canister, m3/ton)
CH4 Composition (measured from canister, mol %)
CH4 Composition (measured from seam/ well, mol %)
Storage Capacity at seam depth as received (scf/ton)
Storage Capacity at seam depth daf (scf/ton)
Langmuir Volume (scf/ton)
Langmuir Pressure (psi)
Vitrinite Maceral Group (%)
10 12
0.43 5.84*
71 98*
94 97
184 830
264 1,134
733 2,419
1,279 6,107
58.9 83
Moisture Content (%)
12.4 24.5
Volatile Matter (%)
29.1 53.97
Fixed Carbon
18.4 48.4
Ash Content (%)
5.6 19.8
Coal Density (g/cc)
1.3 1.5
CO2 Content (measured from canister, mol %)
<1 26.8*
CO2 Content (measured from seam/ well, mol %)
0.02 4.25
N2 (measured from seam/ well, mol %)
0.15 2.37
Ro (%)
0.3 < 0.5
Porosity (%)
4.77 9.98
Permeability (mD)
<10
Note: * Results were uncertainty due to no availability of a wireline-coring equipment at that time.
and basin hydrology. Hardly, any information is

available about the origin and the CBM composition from the South Sumatra Basin. The range
of the Muaraenim coal ranks in the Rambutan
Field, it is highly likely that biogenic gas has been
formed early in the burial history of these low rank
coals (lignite to sub-bituminous rank Ro values
<0.5%), and its generation and preservation are
favored by rapid deposition. Primary biogenic
gases generated during early coalification are
generally dissolved in water and expelled during
compaction (Rice, 1993). Moreover, secondary
biogenic gasses was formed in association with
meteoric water flow into permeable coals, subsequent to basin uplift (e.g. Faiz et al., 2003).
The later will give additional saturation phase in
a coalbed reservoir.
With increasing coalification resulting from higher

temperatures and pressures, coals become
enriched in carbon as large amounts of volatile
matter rich in hydrogen and oxygen are released.
The main generation of methane and associated
hydrocarbons is thermal in origin and occurs at
ranks of high-volatile bituminous and higher (Ro
values >0.6%). With exception to the high rank
coal for the Muaraenim coal in the surrounding intrusion areas (e.g. Tambang Air Laya),
thermogenic process of methane generation for
the Muaraenim coals does not seem very likely.
It might be possible that at greater depths, the
coals in the Talangakar Formation are in the
thermogenic window.
77
b. Muaraenim Coalbed Reservoir Properties

Coal sorption isotherm is used to predict the
maximum volume of gas that will be released from
a coal seam as the reservoir pressure declines
during long-term production (Mavor et al. 1990).
It reflects the relationship between gas storage
capacity of a given coal sample and its pressure.
When compared with measured gas contents and
reservoir pressure, the sorption isotherm data also
provides a guide as to the relative gas saturation
of the coal and the bottom-hole pressure required
to initiate significant methane desorption (critical
desorption pressure).
The values of isotherm parameters are calculated
both in terms of absolute and gauge pressures.
The sorption isotherms of CH4 for the Muaraenim
coalbeds from the Rambutan Field were obtained
from the selected Seam 3 and Seam 5 only.
These isotherms data obtained from all the five
CBM wells. The absolute adsorption results are
presented in Table 2 and Figure 4.
From the Figure 4, it is expected that the sorptive capacity of coal is increased with increasing
depth, but it seems to decrease with increasing
depth. Although it might be noted that there is not

much of variability in terms of coal rank for these
coals, whether it is an effect of the maceral composition or the coal quality, can still be debated.
Also looking into the gas content measurements
and the sorptive capacity of these coals (Table 2),
there is a clear bit of disconnect in understanding
the reason behind this effect. The maceral composition analysis of the coals from the fifth CBM
wells show that the vitrinite content of the shallow
coals ranges from 74.1 to 82.2% and that of the
deepest coal seam is on an average 52.2%. Thus,
a comparison of the gas adsorption capacity with
the maceral composition shows that these properties have an important effect on the sorptive
capacity. The maceral composition also influences
the adsorption characteristics of coal, which are
closely related to micropore development. Clarkson and Bustin (1996) found a general increase
in the total number of micropore with increasing
vitrinite content. Sosrowidjojo and Saghafi (2009)
on the other hand has solely accounted for these
differences to varying ash and moisture content
of the coal samples from the CBM-1 well. One
possible explanation in this regard is that the accessible micropore volume in moist coals is much
less than in dry coals, due to either a reduction
Figure 4. Representative methane adsorption isotherms data of respective Seam 2 (green) Seam 3 (red) and
Seam 5 (black) for the CBM-1 to CBM-5 wells, respectively.
78
of pore size due to water adsorption or to swelling of the coals. More data points are needed to
substantiate either of the proposed reasons for the
anomaly in the sorption capacity with increasing
depth. Since little is known of Indonesias CBM
resources, it crucial that the coal reservoir is assessed properly and that means using different
techniques than what is normally used in conventional plays (Moore, 2010).
Comparing the gas storage capacity (sorption
isotherm) with the actual gas yields, will give an
estimation of the gas saturation of the coal seams.
Measured gas content data from the CBM wells
have been reported in Table 2. The measured
Langmuir isotherms were conducted at reservoir
temperatures (49-61C). The degree of undersaturation for each seam has been shown in
Figure 6. Except for one coalbed sample from
Seam 3, all other seams have high degree of
under-saturation. Although the fifth CBM wells
were drilled on the Rambutan structural high,
if the under-saturation is representative, then
there can be some serious thoughts behind the
economic viability of a CBM project in this region.
It was evident that the rig used to drill these
wells did not have wireline coring facility and the
retrieval of the coal cores once drilled, was time
intensive. Time required to retrieve these cores
was in excess of 11 hours in some cases. Thus it
is understandable that a considerable amount of
the gas was lost in the process of retrieving the
cores and thus, the gas content measurements,
therefore, are not very representative of the actual
in-situ saturation.
Conclusions
The major findings of this evaluation for the
Rambutan pilot samples can be summarized as
follows:
- the rank of all the coalbed samples ranges
between lignite and sub-bituminous. The
maceral composition of them is primarily
huminite, making its storage capacity and
hydrocarbon generation potential favorable
for CBM development;
-
high degree of under-saturation indicative

from gas content results was not conclusive
and is too early to say whether the undersaturation is representative. Due to high of
uncertainty on gas saturation as well as fracture permeability, proper corehole campaigns
are carried out to determine these parameters

through core analysis;
-
it is also recommended to further integration of properties measured in the corehole

campaign with focused on seismic and
wells interpretation to allow a reduction of
uncertainty in resource estimation and help
determine potential economic viability of CBM
prospect(s) in the area.
Acknowledgments
This paper is fully funded by the Government of
Indonesia. The author is indebted to the Management of Lemigas for permitting to publish
this paper and also is grateful to the Editors of
Indonesian Mining Journal, whose insightful
comments helped to improve greatly the quality
of this manuscript.
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81
STUDY OF COMPRESSIONAL AND SHEAR WAVE

VELOCITY TESTs IN THE LABORATORY AND FIELD
APPLIED TO SEDIMENTARY ROCKS OF RANTAU
NANGKA DISTRICT, SOUTH KALIMANTAN
STUDI PENGUKURAN KECEPATAN RAMBAT GELOMBANG DAN
GESER DI LABORATORIUM DAN LAPANGAN PADA BATUAN
SEDIMEN DAERAH RANTAU NANGKA, KALIMANTAN SELATAN
ZULFAHMI
R & D Centre for Mineral and Coal Technology
Jalan Jenderal Sudirman 623 Bandung 40211
Ph. 022 - 6030483, Fax. 022 - 6003373
e-mail: zulfahmi@tekmira.esdm.go.id
ABSTRACT
Compressional (Vp) and shear (Vs) wave velocities within rocks are often investigated by testing in the laboratory
because it is easier and cheaper. However, it is more confidence with investigation results derived from the field
due to the actual situation and conditions. In the laboratory, the wave velocities are commonly measured using
ultrasonic pulse velocities test. But in the field, the velocities are commonly measured directly by several methods
such as cross-hole seismic, down-hole seismic, suspension logging, seismic reflection, seismic refraction and
spectral analysis of the surface wave. In the present study of field insitu tests, it has used down-hole seismic
method. The field insitu test is more expensive than the laboratory test. Hence, this study would evaluate and
compare data derived from both of laboratory and field insitu tests. Based on the measurements correlation,
it is found that regression equation for each parameter are
for compressional wave velocities,
for shear wave velocities,
for shear modulus,
for
modulus of elasticity,
for bulk modulus and
for
Lame constants. This equation can be applied to correct the laboratory test data in order to get close results
between the laboratory and field insitu tests.
Keywords : compressional wave, shear wave, velocities, down-hole seismic test, ultrasonic pulse velocity test
Sari
Kecepatan rambat gelombang kompresi dan geser pada batuan sering diselidiki melalui pengujian di laboratorium karena lebih mudah dan murah, tetapi umumnya lebih dipercaya mempelajari sifat batuan secara langsung
di lapangan karena dilakukan pada situasi dan kondisi yang sebenarnya. Di laboratorium, kecepatan rambat
gelombang biasanya diukur menggunakan kecepatan denyut ultrasonik. Sedangkan di lapangan, kecepatan
rambat tersebut biasanya diukur dengan beberapa metode seperti uji lintas lubang seismik, uji seismik lubang bor,
suspensi logging, seismik refleksi, seismik refraksi, dan analisis spektral gelombang permukaan. Pada penelitian
ini, pengukuran secara insitu di lapangan menggunakan uji sesimik lobang bor. Pengukuran secara insitu di
lapangan lebih mahal dibandingkan dengan pengujian di laboratorium. Pada penelitian ini telah dilakukan evaluasi
dan perbandingan data yang berasal dari laboratorium dan uji lapangan. Berdasarkan korelasi dari pengukuran
tersebut telah ditemukan persamaan regresi untuk masing-masing parameter, yaitu
untuk cepat
rambat gelombang kompresi,
untuk cepat rambat gelombang geser,
untuk
modulus geser,
untuk modulus elastisitas,
untuk modulus
82
Received : 18 February 2013, first revision : 12 May 2013, second revision : 11 June 2013, accepted : June 2013
Study of Compressional and Shear Wave Velocity Test in the Laboratory ... Zulfahmi
ruah dan
untuk konstanta Lame. Persamaan ini dapat diaplikasikan untuk mengkoreksi hasil uji laboratorium agar dapat lebih mendekati hasil uji insitu.
Kata kunci : gelombang kompresi, gelombang geser, kecepatan, uji seismik lubang bor, uji kecepatan pulsa
ultrasonik
INTRODUCTION
Measurement of wave velocity as a dynamic property has often been used to provide information
about rock structural properties. Magnitudes of
dynamic constants are sensitive to mineralogical
assemblages and are affected by shape, distribution and preferred crystallographic orientation of
the components. Moreover, they are affected to
an important degree by the presence of size and
orientation of defects such as pores and cracks,
in such a way that also depends on the presence
of fluids.
In the laboratory, wave velocity is commonly measured using a method that based on the resonant
modes of the specimens or the propagation of
elastic waves in the specimens. International
standard test to determine P and S-waves in the
laboratory using ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV)
is found in the ASTM Standard Test Method D
2845-05. In Indonesia, the admitted standard
test is the SNI 06-2485-1991. Both standard tests
procedures are almost the same. Cylindrical rock
sample is prepared by cutting and lapping the
ends, then the length is measured. An ultrasonic
digital indicator that consists of pulse generator
unit, transmitter and receiver transducers are
used for sonic pulse velocity measurement. The
transmitter and receiver are positioned at the ends
of specimen and the pulse wave travel time is
measured. The velocity is calculated from dividing the length of rock sample by wave travel time.
Both P and S-wave velocities can be measured.
In the field, wave velocities are commonly measured by several methods such as cross-hole
seismic, down-hole seismic (DHS), suspension
logging, seismic reflection, seismic refraction and
spectral analysis of surface waves (SASW). In this
study, the measurement of wave velocities used
DHS test. The test requires only one borehole to
provide shear and compressional velocity wave
profiles. The method uses a hammer source at
the surface to impact a wood plank and generate
shear and compressional waves. This is typically
accomplished by coupling a plank to the ground
near the borehole and then impacting the plank in
the vertical and horizontal directions. The energy

from these impacts is then received by a pair of
matching three component geophone receivers, which have been lowered down hole and
are spaced 1.5 to 3 m apart. The Standard Test
Methods for DHST is ASTM D7400 08.
The P and S-wave velocities are directly related
to the important geotechnical elastic constants
of poissons ratio, shear modulus, bulk modulus
and Youngs modulus (modulus of elasticity). The
study of P and S-wave propagation in the rocks
has been made to find the poissons ratio, shear
and elasticity modulus, fractures and discontinuities in the rock mass (Tamunobereton et al.,
2010). These parameters are used in analyzing
rock behavior under both static and dynamic
loads, where the elastic constants are input variables to the models that define the different states
of deformations such as elastic, elasto-plastic and
failure (Rao, 2003; Zhang, 2005). The current
basic challenges do not just technical capability
but also economic feasibility of any project (Singh
and Shrivastva, 2009). P and S-wave velocities
have proved to be immensely useful in gathering
geotechnical information about the area.
The fundamental question refers to whether the
laboratory tests are precise and accurate enough
to understand the wave velocities or it should use
costly measurements in the field to get data accurately. In determining the differences from the
measurement results of wave velocities obtained
in the field and laboratory, thus the present study
would compared both laboratory and field measurements data. Therefore, the purpose of this
study is to search correlation of the wave velocities (Vp and Vs) and its derivatives between field
insitu and laboratory tests.
METHODOLOGY
The field study area was located in Rantau Nangka, Sungai Pinang District, Banjar County, South
Kalimantan. Data retrieved from geotechnical core
drilling at a depth of between 20-40 meters were
done within claystone layer. The main geologi83
cal formation of the area is shown in Figure 1.

The area consists of claystone, sandstone, coal,
limestone and marl overlaying semi-consolidated
pleistocenic sediments with cemented sand
(Sikumbang and Heriyanto, 1994). Field insitu
tests (DHS tests) used five boreholes and laboratory tests (UPV tests) employed 50 drill cores
as shown in Figure 1. Each borehole had been
applied four times for seismic down hole tests
at 20, 24, 28 and 32 meters respectively. The
borehole was 4.5 inches in diameter with PVC
cased to ensure good transmission of the wave
energy. The hole must be cased and grouted to
prevent rock caving during the tests. The source
and receiver were placed at the depth of 20 40
meters within the claystone layers.
the P-wave velocity (Vp) and S-wave velocity

(Vs) can be expressed by the following equation
of Biot-Gassmann:
............................................ (eq. 1)
.................................................... (eq. 2)
Where K is the bulk modulus of the rock, G is
the shear modulus of the rock and is the bulk
density of rock. The equations (1) and (2) apply
to the elastic condition.
Figure 1. Location of DHS tests and geotechnical sampling
The main concept of this study is to search and

compare the velocities of wave propagation between field insitu and laboratory tests. The former
was performed in the field and the later was
performed at the Laboratory of Rock Mechanics,
R & D Center for Mineral and Coal Technology
(tekMIRA). Cheng and Leong, 2011 stated that
84
Field Insitu Tests

The DHS test is an accurate measurement
method to determine the seismic wave velocities
of the rocks. The P and S-wave velocities are directly related to the important geotechnical elastic
constants of poissons ratio, shear modulus, bulk
modulus, and Youngs modulus (Soupios, et.al.,

2005). A fundamental assumption inherent in the
test methods is that a laterally homogeneous
medium is being characterized. In a laterally
homogeneous medium the source wave train
trajectories adhere to Snells law of refraction
(Cheng and Leong, 2011).
Another assumption inherent in the test methods
is that the stratigraphic medium to be characterized can have transverse isotropy. Transverse
isotropy is a particularly simple form of anisotropy
because velocities only vary with vertical incidence angle and do not with azimuth. By placing
and actuating the seismic source at offsets rotated
90 in plain view, it may be possible to evaluate
the transverse anisotropy of the medium (Vilhelm,
et.al., 2008).
The test method was to determine interval velocities from arrival times and relative arrival times of
compression either vertically or horizontally as
well as polarized shear seismic waves generated
near the surface and travel down to an array of
vertically installed seismic sensors. A preferred
method was intended to obtain data to be used
in critical projects by which the required highest
quality data were included.
Laboratory Tests
In this study, samples were tested by ultrasonic
pulse velocity (UPV). The samples were selected
at a regular interval throughout the core drill. The
specimens for testing were prepared by cutting the
ends of the core using a rock saw to produce flat
end surfaces that satisfies to the ASTM standard.
After cutting process, the samples were preserved
in a vacuum sealed polyethylene bag or plastic
freezer bag to maintain insitu moisture conditions.
The UPV measurements were completed using a
low-frequency portable ultrasonic nondestructive
digital indicating tester (PUNDIT) equipped with
two 1-MHz transducers to determine the transit
time of a sound wave through the length of the
rock core.
For testing purposes, a coupling medium was
used between transducers and the rock specimen
in term of minimizing signal loss from the transducers through to the rock. The system equipped
by Fujitsu Notebook was used to record sample
dimensions as well as P and S-wave transit times
and a software was is applied to calculate the ultrasonic wave velocities and dynamic properties.
The P and S-wave velocities were determined
by dividing sample length over ultrasonic wave
Figure 2. Schematic of DHS test
85
travel time throughout the sample. The velocity

was then computed using the following formula
(Chary, et al., 2006):
..................................................... (eq. 3)
..................................................... (eq. 4)
Shear modulus (G), dynamic young modulus (E),
Lame constant (l), bulk modulus (K) and dynamic
poisson ratio (u) can be represented as follows
(Rai, et al., 2011) :
..................................................... (eq. 5)
. ............................................. (eq. 6)
. .......................................... (eq. 7)
. .................................. (eq. 8)
......................................... (eq. 9)
Vp is compressional wave velocity, Ls is length

of the sample, l is density, Tp is travel time of
compressional wave and Ts is travel time of shear
wave. Results of the study by Knackstedt et al.,
(2005) claimed that the computed values of bulk
and shear modulus for the grain overlap and porelining models are similar. It indicates only a small
dependence of the models on microstructure or
the distribution of the second mineral phase.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This study was conducted to determine scale
effect in the measurement of the wave velocity. The scale effect has been studied by some
researchers to know geomechanics behaviors of
rocks. Thuro, et al (2001) divided the scale effect
into two components that was represented by the
shape scale, which take account the variation of
the ratio D/L (diameter/length) and the size scale
in which this ratio is constant and the size of the
specimen growth. Hence, values obtained from
the tests show that shape scale have significant
effect in to the results, but no effect for size (Dthi
et al, 2013). Scale effect also appears in some
tests such as dynamic behaviors of rock and can
be compared by statistical approach. Comparative study of compressional and shear wave velocities between field insitu tests and laboratory
tests involved four separated surveys, that is at
20, 24, 28 and 32 meters depth. P and S-wave
measurements for the five geotechnic boreholes
were made in the range of 20 - 40 meters depths.
Result of DHT is presented in Table 1 while result of laboratory test for drill core samples and
result of UPV test in the laboratory are presented
respectively in Table 2 and 3.
A correlation between compressional wave velocities from DHS (field insitu tests) and UPV (laboratory tests) is shown in Figure 4. High regression
coefficient reveals a strong correlation between
the two velocities test that enables estimating one
velocity to another. The following equation defines
this relationship:
Figure 3. Schematic equipments of UPV test
86
(eq. 10)
Table 1. Result of DHS test for compressional and shear wave velocities
Test I (20 m)
No
Test II (24 m)
Test III (28 m)
Test IV (32 m)
Vp
Vs
Vp
Vs
Vp
Vs
Vp
Vs
G-1
2030
1217
1970
1183
2010
863.0
2222
1218
G-2
2000
1114
2020
1255
1860
777.8
1950
964
G-3
2000
1116
2030
1255
2100
950.5
2000
1017
G-4
2061
1263
1980
1185
1990
841.4
2010
1034
G-5
2020
1176
1990
1206
2040
890.2
1886
920
G-6
2030
1178
1960
1182
2010
847.6
2010
1039
G-7
2072
1343
1970
1184
2209
1167.2
2030
1047
G-8
2051
1228
1999
1222
2051
910.5
1990
1008
G-9
2061
1236
1990
1213
2030
872.5
2051
1053
G-10
2061
1239
1980
1185
2162
1062.6
2061
1057
G-11
2350
1488
2000
1236
2050
896.2
2061
1061
G-12
2061
1268
2010
1243
2051
910.5
2094
1061
G-13
2061
1325
2100
1280
2116
978.3
2100
1070
G-14
2100
1351
1990
1219
2100
925.5
2105
1071
G-15
2200
1402
2050
1269
1793
768.4
1851
898
G-16
2300
1437
1999
1224
2105
950.9
2116
1077
G-17
2400
1531
2150
1338
1877
811.3
2127
1106
G-18
1999
1072
1960
1135
2127
983.5
2150
1158
G-19
2000
1141
1970
1184
2150
1016.3
2173
1169
G-20
2100
1356
1999
1226
2162
1063.9
1793
886
Table 2. Density of Rantau Nangka claystones, tested from drill core samples
Average
Spec.
No.
Diameter
Length
cm
cm
Average
Weight
Density
gr
Gr/
cm3
Spec.
No.
Diameter
Length
cm
cm
Average
Weight
Density
gr
Gr/
cm3
Spec.
No.
Diameter
Length
cm
cm
Weight
Density
gr
Gr/
cm3
L-101
4.51
10.48
358.10
2.139
L-201
4.38
8.90
286.42
2.136
L-301
5.00 11.04
434.02
2.002
L-102
4.60
11.77
410.85
2.100
L-202
4.38
11.07
362.68
2.174
L-302
5.12 10.30
433.62
2.046
L-103
5.22
10.62
373.42
2.116
L-203
4.47
10.42
320.74
1.961
L-303
5.22 11.04
447.68
1.970
L-104
4.51
10.22
362.95
2.223
L-204
4.47
9.51
320.62
2.148
L-304
6.10 13.61
761.68
1.915
L-105
4.50
9.55
310.38
2.044
L-205
4.45
11.02
312.72
1.825
L-305
5.22 12.18
598.38
1.681
L-106
5.22
10.74
348.55
2.041
L-206
4.45
10.69
320.70
1.929
L-306
5.40 11.35
499.78
1.923
L-107
4.47
10.54
329.35
1.991
L-207
5.10
11.10
474.05
2.091
L-307
5.22 10.33
407.92
1.724
L-108
4.44
10.50
367.70
2.262
L-208
5.10
10.79
456.22
2.072
L-308
4.94 10.91
427.10
2.042
L-109
4.44
10.19
353.05
2.238
L-209
5.10
11.48
481.22
2.052
L-309
4.94 11.13
445.10
2.087
L-110
4.51
10.99
377.74
2.152
L-210
5.10
9.77
400.58
2.007
L-310
5.22 10.82
482.90
2.085
L-111
4.51
11.29
396.08
2.196
L-211
5.66
11.11
570.98
2.043
L-311
5.22 11.62
504.50
2.029
L-112
4.46
11.00
385.70
2.244
L-212
5.66
11.52
586.05
2.022
L-312
4.50 9.55
310.38
2.044
L-113
4.46
10.59
378.30
2.287
L-213
5.17
11.20
494.52
2.103
L-313
5.22 10.74
348.55
2.041
L-114
4.46
10.56
358.25
2.172
L-214
5.17
11.42
502.05
2.094
L-314
4.47 10.54
329.35
1.991
87
Table 2. Density of Rantau Nangka claystones, tested from drill core samples
Average
Diameter
Length
cm
cm
L-115
4.47
11.63
L-116
4.47
L-117
4.48
Spec.
No.
Average
Weight
Density
gr
Gr/
cm3
Spec.
No.
Average
Weight
Density
cm
gr
Gr/
cm3
11.02
445.82
2.044
Diameter
Length
cm
5.02
Spec.
No.
L-315
Weight
Density
gr
Gr/
cm3
4.44 10.50
367.70
2.262
Diameter
Length
cm
cm
426.82
2.299
L-215
11.44
426.08
2.138
L-216
5.10
11.15
466.02
2.044
L-316
4.44 10.19
353.05
2.238
10.20
366.15
2.277
L-217
5.10
10.26
428.56
2.045
L-317
4.51 10.99
377.74
2.152
L-118
4.48
9.68
320.00
2.097
L-218
4.97
10.05
428.02
2.093
L-318
4.51 11.29
396.08
2.196
L-119
4.43
10.10
331.20
2.126
L-219
4.97
10.72
441.08
2.121
L-319
4.98 11.48
475.22
2.052
L-120
4.43
10.95
362.20
2.146
L-220
5.50
11.16
494.92
1.867
L-320
4.98 9.77
298.56
2.007
Table 3. Result of UPV tests for compressional and shear wave velocities
Spec.
No
Vp
Vs
L-101
2014.99
755.19
L-201
L-102
1857.05
663.64
L-103
962.37
467.61
L-104
990.60
L-105
L-106
m/sec
Spec.
Vp
No
Spec.
No
Vp
Vs
m/sec
1998.54
630.32
L-301
1085.58
243.21
L-202
426.62
202.53
L-302
1217.58
320.18
L-203
1862.71
434.53
L-303
1621.43
348.99
482.81
L-204
1046.14
320.18
L-304
1634.06
366.12
1073.68
482.91
L-205
1127.64
350.12
L-305
1696.54
370.47
1085.58
489.44
L-206
1879.19
448.19
L-306
3172.43
590.76
L-107
1093.75
489.59
L-107
1416.76
395.09
L-307
1798.57
412.63
L-108
2210.20
823.02
L-208
1968.17
561.10
L-308
1893.99
420.73
L-109
1144.94
499.02
L-209
1696.54
396.91
L-309
3280.42
655.62
L-110
1217.58
507.18
L-210
1763.44
425.48
L-310
1912.47
426.24
L-111
1812.29
611.11
L-211
1802.34
426.24
L-311
2730.16
428.81
L-112
1224.30
518.89
L-212
1843.41
432.16
L-312
2804.72
431.89
L-113
1344.71
519.84
L-213
1873.36
444.35
L-313
2898.44
456.99
L-114
1714.33
345.38
L-214
1357.02
371.73
L-314
955.02
232.96
L-115
884.86
527.81
L-215
1756.46
420.11
L-315
2983.78
477.21
L-116
1798.57
545.17
L-216
1912.47
477.21
L-316
3027.55
489.59
L-117
884.86
371.33
L-217
1917.19
506.74
L-317
1344.74
339.03
L-118
1798.57
590.76
L-218
1929.46
531.86
L-318
3050.89
495.38
L-119
866.61
352.18
L-219
376.66
183.21
L-319
3070.96
507.18
L-120
1835.88
655.62
L-220
1969.13
586.07
L-320
1763.44
371.11
VpL is compressional wave velocity from laboratory tests and VpF is compressional wave velocity
from field insitu tests.
A correlation between shear wave from DHS
(field insitu tests) and UPV test (laboratory tests)
is established showing a power relationship as
88
Vs
m/sec
shown in Figure 5. The high regression coefficient reveals a strong correlation between the
two velocities tests which enables estimation of
one velocity having another one. The following
equation defines this relationship:
..................................(eq. 11)
Figure 4. Correlation between Vp from seismic DHS and Vp from UPV tests
Figure 5. Correlation between Vs from DHS and Vs from UPV tests
VsL is shear wave velocity from laboratory test and

VsF is shear wave velocity from field insitu test.
According to equation 1, 2, 5, 7 and 8, density of
rock affects wave velocities (Vp and Vs), shear
modulus (G), Lame constants and bulk modulus.
Approximately, 60 tests results are used to determine claystone density, it is taken from drill core
at 20-40 meters in depth. Based on equation 5,

shear modulus from field insitu tests (GF) and from
laboratory tests (GL) is shown in Figure 6.
From the correlation of GF and GL can be found
the equation as follow :
GL = 0.2739GF - 287185......................... (eq. 12)
89
Figure 6. Correlation between shear modulus GF and GL
Using the same method to compare field insitu

and laboratory tests for several parameters, i.e,
the Elasticity Modulus (EF and EL), Bulk Modulus
(KF and KL) and Lame Constants (lF and lL) are
shown on Figure 7, 8 and 9.
Based on its correlations, it can be obtained the

equation as follows:
EL = 0.3764EF - 1E + 06......................... (eq. 13)
........ (eq. 14)
........ (eq. 15)
Figure 7. Correlation between elasticity modulus EF and EL
90
Figure 8 Correlation between Bulk Modulus KF and KL
Figure 9. Correlation between Lame constant lF and lL
CONCLUSION
Compressional (Vp) and shear (Ps) wave velocities are important dynamic properties of rocks that
can be measured both at field insitu and laboratory tests. The scale effect is significant to show
whether the values decrease or increase that
are obtained from the laboratory and field insitu
tests. Decreasing or increasing of those values is
a consequence of scale effect, which is caused
by the heterogeneity of the materials. Vp and Vs
determinations from field insitu tests are relatively
more difficult and costly than that of laboratory

tests. The high regression coefficient (R square
more then 0.7) reveals a good correlation, which
means that the high cost of field insitu measurements can be replaced by lower cost measurements in the laboratory. Direct measurement in the
field insitu are considerably more accurate than
measurement in the laboratory. The regression
equation with high coefficient for each parameter
that have been found in this study can be used as
a corrected data of the laboratory tests results.
91
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author would like to thank Mr. Adji Subardja
and Mr. Deden Agus Ahmid - staffs of Rock and
Soil Mechanics - R&D Centre for Mineral and Coal
Technology for their help during the research,
especially by providing and testing claystone
samples from Rantau Nangka district.
REFERENCES
Chary K.B, Sarma L.P, Prasanna Lakshmi KJ, Vijayakumar N.A, Naga Lakshmi V. and Rao M.V.M.S.,
2006. Evaluation of engineering properties of rock
using ultrasonic pulse velocity and uniaxial compressive strength, Proceeding National Seminar
on Non-Destructive Evaluation, Dec. 7 - 9, Indian
society for non-destructive testing Hyderabad
Chapter.
Cheng., Z.Y., Leong., E.C., 2011. Estimation of P-wave
velocities for unsaturated geo-materials, Unsaturated soils: Theory and Practice, Jotisankasa,
Sawangsuriya, Soralump and Mairaing (Editors),
Kasetsart University, Thailand.
Dthi Sarr, Meissa Fall, Papa M. Ngom, Mamadou
Gueye, 2013. New Approach of Geomechanical
Properties by Scale Effect and Fractal Analysis
in the Kedougou-Kenieba Inlier (Senegal-West
Africa), Scientific Research, Published Online
October. (http://www.scirp.org/journal/gm).
Knackstedt, M.A., Arns, C.H and Pinczewski, W.V,
2005. Velocityporosity relationships: Predictive
velocity model for cemented sands composed of
multiple mineral phases, Geophysical Prospecting,
53, 349372.
Rao M.V.M.S. and Prasanna Lakshmi K.J., 2003.
Shear wave propagation in rocks and other lossy
media: An experimental study, Curr. Sci., 85(8),
1221-1225, 2003.
92
Rai, M. Astawa, Kramadibrata, S., Wattimena, R.K.,

2011. TA 311; Mekanika batuan, Catatan kuliah,
Laboratorium Geomekanika dan Peralatan Tambang, Institut Teknologi Bandung.
Singh C. S and Shrivastva B. K., 2009. Study of P&S
wave velocities in chunar sandstone, International
Journal of Earth Science and Engineering, ISSN
0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 06, pp. 512-519.
Sikumbang, N. and Heryanto, R., 1994. Peta geologi
lembar Banjarmasin, Kalimantan, P3G, Bandung.
Soupios, P.M., Papazachos C.B, Vargemezis G., and
Fikos, I., 2005. Application of seismic methods for
geotechnical site characterization, International
Workshop in Geoenvironment and Geotechnics,
Milos Island, Greece.
Tamunobereton-ari, I., Omubo-Pepple V.B., and Uko,
E.D., 2010. Determination of the variability of seismic velocity with lithology in the South-Western part
of the Niger delta basin of Nigeria using well logs,
Journal of Basic and Applied Scientific Research,
1(7)700-705.
Thuro,K., R. J. Plinninger, S. Zh and S. Schtz, 2001.
Scale effect in rock strength properties, Part 1:
Unconfined compressive test and Brazilian test,
Rock MechanicsA Challenge for Society, Srkk
et Eloranta, Eds. Swets et Zeitinger Lisse.
Vilhelm, Jan, Rudajev, V., Zivor, R., Lokajicek T., and
Pros, Z., 2008. Comparison of field and laboratory
seismic velocity anisotropy measurement (scaling factor), Acta Geodyn Geomater, Vol. 5, No. 2
(150), 161169.
Zhang L, 2005. Engineering Properties of Rocks, Elsevier Publication, Amsterdam, Vol. 4, 1-290.
Reduction
Indonesian
of Goethitic Mining
Iron Ore Journal
Using Thermogravimetric
Vol. 16, No. 2,Method,
June 2013
Adji: Kawigraha
93 - 100 et al.
reduction of goethitic iron ore using

thermogravimetric method
reduksi bijih besi gutit dengan metode
termogravimetri
ADJI KAWIGRAHA1,2, SRI HARJANTO1, JOHNY W. SOEDARSONO1 and PRAMUSANTO3
1 Department of Metallurgy and Material, Faculty of Engineering Universitas Indonesia
Jalan Salemba Raya No. 4, Jakarta
Ph. 021 330355, Fax. 021 330343
2 Center of Mineral Ressources Technology
Indonesian Agency for the Assessment and Aplication of Technology
Jalan MH. Thamrin No. 8, Jakarta 10340
Ph. 021 3169091 - 3169092, Fax. 021 3169067
3 Department of Mining - Faculty of Engineering
Bandung Islamic University
Jalan Tamansari No. 1 Bandung
e-mail : akawigraha@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Compared to main iron ore minerals, either hematite or magnetite, Indonesian goethite is relatively abundant.
However, this is not common to be used as feed material in iron making industries. Limitation in Indonesian high
quality iron ore resources, the iron making industries have to seek another iron source such as the low grade iron
ore of goethitic ore. Evaluation using thermogravimetric method was employed for analyzing behavior of goethitic
composite pellet during reduction. The data show that reduction of goethitic iron ore is started by transforming
goethite to hematite and then followed by iron reduction. The reduction was started by Fe3O4 formation at 442
C and Fe at 910 C. At those temperatures the composite pellet lost its weight. Identifying the FeO is hardly
difficult due to the short range of phase existence.
Keywords: goethitic iron ore, iron reduction, thermogravimetric analysis.
Sari
Laterit merupakan cadangan terbesar bijih besi yang ada di Indonesia. Jenis ini umumnya bukan merupakan
bahan baku utama dalam industri pembuatan besi namun karena keterbatasan dan semakin berkurangnya bijih
besi primer, laterit diupayakan menggantikan bijih besi tersebut sebagai bahan baku terutama melalui pembentukan pelet komposit. Perilaku reduksi pelet komposit yang terdiri atas laterit dan batubara dikarakterisasi
menggunakan metode termogravimetrik. Hasil menunjukkan bahwa proses reduksi pelet komposit didahului
oleh proses awahidroksilasi yang mengubah gutit menjadi hematit, diikuti oleh reduksi hematit menjadi fasa besi
lain. Reduksi dimulai pada 442 C dengan pembentukan Fe3O4 dan Fe pada 910 C. Proses reduksi pada pelet
komposit diikuti dengan kehilangan berat. Identifikasi pembentukan FeO sulit dilakukan karena keberadaan fasa
terjadi pada selang waktu yang pendek.
Kata kunci: bijih besi gutit, reduksi besi, analisis termogravimetri
Received : 14 October 2011, first revision : 15 November 2012, second revision : 26 February 2013, accepted : June 2013
93
INTRODUCTION
characterization of composite pellet using thermogravimetric method to determine temperature

of iron phases formation.
Indonesia retains a lot of iron ore resources. However, such resources come mainly from lateritic
ore. This ore consists of goethite mineral. Based
on iron content, lateritic ore is classified as a low
grade iron ore. This fact is contradictive with the
primary iron ores, either hematite or magnetite,
that have high grade of iron and commonly applied in iron making industries. As a result, the
lateritic ores require different process when used
for iron making.
METHODOLOGY
Laterite ore used in this experiment is derived from
South Kalimantan that consists of goethitic iron
ore. The material shows a porous iron character
and easy to crush using a crusher and a milling
instrument. A 140-mesh powder is used for the
experiment while its reductant is subbituminous
coal that comprises 41.53 % fixed carbon and
38.23 % volatile matter.
Several researchers have studied the reduction of

lateritic iron ore (Murakami et al., 2009; Kawigraha
et al., 2013). Murakami et al. (2009) states that at
fixed temperature the reduction degree of goethitic iron ore is higher than that of primary iron ore.
It means that the energy for goethitic reduction
is lower. Goethitic material will lose its hydroxide
components during heating (Strezov et al., 2010;
Gialanella et al., 2010)and weight in three stages
(Strezov et al., 2010) Dehydration and dehydroxylation temperatures occur between 100 to 150 C
and 260 to 425 C respectively while decomposition temperature for clay is between 540 to 605
C. The three stages consecutively correspond to
the loss of free water, hydroxide component and
hydroxide available in clay. Reactions involve in
second and third stages are :
The ore is then analyzed using Rietveld method to

quantify all of major Fe phases such as FeOOH,
Fe2O3 and Fe3O4. The quantification using Rietveld method is based on XRD difractogram.
Instrument
The main apparatus in this experiment are simultaneous thermal analyzer (STA) Perkin Elmer,
tube furnace which has ability to heat the composite pellet from 25 to 1000 C, Vario gas analyzer
and XRD. The heating rate and temperature of
tube furnace can be controlled after introducing
the parameters before experiment.
2 FeOOH Fe2O3 + H2O.

(1)
Al2Si2O5(OH)4 Al2O3 + SiO2 + 4H2O (2)
The change of Fe2O3 to Fe3O4 starts after dehydroxylation (Murakami et al., 2009; Kawigraha et
al., 2013). Consequently, the H2O gas is formed
at early temperature (Jozwiak et al., 2007) and
possibly there is H2 that will be generated from
H2O dissociation. The two gases may influence
reduction process at early stage. The reaction
heats of dehydroxylation and clay decomposition
range from 38 to 230 MJ/m3 and from 2.4 to 28
MJ/m3 respectively (Strezov et al., 2010).
Quantification of lateritic iron ore shows that the

ore consist of 70.25 % FeOOH 1.49 % Fe2O3,
1.47 % Fe3O4, and 6.78 % gangue. The powder is
then analyzed using Simultaneous Thermal Analysis to elaborate its thermal properties. Chemical
analysis of the ore is shown in Table 1.
Iron ore is mixed with coal in order to analyze
their heat content by thermal analyzer. Iron ore
to coal ratio in the mixture is fixed to 1:3 for Fe
to C ratio. The mixture is then pelletized around
12 mm to 15 mm in diameter. A chopped pellet is
introduced into Perkin Elmer STA equipment to
observe its thermal properties during reduction
The objective of this research is to analyze the

reduction process of composite pellet containing goethitic iron ore and coal. It also discuss as
Table 1. Chemical composition of lateritic iron ore used in this experiment.

Component
Fetotal
FeO
Fe2O3
TiO2
SiO2
Al2O3
CaO
MgO
Stotal
SO3
Cr2O3
Ni
LOI
53.62
79.3
0.84
2.26
4.03
0.04
0.08
0.14
0.84
2.39
0.09
9.58
94
Reduction of Goethitic Iron Ore Using Thermogravimetric Method, Adji Kawigraha et al.
process. The experiment is accomplished from 25

to 1000 C with the heating and nitrogen flow rates
of 10 C/minute and 20 ml/minute respectively.
The obtained thermogravimetric curve is then
analyzed using exel program to obtain Differential
Thermogravimetric Curve.
release (Strezov et al., 2010). The endothermic

peak occurs at 301.9 C. In the second region
which ranges between 370 and 640 C, there is
only low endothermic peak and after 640 C the
heat curve has another endothermic peak near
900 C.
Some pellets are also reduced in a tube furnace

using temperature of 350 , 460, 680, and 980 C.
Furnace heating rate is 10 C/minute until reaches
the desired temperature and then is hold for 20
minutes. The nitrogen is flowed during reduction
process to carry the produced gasses during pellet heating. The gases are identified using gas
analyzer. The reduced pellet is then analyzed by
X-Ray Diffraction to examine its phases.
Thermogravimetic characterization of coal is represented in Figure 2. The curve can be divided

in to three regions, the first one corresponds to
a free water release and it covers from 25 to 195
C. The second region takes place between 195
to 350 C and the curve is relatively stable. In the
third region the weight curve decrease quickly
which means that weight loss is erraticaly after
350 C. Moreover the coal lost of weight continuously until high temperature. During heating, the
heat curve shows that there are only four peaks
of endothermic at around 100 C, 550 C, 750 C
and 900 C. The heat curve also shows an exothermic peak at around 500 C. The heat curve
diminishes quickly after 350 C to a minimum
endothermic peak.
Thermogravimetric and heat curves of iron ore is

shown in Figure 1. The iron loses more than 14
% of total weight from 25 to 1000 C. It releases
gases at 301.9 C performing ore lost around 7
% of its weight.
During heating, there are three endothermic
peaks while the heat curve itself can be divided
into three regions. The first region is between
160 and 370 C which Corresponds to hydroxide
Differential Thermogravimetric (DTG) curve of goethitic iron ore can be seen in Figure 3. The curve,
derived from thermogravimetric curve, shows
Figure 1. Thermogravimetric and heat curves of goethitic iron ore.
95
Figure 2. Thermogravimetric and heat curves of coal
Figure 3. Thermogravimetric and DTG curve of lateritic ore.
96
that at least there are four peaks. Two peaks can

be identified easily whereas the third and fourth
peaks are low minimum peaks. The first two peaks
correspond to dehydration and dehydroxylation
whereas the second two peaks correspond to clay
decomposition. Clay decomposition temperature
is similar to the data reported by other researcher
(Strezov et al., 2010). At 301.9 C, the ore has a
significant loss of weight. The loss component is
the OH available within goethite.
DTG curve of coal is shown in Figure 4. The
curve is characterized by two significant peaks.
The first one corresponds to hydration of free
water whereas the second one corresponds to
dissociation of carbon. The first is at 78.8 C and
the second is at 439.9 C.
Thermogravimetric curve of composite goethitic
iron ore-coal is shown in Figure 5. It shows that
weight loss occurs continuously from low to high
temperatures. Significant slope occurs at around
285 C shows that the composite pellet loses
weight significantly in a short time. It indicates
that the dehydroxylation of lateritic iron ore occurred. There are at least 3 other slopes that
indicate the loss of composite weight. The two
peaks after 285 C-peak can easily be identified

at 442 and 625 C. However, the last peak cannot easily be determined due to the limitation of
STA performance. The 825 C-peak is not really
a peak because the DTG decreases continuously
from 700 to 1000 C.
DTG curve analysis shows that at least there are
five peaks. All peaks correspond to slope at thermogravimetric curve. The first and second slope
corresponds to dehydration and dehydroxylation
process. The third, fourth and fifth peaks of DTG
have low loss of weight compared to the first and
second slope. After the fourth peak the DTG curve
has a tendency to decrease.
Measurement of gases, released by composite
pellet, is shown in Figure 6. Heating the pellet
was conducted at 1 atmosphere. The identified
gases are CO, CO2 and CH4 that are responsible
for iron reduction. The Figure 6 shows that CO
has two peaks, small and high ones. They are at
630 and 920 C. However, the CO starts to be
detected at 300 C. CO2 has two peaks, namely
a low one at 450 C and a high peak at 880 C.
The ratio of two gases reach maximum before
decreases indicated the gasification of coal in
Figure 4. Thermogravimetric and DTG curve of coal.
97
Figure 5. Thermogravimetric and DTG curves of composite pellet.
Figure 6. Released gas occurs during heating the composite pellet.
98
the pellet completed. There are only one peak

of CH4 namely at 470 C. The gas is released at
early temperature.
CO curve shows that iron reduction starts at above
442 C. Around such a temperature, composite
pellet loses its carbon and transforms to CH4,
CO and CO2. Reduction process may increase
with the increase of CO formation. After 700 C,
the quantity of released CO increases with temperature. At early temperature, CH4 also plays
as reductant, confirmed by DTG curve. After that,
DTG curve decreases rapidly.
XRD data confirms DTG analysis explaining that
FeOOH disappears at 350 C (Figure 7). At such
a temperature, there are only Fe2O3 and Fe3O4.
At higher temperature (470 C), almost all of
Fe2O3 has been reduced to Fe3O4. In fact, Figure
6 shows that at 442 C, composite pellet releases
CH4 gas. It is probably the CH4 is a reduction
agent for Fe2O3 transformation. Formation of
CH4 is supported by Figure 5 that at 442 C, the
composite loses significant weight.
Fe3O4 is stable at least until 680 C due to not
enough reduction agents at this temperature. Figure 6 confirms that at that temperature CH4 and
CO present at the same time. However, CH4 will
disappear and CO will increase for a maximum

concentration.
The Fe presents when composite pellet is reduced
at 980 C as shown in Figure 7. Fe formation
occurs due to Fe3O4 and FeO reductions by CO
(Figure 6)., CO reaches maximum at around 920
C. Reduction is followed by loss of weight continuously until temperature above 1000 C.
CONCLUSION
Reaction of composite pellet consists of dehydration, dehydroxylation, Fe2O3, Fe3O4, FeO and Fe
formation. The reaction characterized by weight
loss at temperature below 100, 285, 442, 625, and
above 700 C. Reduction of goethitic iron ore is
started by Fe2O3 formation above 350 C followed
by forming Fe3O4. The formation of FeO and Fe
occur above 680 C.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are especially grateful to Center of
Mineral Technology, Agency for the Assessment
and Application of Technology (BPPT) for financial
support through its scholarship program.
Figure 7. X-ray Diffraction of lateritic iron ore and composite pellets at 350, 470, 680, and 980 C.
99
REFERENCES
Gialanella, S., Girardi, F., Ischia, G., Leonardelli, I.,
Mattarelli, M., Montagna, M. 2010. On the goethite
to hematite phase transformation. J. Therm. Anal.
Calorim., 102, 867-873.
Jozwiak, W.K., Kaczmarek, E., Maniecki, T.P., Ignaczak,
W., Maniukiewicz, W. 2007. Reduction behaviour
of iron oxides in hydrogen and carbon monoxide
atmospheres, Applied Catalysis A : General, 326,
17-27.
Kawigraha, A., Soedarsono, J.W., Harjanto, S., Pramusanto. 2013. Reduction of Composite Pellet
100
Containing Indonesia Lateritic Iron Ore as Raw

Material for Producing TWDI. Applied Mechanics
and Materials. Vol. 281, 490-495.
Murakami, T., Nishimura, T., Kasai, E. 2009. Lowering
Reduction Temperature of Iron Ore and Carbon
Composite by Using Ores with High Combined
Water Content. ISIJ International, Vol. 49, No. 11,
pp. 1686-1693.
Strezov, V., Ziolkowski, A., Evans, T.J., Nelson, P. F.
2010. Assessment of evolution of loss on ignition
matter during heating of iron ores. J. Therm. Anal.
Calorim., 100, 901-907.
A LiteratureIndonesian
Study of Benefiting
Mining
K-Bearing
Journal
Silicate
Vol.Rocks
16, No.
... 2,
Agus
June
Wahyudi
2013 : 101
and -Tatang
110 Wahyudi
A Literature Study of benefiting k-bearing

silicate rocks as raw materials for potassium fertilizer
Studi literatur pemanfaatan batuan silikat pembawa
kalium sebagai bahan pupuk kalium
Agus Wahyudi and Tatang Wahyudi
R & D Centre for Mineral and Coal Technology
Jalan Jenderal Sudirman 623 Bandung 40211,
Ph. 022 6030483, fax. 022 6003373
e-mail: wahyudi@tekmira.esdm.go.id; tatangw@tekmira.esdm.go.id
ABSTRACT
As an agricultural country Indonesia requires NPK fertilizer up to 2.6 million tons per year. However, such a
number is mostly fulfilled by imports, particularly potassium (K) fertilizer. Almost a 100% of K-fertilizer comes from
Canada and Russia in the form of KCl (sylvite) salt. Indonesia does not have sylvite mineral, but retains some
K-bearing minerals such as K-feldspar and leucite. Both are different in characteristics from sylvite. K-feldspar
and leucite are the alumino-silicate minerals. They require special treatment to process them into K-fertilizer.
Several techniques can be applied to process both minerals, such as by mechano-chemistry, leaching, alkali
fusion and bioleaching. Research on the utilization of K-source minerals as a raw material for K fertilizer is relatively rare. The opportunity to conduct such a research is widely open, as currently conducted by the Research
and Development Centre for Mineral and Coal Technology.
Keywords: feldspar, leucite, utilization, import, potassium fertilizer
Sari
Kebutuhan Indonesia terhadap pupuk NPK per tahun mencapai 2,8 juta ton namun pemenuhannya sebagian
besar masih tergantung kepada impor terutama kalium dan fosfor. Hampir 100% pupuk berbahan dasar kalium
diimpor dari Kanada dan Rusia dalam bentuk mineral silvit (KCl) sedangkan fosfor diimpor dalam bentuk batuan
fosfat dari negara-negara Timur Tengah seperti Mesir dan Jordania. Indonesia sebenarnya mempunyai potensi
agro-mineral yang cukup banyak untuk diolah menjadi pupuk. Permasalahannya adalah kualitas yang belum
memenuhi standar seperti yang disyaratkan produsen pupuk; sebagai contoh, mineral silikat berbasis kalium
seperti K-felspar dan leusit yang karakternya berbeda dengan silvit sehingga memerlukan perlakuan terlebih
dahulu agar kualitasnya memenuhi standar. Beberapa teknik dalam mengolah mineral alumino-silikat adalah
aktivasi mekanis, pelindian, peleburan dengan alkali dan bioleaching. Kajian mengenai pemanfaatan mineral
berbasis kalium untuk pupuk memang masih jarang namun kesempatan untuk melakukan hal tersebut terbuka
luas seperti yang saat ini dilakukan oleh Puslitbang Teknologi Minertal dan Batubara.
Katakunci: felspar, leusit, pemanfaatan, impor, pupuk kalium
INTRODUCTION
Along with phosphor and nitrogen, potassium is
one of the essential elements as fertilizer notably
for the plant growth and reproduction. The ele-
ment also serves as a regulator since entering the

60-enzyme systems within the vegetation. It helps
vegetation to endure the effects of temperature
as well as increases plant resistance to disease.
Potassium is needed, especially for carbohydrate-
Received : 18 April 2013, first revision : 10 May 2013, second revision : 05 June 2013, accepted : June 2013
101
rich crops such as potatoes. Testing shows that

the right amounts of potassium results in long and
strong growing of cotton, increasing rind endurance, extending rose branches, strengthening
and greening the grass, and increasing the size
and quality of fruit, grains, and vegetables (Warmada, 2004).
In 2012, the needs of NPK fertilizer in Indonesia
reached 2,593,920 tons (Ministry of Agriculture,
2012). Approximately 96% of Indonesian farmers
use the fertilizers to cultivate the farm, and the
rest (4%) applies organic fertilizer. Of the three
component types within such as compound fertilizer, phosphate and potassium are imported.
Even for potassium, a 100% belongs to import,
particularly from Canada and Russia. The potassium import is around 435,000 tons / year or 61.6
million USD (Azis, 2001). The price of KCl has
increased 4 times since 2007 (Manning, 2010). It
reached US$1000 per ton K2O that is equivalent
for some contract during 2008. Referring to such
condition, the use of crushed silicate rocks needs
to be considered as an alternative for K-source.
The rocks are occurs widely in the world and could
be a significant role in maintaining soil fertility for
the poorest farmers.
K-bearing silicate rocks contain most of the essential nutrients that plants require for growth
and development. The ground silicate rocks can
be used for fertilizer and potentially provides the
nutrients to plants in various soil environments.
(a)
When used, the fertilizer yields slow release

performance. It continually improves soil and
harvest quality. Its application to highly weathered,
low fertility, acid soils has been proposed as an
alternative to conventional fertilization with watersoluble fertilizers in areas where fertilizers are not
available or in organic agriculture (van Straaten,
2002). The appliance of K-bearing silicate rocks
also refers to benefiting quarry by-products as occurred in West Australia, Queensland and Brazil
as part of an alternative sustainable strategy to
re-mineralize or recapitalize degraded soils (Priyono in www.ntb.litbang.deptan.go.id).
Based on its rock-forming minerals, the silicate
rocks are divided into mafic and felsic ones. The
former is dominated by ferro-magnesian silicate
minerals that perform (mostly) dark color and
contain base cation such as Mg, Ca, micro nutrients of Mn, Fe, Cu and Zn with less K (< 1 %
K2O). The later is characterized by light minerals
that are rich in silica (quartz and/or feldspar) but
poor in nutrient content. The K content within the
rocks is sufficient (4-20%). Figure 1 shows both
rock types. The choice of silicate rocks for silicate
fertilizer depends on type and lack intensity of the
nutrients. In this case, the silicate fertilizer of feldspar and gneiss as K source is more appropriate
than that of basalt and dolerite. The later belongs
to mafic rocks.
Resources of these commodities in Indonesia are
quite abundance, but those are generally in low
(b)
Figure 1. Basalt as one of mafic rocks that rich in micro nutrients but less in potassium (a) and a felsic rock (rhyolite), rich in silica (either quartz or feldspar) but poor in micro nutrients (Wahyudi et al., 2012)
102
A Literature Study of Benefiting K-Bearing Silicate Rocks ... Agus Wahyudi and Tatang Wahyudi
3.000.000
2.500.000
2.000.000
1.500.000
1.000.000
500.000
0
Naturally, mineral as the source of potassium is

divided into two groups, namely the salt and silicate groups as shown in Table 1. Most of fertilizer
industry still uses potassium from salt groups such
as sylvite since its K-level is already high (60%
K2O) and the solubility is good enough to easily
absorb by plants. Unfortunately, Indonesia has no
K-salt mineral similar to sylvite. The K-minerals
that is commonly found in Indonesia is potassium
silicate minerals but its application is still very rare
due to its solubility limitation hence mineral activation is required to make it gains good solubility.
METHODOLOGY
A literature survey is a main method used for this
study. The study was completed by collecting
primary and secondary data either quantitative or
qualitative. The data included K-bearing silicate
rock resources, its mineral charcteristics and
employed proces for processing the rocks to be
potasssium-based fertilizer. All data were then
evaluated.
12
10
20
09
20
07
08
20
20
20
06
20
NPK fertilizer demand

(ton)
quality. This condition results in the dependency

of potassium import for this country. Figure 2
shows the demand of NPK fertilizer in Indonesia.
Indonesia retains abundantly K-bearing silicate
rocks; however, study regarding the use of such
rocks for silicate fertilizer is very limited. Based
on data from Center for Geological Resources
(Kusdarto, 2008), there is a K-mineral reserves in
Situbondo regency, East Java. The mineral is leucite or KAlSi2O6 and amounting to 117.5 million
tonnes (inferred) and 12.5 million m3 (measured).
Besides leucite, other K-mineral is feldspar that
is found almost in all parts of Indonesia, especially Java and Sumatra (Mandalawanto, 1997).
In addition to K- mineral resources, trachyte
that spreads out in South Sulawesi is available
at district Barru, Pankep, Sinjai, Soppeng and
Bone. Their total reserve is 4.1 billion tons. The
next source of K-mineral is biotite or (K(Mg, Fe)
3AlSi3O10 (F,OH)2). The biotite occurs at North
and South Sumatras (Center for Geological Resources, 2009).
Figure 2. Demand of NPK fertilizer in Indonesia

(modified from the Ministry of Agriculture,
2012)
Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen

(N) ,phosphorus ( P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca),
magnesium (Mg), sulfur (S), iron (Fe), manganese
(Mn), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), boron (B), nickel
(Ni), molybdenum (Mo) and chlorine (Cl) are the
essential micro nutrients for plant growth while
cobalt (Co), silicon (Su), and sodium (Na) serve
as additional nutrients and required by only certain
plants in certain environmental condition. Some of
the various nutrients are available within silicate
Table 1. Classification of natural K-bearing minerals (modified from Warmada, 2004)

K-source
Salt Group
Formula
Silicate Group
Formula
Sylvite
KCl
Orthoclase
KAlSi6O8
Arcanite
K2SO4
Sanidine
KNaAlSi3O8
Glasserite
3K2SO4 N2SO4
Phlogopite
KMg3(AlSi3O10) (OH)2)
Cainite
4KCl 4MgSO411H2O
Biotite
K(Mg,Fe)3(AlSi3O10(OH)2)
Carnallite
KCl MgCl2 6H2O
Leucite
KalSi2O6)
Langbeinite
K2SO4 2MgSO4
Trachyte
Niter
KNO3
103
rocks and are dissolved by rock-weathering agent

through a bio-geochemical process. Nutrients
are released and absorbed by plants that are
grown on a rock-weathering soil. Weathering
and dissolving process of nutrient-bearing rocks
naturally occur gradually and take places much
slower than that of nutrient adsorption by plants.
Increasing the cropping intensity and the use of
high-yielding variety that is voraciously adsorb the
nutrients excessively require the nutrient supply
within soil to maintain the optimum harvest. The
use of the one and the only fertilizer, i.e., NPK
in some places and continual deficiency of soil
nutrients result in imbalance and lack of various
soil nutrients as well as acidity of the soil that will
finally decrease the fertilizing effectiveness. As
an effort, nutrient-bearing silicate rocks combined
with manure may replace the depleted nutrients
within soil. However, study on silicate rock fertilizer (SRF) should be focused on the effort to
accelerate nutrient solubility within soil by modifying factors that controls the SRF dissolution and
evaluating the effectiveness of SRF agronomy on
various vegetations and soils.
The potassium within feldspar is normally resistant to weathering process. The K+ is not easy
to be released from its host. As a result, the plant
retains difficulty to absorb such an ion. On the
contrary; the K ion along with the Mg2+ and Fe2+
that is available in mica or micaceous clay will
be easily absorbed by the plant. Mica and clay
have a silicate sheet structure and the three ions
are bound within the sheets. Such a feature will
easily free the ions. Kusdarto in http://psdg.bgl.
esdm.go.id states that the resource of K-bearing
minerals in Indonesia is available only in trachytic
and rhyolitic rocks as found at Mount Kunyit, Lampung but rhyolitic tuff occurs at Paga village, East
Nusa Tenggara. However, the potassium at such
places is employed for ceramic industries instead
of fertilizer purpose. The K-bearing minerals cannot directly be used for fertilizer. It needs to be
processed prior to using it, notably upgrading its K
content. Another K-bearing mineral is leucite. The
mineral takes place around Mount Muria, Central
Java within pyroclactics, tephrite, basanite lava,
leucite and syenite rocks but its resource has not
yet been studied.
Research and Development Centre for Mineral
and Coal Technology or known as tekMIRA has
conducted several research regarding the beneficiating K-bearing silicate rocks during 2012
(Wahyudi et al., 2012). The research were focused
104
on upgrading the K content available within the

rocks. Two sample types containing K-feldspar
and leucite were taken from two areas, namely
Jepara and Situbondo. The K-feldspar was
sampled at Mount Ragas of Jepara while leucitebearing rocks came from Payak (Jepara) and
Patemon (Situbondo). Though the minerals retain
potential reserve, beneficiations of such minerals
have not yet been conducted by either the local
residents or private entrepreneurs. Observation
during field activities shows that the K-silicate
rocks are used for building materials and other
construction purposes as noticed at Patemon of
Situbondo (Figure 3).
Based on the presence of mineral resources in
Indonesia as well as a large potassium demands
within country for fertilizer, it needs a research
regarding exploiting Indonesian K-mineral to be
used for fertilizers. Methods that could potentially
be used to process leucite and feldspar as raw
materials for potassium fertilizer include mechanochemistry, alkali fusion and bioleaching. The three
technologies refer to upgrade the K-content as
well as its solubility but prior to processing it, the
minerals need to be tested their characters both
chemistry and mineralogy. XRD analyses shows
that Mount Ragas K-feldspar consists of sanidine
- (K,Na)AlSi3O8 while leucite-bearing andesite
from both Payak and Patemon comprises leucite KAlSi2O6, augite - (Ca,Na)(Mg,Fe,Al,Ti)(Si,Al)2O6,
anorthite CaAl2Si2O8 and illite - (K,H3O)(Al,Mg,F
e)2(Si,Al)4O10[(OH)2,(H2O)]. Potassium oxide of
Mount Ragas K-feldpar is 6.58% while leucitebearing andesite from Payak and Patemon has
respectively 11.37 and 10.32% of K2O.
Characterizing the samples prior to processing
also includes SEM-EDS analyses as well as
testing the solubity of potassium in citric acid 2%.
Figure 4 represents SEM-EDS analyses of Mount
Ragas K-feldspar (a) and leucite-bearing andesite
of Patemon (b). SEM-EDS analyses shows that
one particle of Mount Ragas K-feldspar contains
K2O around 7.51% while the K2O content within
leucite of Patemon is about 22.58%. The fact that
the K2O content within Mount Ragas K-feldspar
is lower than that of Patemon leucite supports
the result of chemistry analyses. Of the three Ksilicate samples, the most soluble K within citric
acid belongs to that of Payak leucite (11.23%)
while Patemon leucite keeps middle solubility
(5.87%). The lowest K content pertains to Mount
Ragas K-feldspar (0.24%). Due to its low solubility,
the Mount Ragas K-feldspar is not proper to be
Figure 3. Bulk of leucite-bearing andesite at Patemon village of

Situbondo is resided along the village road to be sold as
construction materials (Wahyudi et al., 2012)
upgraded its K content for fertilizer but Patemon

leucite along with Payak leucite is still prospective to be processed for K fertilizer by upgrading
the material through several methods (Wahyudi
et al., 2012).
The following are some methods that could potentially be used to process leucite and feldspar as
raw materials for potassium fertilizer. Those are
mechano-chemistry, alkali fusion and bioleaching.
Mechano-chemistry
Mechano-chemistry is a technology that addresses the changes in chemical and physical properties of the particles due to mechanical energy; for
example is a continuous grinding process. Such
a treatment will provide reactive particles and
make them easier for further processing such as
extraction process (Alacova, 2004). Kleiv (2007)
had conducted mechanical activation in terms
of processing K-feldspar. Material used in this

project was the mill products. Methods for characterizing the material included size distributions,
specific surface areas and their relative degree
of structural disordering as calculated from X-ray
diffraction analysis. Figure 5 shows the XRD
pattern for K- feldspar after milling process that
results in damaging mineral structure. From the
XRD point of view, it was clear that less than
10 minute milling was sufficient to make the Kfeldspar mineral more reactive. This pre-treatment
will facilitate the next process, namely extracting
potassium element from its host. The change of
surface properties in the lead cation K-feldspar
make it easily released into the soil, hence it can
be absorbed by plants.
Alkali Fusion
Alkali fusion is a process that is often used for
separating certain elements within silicate compounds, such as separating zirconia from its sili-
105
Figure 4. SEM-EDS analyses of Mount Ragas K-feldspar (a) and Patemon leucite (b). The former provides K2O
content lesser than that of the later (Wahyudi et al., 2012)
cate (Yamagata, 2010). Yuexin (2009) employed

the method to separate potassium from silicate
minerals. The process was carried out by mixing
K-silicate minerals with alkali (such as NaOH,
CaCO3, etc.) at certain temperature and time
106
normally around 600 0C for 2 hours. The results

are then leached with water and then filtered to
separate the potassium-containing residue and
Na-silicate-bearing filtrate. The residue is then
re-purified to obtain a high K2O content. The
Figure 5. XRD patterns of K-feldspar curve after activation by means of advanced

mechanical milling (modified from Kleiv, 2007)
flow chart of the alkali fusion process is shown

in Figure 6.
A number of K-silicate mineral was roasted at 200
to 700 0C for 0,5 to 3 hours. The products were
then dissolved by water in room temperature
and stirred in a magnetic stirrer for 30 minutes.
Separating the solid and liquid employed Buchner funnel as illustrated in Figure 7. The solid
products were then tested their K solubility in 2%
citric acid.
Bioleaching
Bioleaching is an alternative process to extract
potassium due to its cheap cost production and
environmentally friendly (Maochun et al., 2002).
The process can employ various microorganisms
such as bacteria and fungi. The microorganisms,
attached to mineral surface, create micro-environments in which the ligand concentration, acidity
and redox activity can be increased substantially
compared to its initial state thus affecting the min-
eral exchange reactions. Bacteria, fungi and other

plants also produce compounds that can interact
with the mineral surfaces to dissolve certain elements (Badr, 2006).
Of the various microorganisms that can be used
for bioleaching, Aspergillus niger and Penicillium
expansum the fungi are among them. The
former is included within Ascomycetes class and
Aspergillaceae family and are easily found in
almost organic materials (Wolf dan Wolf, 1997)
and the later belongs to Eurotiomycetes class and
Trichocomaceae. When grown, they produce an
organic acid compound, namely oxalic acid as
a by-product from citric acid fermentation. As a
leaching agent, the compound can dissolve heavy
metals from bauxite, kaolin, nepheline, quartz
sand, tailing mud and spodumene (Ubaldin et al.,
1996; Gorbushina, 2006). Factors affecting oxalic
acid production include carbon source and pH
condition. Study on K-extraction from leucite mineral using Penicillium expansum and Aspergillus
niger shows that around 21% to 27% potassium
107
Figure 6. A flow chart regarding alkali fusion for processing K-silicate minerals (modified from Yamagata, 2010)
Figure 7. A diagram of solid liquid separation using Buchner funnel (modified from
http://www.umich.edu/~chemh215)
108
were successfully recovered by microbial leaching

(van Straaten, 2002). This phenomenon indicates
that the fungi ability is good enough to extract
potassium from silicate rocks. Figure 8 shows
both micro-fungi in the growth state.
The choice of process to beneficiate K-bearing
silicate rocks depends on several factors. One of
them is the characteristics of processed sample.
Economical and environmental aspects are also
factors to be considered prior to selecting such
methods. Others are shown in Table 2.
CONCLUSIONS
K-bearing silicate rocks contain essential nutrients
for plants that in a long term will effectively affect
soil characters and harvesting results. This will
ensure production sustainability with less negative impacts to the environment. The efficiency of
K-bearing silicate rocks may be increased through
high energy milling, however, such a method
needs intensively studied both technical and economical aspects. A combination of manure and Kbearing silicate rocks can serve as natural fertilizer
for replacing chemical one. Indonesia retains raw
materials of either manure or K-bearing silicate
rocks sufficiently. However, study regarding the
use of K-bearing silicate rocks for fertilizer making
is very limited. tekMIRA has studied feldspar and
leucite beneficiations since 2010 as raw materials
for K-fertilizers. The research is still ongoing until
today. The technologies mentioned above are
expected to increase the K-solubility and thus fit
to be used for fertilizer. Thus, in turns, it will lessen
Indonesian potassium imports as well as serve as
a provider to fulfill national fertilizer demand.
(b)
(a)
Figure 8. Microorganisms that can be used for extracting potassium from K-silicate minerals; (a) Penicillium
expansum and (b) Aspergillus niger (Handayani,et al., 2008)
Table 2. Characteristics of mechano-chemistry, alkali fusion and bioleaching the three processes to beneficiate
K-bearing silicate rock for K-based fertilizer
Method
Considered factors
Instrument
Mechano-chemistry
advanced mill
Reagent/media
Alkali fusion
Bioleaching
furnace/kiln
reactor
chemical (NaOH)
micro-organism (fungi)
Energy consumption
High
high
low
Process duration
Intermediate
fast
slow, time-consuming
Process
Simple
complicated
simple and cheap
Environmental aspect
not friendly, requiring safetyaction to

handle nano size product is required
not friendly, producing

a tailings
friendly
109
REFERENCES
Alacova, A., Ficeriova, J, and Golja, M., 2004, Mechanochemistry and preparation of nanocrystalline
materials. Journal Metalurgija 43 (4) 305-309
Aziz, M., 2001, Ekstraksi kalium dari batuan sedimen Jabar, Laporan Teknik.Pusat Penelitian dan
Pengembangan Teknologi Mineral dan Batubara
Badr, M.A., 2006, Efficiency of K-feldspar combined
with organic materials and silicate dissolving bacteria on tomato yield. Journal of Applied Science
Research, 2(12): 1191-1198p.
Center for Geological Resources, 2009, Sumber Daya
Geologi Indonesia. Departemen Energi dan
Sumber Daya Mineral.
Mandalawanto, Y., 1997, Felspar. Bahan Galian Industri. Pusat Penelitian dan Pengembangan Teknologi
Mineral.
Manning, D., 2010. Where in the world is the potash
that we need?. Institute for Research on Environment and Sustainability, Newcastle University,
United Kingdom
Ministry of Agriculture-RI, 2012, NPK fertilizer demand
in Indonesia.
Priyono, J., Penggunaan batuan silikat sebagai pupuk
ramah lingkungan in www.ntb.litbang.deptan.go.id
accessed on April 9th, 2012 at 9.00 am

van Straaten, P., 2002, Rocks for crops: Agrominerals
of sub-Saharan Africa, ICRAF, Nairobi, Kenya.
Gorbushina, A. A. 2006. Fungi in biogeochemical

cycles. British Mycological Society Symposia, 24.
Cambridge University Press, England.
Ubaldin, S., Piga, L., Fornari, P., and Massidda, R.,

1996. Removal of iron from quartz sands: A study
by column leaching using a complete factorial
design. Hydrometallurgy Vol.40, 369-379p.
Handayani, S., Wahyudi, T. and Suratman. 2009. Studi

bioleaching batuan fosfat menggunakan jamur
Aspergillus niger.Jurnal Teknologi Mineral dan
Batubara, Vol. 5, No. 4.
Wahyudi, T., Purnomo, H. and Wahyudi, A., 2012, Pemrosesan mineral untuk bahan pupuk skala pilot di
Citatah. Unpublished report. RDCMCT, Bandung
http://www.umich.edu/-chemh215, accessed on April

26th, 2012 at 03 pm.
Warmada, I W., and Titisari, A.D., 2004, Agromineralogi

(Mineralogi untuk Ilmu Pertanian), Universitas
Gajah Mada.
Kleiv, R.A., 2007, Production of mechanically activated

rock flour fertilizer by high intensive ultrafine grinding, Minerals Engineering, Vol. 20, No. 4.
Wolf, F.A., and Wolf, F.T., 1997. The fungi. John Wiley
& Sons, New York, 69-74p.
Kusdarto, 2008, Eksplorasi umum agromineral di Kabupaten Situbondo, Provinsi Jawa Timur, Prosiding Pemaparan Hasil Kegiatan Lapangan. Pusat
Sumber Daya Geologi.
Yamagata, C., Andrade, J.B., Ussui, V., de Lima, N.B.,

and Paschoal, J.O.A., 2010, High purity zirconi
and silica powders via wet process: Alkali fusion
of zircon sand, International Conference on Powder Tech.
Maochun, C., Yongkui, Z., Benhe, Z., Liyou, Q., and Bin,
L., 2002. Growth kinetics of Thiobacilli strain HSS
and its application in bioleaching phosphate ore.
Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. No. 41, 1329-1334p.
110
Yuexin, H., Jie, L., and Wanzhong, Y., 2009, Research

on the mechanism of the dissociation of potassium
shale during roasting, J. Advanced Materials Research, Vol. 58.
Impact
Indonesian
of CorporateMining
Social Responsibility
Journal Vol.
(CSR)
16, No.
in Indonesia
2, June 2013
... Ukar
: 111
W.-Soelistijo
119
Impact of Corporate Social Responsibility

(CSR) In Indonesia: A Case Study of General
Mining Industries
DAMPAK TANGGUNG JAWAB SOSIAL PERUSAHAAN (CSR)
DI INDONESIA: STUDI KASUS INDUSTRI PERTAMBANGAN UMUM
UKAR W. SOELISTIJO
Department of Mining, Faculty of Engineering
Bandung Islamic University
Jl. Taman Sari No. 1 Bandung
Faculty of Mining and Oil Engineering
Institute of Technology Bandung
Jl. Ganesha No. 10 Bandung
e-mail: ukarws@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Mining companies as the stakeholder of the community should implement community development (CD) as a
translation of corporate social responsibility (CSR). In other words, they should involve business activities for
developing humankind. The application of CSR in the general mining in Indonesia is expected to encourage mining company to allocate its profit for developing the local people who live around mining area. The quantitative
models for evaluating the CD impact include net social gains (NSG) and net gain coefficient (NGC). The NGC
shows that the value between 1 to 23% of the companies revenue has satisfied the local people. The values
could be increased in the future to make beneficial for the regional sustainable development.
Keywords: CSR, general mining industries, local people
SARI
Perusahaan pertambangan sebagai pemangku kepentingan dari masyarakat perlu melaksanakan pengembangan
masyarakat (CD) sebagai terjemahan tanggung jawab sosial perusahaan (CSR). Dengan kata lain, mereka perlu
ikut serta dalam upaya kegiatan untuk pengembangan kemanusiaan. Penerapan CSR di dalam pertambangan
umum di Indonesia diharapkan dapat mendorong perusahaan pertambangan untuk mengalokasikan keuntungannya bagi pengembangan masyarakat setempat yang tinggal di sekitar daerah pertambangan. Model-model
kuantifikasi yang digunakan untuk mengevaluasi dampak CD meliputi manfaat sosisal neto (NSG) dan koefisien
perolehan neto (NGC). NGC menunjukkan bahwa pada kisaran nilai antara 1 dan 23% perolehan perusahaan
telah bermanfaat bagi masyarakat setempat. Nilai-nilai tersebut, sudah tentu, dapat ditingkatkan di masa datang
untuk menciptakan manfaat bagi pengembangan wilayah berkelanjutan.
Kata kunci: CSR, industri petambangan umum, masyarakat setempat
Received : 14 October 2011, first revision : 15 November 2012, second revision : 26 February 2013, accepted : June 2013
111
INTRODUCTION
Indonesia has abundant mineral resources such
as oil and gas, coal, metallic- and non-metallicminerals, radioactive- as well as rock materials.
Since 1970s, the country has produced several
varieties of metallic minerals and coal, for instance
iron sand, bauxite, tin, copper, gold, silver and
nickel and step by step, it developed the added
value processing technology, e.g., gold/silver,
tin, aluminum, copper and nickel. Moreover, in
the broader sense, the simple meaning of added
value is the result of techno-economic transformation from the initial condition of mineral resources
and commodity toward the condition with the
greater value of economic, utilization and usefulness than before, then this new condition would
contribute positive impact upon the economic,
social and culture at the level of global, regional,
national and local (Soelistijo, 2013).
The accredited mining enterprise includes the
successfulness indicator both in the fields of
financial management and mining enterprise.
Moreover, a more specific indicators of financial
management include several matters such as,
(1) an enterprise characterized by good governance and clean management, that is supported
by systematic/professional, accountable and
transparent/auditable financial management system; (2) the system of fund raising (debt equity,
loan rescheduling, diversification of enterprising,
and services development; (3) the system of
book-keeping; and (4) the system of audit. The
indicators of mining enterprise management may
include the activities from upstream (resource/reserve management), management of production
activities, up to downstream activities (marketing
management) and problems relating to regional
development (Herfindahls, 1974; Isard, 1975;
Richardson, 1979) and including CSR (corporate
social responsibility) (Anonymous (h), 2004).
The indicators of successfulness in the mining
enterprise either in the financial management
or in the business management is indicated by
internal capability in relation to the least cost and
the optimal profit obtained as well as by external
capability in relation to optimal benefit for the nation where the enterprise operate. For instance,
in the case of accountable tax paying and optimal
benefit for the regional development including local community development as a corporate social
responsibility.
112
Related to the title of this study, it was the successful indicator of mining management from the
upstream activities to downstream activities and
the problems relating to the environment which
include corporate social responsibility (CSR) as
part mission of regional development. Thus, CSR
is one of the present important parameters as
indicated that the company is the stakeholder of
the community.
The core content and understanding of CSR as
the meaning of community development (CD) is
a form of stimulant for the industry to make effectual CD so that it can be more beneficial for
the society and the local government. Moreover,
the CSR will implement and utilize the concept
of sustainable development in the country as
well. However, it can be simplified that CD is an
instrument to implement CSR in term of foundation for sustainable development in term of the
transformation from the mining economy era into
the non-mining economy era in the forms of the
ever increasing and continuation of the primary,
secondary as well as tertiary economic sectors
beyond the post mining era. Indonesia has tried
to implement the CSR in relation to CD in the field
of energy and mineral resources, oil and natural
gas industries as well as the general mining such
as coal industry.
THEORY AND METHODOLOGY
Theory
The fields of added value in the mineral resource
development is that may include sector or economic as well as regional added value.
Sector or economic added value means the
value gained by the process of vertical enrichment and it can contribute to the national income
or gross domestic product (GDP) or upstreamdownstream added value. This macroeconomic
added value could create multiplying effects that
could be measured by using economic multiplier
and linkages.
The another added value is regional one meant
as the beneficial for the local people coming from
such as corporate social responsibility (CSR). The
mining company as the servant of the community
should implement community development as
translation of their CSR for the development of
Impact of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) in Indonesia ... Ukar W. Soelistijo
humankind as well (Figure 1) toward regional

resilience due to firm and positive interaction
between the mining companies and the local
community. Those two types of added value could
measure the beneficial of the mining activity in
the economic field at the level of national as well
as regional.
NSG = (uj mj rj) vj f sj vj + Ej

DRC = f sj vj + Ej / (uj mj rj) vjss
NGC = NSG / Total Output
basic concept of cSr in the context of regional development
Government:
Central, Province,
Regency/City,
District, Village
Article 33,
Verse 3
1945
Constitution
Regional
Development
Natural
resources
(including
minerals)
Community Development
Ecological Social Justice
Personal spiritual
Sustainability of
mining business
Regional/
Local Residence
Social, Economics
Culture
Regional
mission
Political Security
Environment
Mining
companies
Harmonic
relationship
between company
and community
Community
welfare
NGO
Figure 1. Basic concept of CSR in the context of regional development
Methodology
In principle, NSG is the difference between the
company revenue and the cost of production.
While, the profit or loss is called net external effects (NEE). The positive NEE means that the
impact of the existence of mining companies is
beneficial to the lives of the local people. The
negative NEE means that the mining companies
create social unrest. NEE consists of backward
and forward linkages, technological, final demand
and fiscal linkages of the company as well.
The formula for calculating NSG is as followed
(Pearson and Cownie, 1974):
where:
DRC = Domestic Resource Cost
NGC = Net Gain Coefficient
uj is export revenue of sector j;
mj is intermediate goods imported;
rj is repatriation;
v is shadow price;
f is commodity price;
E is external effects.
Quantitatively the social-economic benefits of
CSR for the local development could be identified
among others by using the net social gains (NSG)
113
model, in this case, the net gain coefficient (NGC)

has been practiced in general and manufacturing
industries (see Tables 1 and 2).
Based on the above-mentioned data, it was observed that the NGC ranges from 1 % to 61.62
%. It therefore means that the contribution of
the mining companies in Indonesia related to
CD as the core of CSR could be encouraged to
be instrumental in sustainable regional or local
development as well. It depends on the government approaches or policies and the spirit of the
companies.
In relation to COW the financial benefit at the
national was estimated at 55% of the companies
revenue and around 60% of the Coal COW revenue was gained by Indonesia. Net social gain
from the COW companies and the State-owned
companies were between 1% 23% of their
revenues gained by the local community in the
form of their participation in the regional development which include the environment protection
and CSR. Nevertheless it is advised that those
amounts should be increased and enforced in
the future.
CSR is a measuring instrument of community
development (CD) that could be utilized from the
company. From the community point of view, the
CD instrument could be measured by using Human Development Index (HDI) such as human basic needs (clothes, food, housing), education and
health toward the measurement of their wealth.
Economically, wealth of the community could be
measured by their currency, assets and bound as
well. Macro-economically, HDI of the Indonesia
people could be seen on Table 3. Between 1975
and 2011 the HDI significantly increased. For
example, in the case of Papua human resource
development carried out by PT Freeport Indonesia
(PT FI), it shows that the current operational and
partnership program were running successfully.
This program is aimed at lifting the Papua people
in term of their professional and self-confidence
in the era of globalization, so that they are able
to secure job wherever they want. Since the
Indonesia Human development Index (HDI) in
the years of 2001-2006 was about 68.2 (UNDP;
2002), then HDI of South Jakarta Province is estimated at 75.7 (the highest one), Yogyakarta 7.3,
Mimika Regency (where PT Freeport Indonesia
copper mine is located) 64.8 and Jaya Wijaya
Regency 47.0 (the lowest one). It is shown that
Mimika Regency HDI exists at the middle score
114
(Anonymous (e), 2006). In 2011, Papua province

still has the ranking of 64.9 as the lowest among
the provincial ranking in Indonesia, where Nduga
Regency in Papua also has the lowest ranking of
48.0 among other regencies in the country (Table
3). In 2012, Indonesia reached HDI of 72.9 and
Jakarta of 78.2.
CSR of PT Freeport Indonesia with the net gain
coefficient (NGC) is about 0.83 % in 1999, 2.01 in
2006 and it is indicated of about 1.08% (in 2010)
(Anonymous (h), 2004). In comparison with that
of NGC PT Aneka Tambang (Gebe nickel mine)
is of 4.60% (1990) and iron sand mine at Kutoarjo
is 22.46 % in 2002, PT Batubara Bukit Asam
coal mine 4.31% in 1999 and 4.04% in 2008, PT
INCO (Soroako nickel mine) was 1.28% in 1989
to 2.54% in 2005. The lowest NGC is PT Adaro
(coal mine) which is 0.59% in 2001. {Achyar, 2007;
Amrullah, 2007; Anonymous (a), (c), 2006; Anonymous (b), 2011; ; Anonymous (g), 2012; PT Aneka
Tambang Tbk, 2002, 2004; PT Bukit Asam Tbk,,
2000; Soelistijo, 1984, 2004, 2010, 2011; Soelistijo, et al, 1995, 2002, 2003; Saleh, 1991, 1992;
Mujib 1991, 1992, 2003; Saefudin, 1992, Sugandi,
1992; Toni, 2009}. CSR of any mining companies
could be said to have been successfully carried
out in the region where the companies operate.
The local people obtain maximum benefit to provide for their professional, so that they could face
their own future sustainability in terms of human,
social, economy and environment harmoniously
as a whole. In principle, however, the program
of CSR should be compulsory to encourage and
increase the mining companies awareness in the
form and part of regional development. In fact, that
CSR is a compulsory assignment to the private
companies as well as state-owned companies
based on the existing laws and government regulations {Anonymous (d), (e), (f), 2007}.
CONCLUSION
The role of the mining company is obviously
important to carry out community development
functions mainly for the local people as part of the
regional development program. Many examples,
for instances, PT Freeport Indonesia, PT Antam,
PT BA, PT Adaro, PT INCO (PT Vale Indonesia)
have allocated regional development especially
CSR program activities in the forms of facilities
and infrastructure at least 1-22% of their annual
corporate budget. It is intended to support the
development of the physical and non-physical
n.a
n.a.
n.a
n.a
0.0024
109.0
(8.12%)
0.0812
3.4
0.3
1.4
0.7
0.4
2.8
n.a
n.a.
(22.46%)
0.2246
8.0
2.2
1.4
0.9
2.1
6.6
n.a.
27.0
Kutoarjo
Iron sand
mining
(PT Aneka
Tambang) +)
2002
n.a
n.a
(4.60%)
0.0460
4.9
0.2
1.1
2.9
0.6
4.8
0.1
107.1
108.2
n.a
n.a
(10.4%)
0.1040
2.2
0.04
0.9
0.2
1.2
2.2
0.2
81.8
82.0
0.0747
69.8
(4.21%)
0.0421
4.4
0.3
2.4
0.8
0.6
4.1
0.8
106.7
106.9
Gebe
Kijang
Pomalaa
Nickel
Bauxite
Nickel
Mine
Mining
Mine
(PT Aneka
(PT Aneka
(PT Aneka
Tambang) Tambang) @) Tambang)
1990
1990
1990
n.a
n.a
(0.59%)
0.0059
23.1
23.1
n.a
3919.1
PT Adaro
Coal
Mine
2001
n.a
n.a
(1.08%, 2010)
(2.01%, 2006)
0.0201)
729.1
n.a
n.a
n.a
n.a
PT Freeport
Indonesia
2006
Sources: *) The only latest available data. #) PTBA Ombilin coal mine wa sterminated in 1997. +) Kijang bauxite mine was terminated in 1999 @) Kutoarjo iron sand mine was terminated
in 2004.
Achyar, 2007; Amrullah, 2007; Anonymous (a), 2006; Toni, 2009; Soelistijo, et al, 1995, 2003, 2010,2011; Saleh, et al, 1991,1992; Sugandi, et al, 1992; Mujib, et al, 1991,
1992, 2003; Saefudin, 1992; PT Aneka Tambang 2002, 2004; PT Bukit Asam , 2000, Triyono, 2007.
CSR study program was just initiated by Mineral Technology Development Center (MTDC) in the early 1990s and resulted CSR studies of the only several mining companies.
It is intended that the every mining company in cooperation with the related research institutions and universities to carry out CSR studies from now and on to anticipate the
update data and information due to its important evaluation for the national interest for frontier development.
In fact, Directorate General of Mineral and Coal as the competent institution in this program, just initiating pilot CSR studies project in 2013 in cooperation with the universities
and research institutions, and the result has not yet come up.
5. Economic rent ratio

(NSG/Total asset)
Total Asset
(4.04%
(2.54%)
231.0
3.4
0.0404
- Technological linkages.
7.1
146.2
220.6
- Final demand linkages
0.0254
- Fiscal linkages.
31.3
188.0
4. Net Gain Coefficient (NGC)
- Forward and backward linkages
219.0
3. Net Social Gain (NSG)
Consisted of:
2. Net external effect (NEE)
0.6
40.9
41.6
40.1
1.6
5719.1
Ombilin
Coal
Mine
(PT Bukit
AsamA) #)
1990
1. Economic rent
8677.8
PT Bukit
Asam
Coal
Mine
2008
Input
Output
Variable
PT INCO
Soroako
nikckel
mining
2005
Table 1. The linkage effects of the mining companies on the regional or local social economies using NSG model *)
115
116
0,0254
-2,54%
-2,91%
(4,31%,
1999)
0,0291
3821,71
Tanjung
Enim, Muara
Enim, South
Suamtera
PTBA Tbk
(1989)
-8,12%
0,0812
3369,21
-4,59%
0,0459
4963,21
-10,46%
0,1046
3349,31
Gebe Island, Kijang, Riau

Halmahera,
Archpelago
North Maluku
Sawahlunto,
West
Sumatera
Bauxite Kijang (1990)
Nickel Gebe
Island (1990)
Ombilin Coal
(1990)
-4,21%
0,0421
4462,18
Pomalaa,
Kolaka,
South-East
Sulawesi
Nickel
Pomalaa
(1990)
Coal PT
Adaro
(2000) ***)
Copper PT FI
(1990)
-17,42%
0,1742
1633,21
-0,80%
0,008
23100
-0,83%
0,0083
19860
Cilacap,
South
Tembagapuer,
Central Java Kalimantan Mimika, Papua
Iron Sand
Cilacap
(2003)
Sources: *) See comments on Table 1.

Achyar, 2007; Amrullah, 2007,Anonymous (a), 2006; Anonymous (g), 2012;Freeport McMoran, 2010; Toni, 2009; Soelistijo, et al, 1995, 2003, 2010, 2011; Saleh, et al, 1991,1992;
Sugandi, et al, 1992; Mujib, et al, 1991, 1992, 2003; Saefudin, 1992; PT Aneka Tambang 2002, 2004; PT Bukit Asam , 2000, Triyono, 2007.
NGC= NSG / output
220574,7
II. Net Sosial Gain/

NSG (IDR billion)
III. Net Gain Coefficient
Soroako,
Luwu,
South
Sulawesi
PT Inco Tbk
(2005) **)
I. Location
Variable
Table 2. Net Social Gain (NSG) and Net Gain Coefficient (NGC) of the several mining companies in Indonesia *)
Table 3. Historical trend of human development index (HDI) in Indonesia,1975-2012

Year
Score (Ranking)
Indonesia
National
1975
46.4
1980
52.6
1985
57.8
1990
61.9
1995
65.9
1998
67.0 (100)
1999
67.7 (102)
2000
68.4 (110)
2001
68.2 (112)
2005
68.3 (112.2)
2006
68.4 (112.3)
2007
68.9 (118.2)
2008
69.6 (119.4)
2009
70.8 (121.4)
Other country (Norway)
Region
2010
71.8 (123.1)
2011 a)
72 3 (124) b)
77.6 (Jakarta) c)
79.5 (South Jakarta) d)
48.0 (Nduga Regency) e)
2012
72.9 (125.0)
78.2 (Jakarta)
96.5
(Number 1 of the world ranking)
Sources: UNDP, 2013.; Wibawa, 2012; Badan Pusat Statistik, 2011; Sagir, 2009. Recalculated.
development for the resilience and welfare local people under the transformation concept of
mining sustainability development, in particular
toward their future in the post mining period.
The CD fundings from the mining companies
between 2005 and 2010 were allocated around
IDR 0.8 trillion in 2005 up to IDR 1.16 trillion in
2010 or increased almost 50% within that period.
This amount of funding could be able to increase
the socio-economic, cultural and humankind of
the local people through the mechanism of partnership between the mining company and the
local people. This phenomena could translate
the implementation of the meaning of corporate
social responsibility (CSR) as the sustainability in
terms of humankind, social, economic and environmental development in the country. Especially
the mining company which operates in the remote
areas, so as to function as a prime-mover of the
development as well. It is necessary to encourage the mining companies, if it is necessary by
regulation, to increase stage by stage their annual
budget for CSR program in line with the spirit of
the Indonesian Constitution.
Acknowledgement
The author whises to thanks Research and Development Center for Mineral and Coal Technology,
Bandung Islamic University and Bandung Institute
of Technology, Indonesia for providing data to be
written as a manuscript.
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Coal Geochemistry

COAL GEOCHEMISTRY OF THE UNCONVENTIONAL

Indonesian Mining Journal Vol. 16, No. 2, June 2013 : 71 - 81

Indonesian Mining Journal Vol. 16, No. 2, June 2013 : 71 - 81

According to Amijaya (2005), the development

to anthracite coals up to 5.18% Ro (Amijaya and

Indonesian Mining Journal Vol. 16, No. 2, June 2013 : 71 - 81

The petrographic composition of the coalbed has

Results and Discussion

The rank and maceral composition of coal affect

Coalbed porosity in the Rambutan Field ranges

Methane in coal is derived from both biogenic and

Coalbed Reservoir (Seam) Depth

b. Top depth Seam 3 (m)

c. Top depth Seam 5 (m)

Coal Seam Thickness (m)

Moisture Content (%)

Volatile Matter (%)

Ash Content (%)

Coal Density (g/cc)

CO2 Content (measured from canister, mol %)

CO2 Content (measured from seam/ well, mol %)

N2 (measured from seam/ well, mol %)

0.3 < 0.5

and basin hydrology. Hardly, any information is

With increasing coalification resulting from higher

Indonesian Mining Journal Vol. 16, No. 2, June 2013 : 71 - 81

b. Muaraenim Coalbed Reservoir Properties

depth. Although it might be noted that there is not

high degree of under-saturation indicative

are carried out to determine these parameters

it is also recommended to further integration of properties measured in the corehole

Indonesian Mining Journal Vol. 16, No. 2, June 2013 : 71 - 81

tal petroleum system. U.S. Geol. Survey Open

Paper presented at the SPE Asia Pacific Oil & Gas

Boyd, J.D. and Peacock, S.G, 1986. Sedimentological

Brom. R., 1976. A petrophysical study of the upgraded

Moore, T.A., 2010. Critical Reservoir Properties for Low

Sosrowidjojo, I.B. and Saghafi, A., 2009. Development

Mazumder, S. and Sosrowidjojo, I.B., 2010. The Late

Stevens, S.H. and Hadiyanto, 2004. Indonesia: coalbed

Van Gorsel, J.T., 1988. Geological fieldtrip to South

Indonesian Mining Journal Vol. 16, No. 2, June 2013 : 82 - 92

STUDY OF COMPRESSIONAL AND SHEAR WAVE

the vertical and horizontal directions. The energy

Indonesian Mining Journal Vol. 16, No. 2, June 2013 : 82 - 92

cal formation of the area is shown in Figure 1.

the P-wave velocity (Vp) and S-wave velocity

Figure 1. Location of DHS tests and geotechnical sampling

The main concept of this study is to search and

Field Insitu Tests

modulus, and Youngs modulus (Soupios, et.al.,

Figure 2. Schematic of DHS test

Indonesian Mining Journal Vol. 16, No. 2, June 2013 : 82 - 92

travel time throughout the sample. The velocity

Vp is compressional wave velocity, Ls is length

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Figure 3. Schematic equipments of UPV test

Test III (28 m)

Indonesian Mining Journal Vol. 16, No. 2, June 2013 : 82 - 92

Figure 5. Correlation between Vs from DHS and Vs from UPV tests

VsL is shear wave velocity from laboratory test and

at 20-40 meters in depth. Based on equation 5,