Fermi Level

"Fermi level" is the term used to describe the top of the collection of
electron energy levels at absolute zero temperature. This concept
comes from Fermi-Dirac statistics. Electrons are fermions and by
thePauli exclusion principle cannot exist in identical energy states. So
at absolute zero they pack into the lowest available energy states and
build up a "Fermi sea" of electron energy states. The Fermi level is the
surface of that sea at absolute zero where no electrons will have
enough energy to rise above the surface. The concept of the Fermi
energy is a crucially important concept for the understanding of the
electrical and thermal properties of solids. Both ordinary electrical and
thermal processes involve energies of a small fraction of an electron
volt. But the Fermi energies of metals are on the order of electron
volts. This implies that the vast majority of the electrons cannot receive
energy from those processes because there are no available energy Index
states for them to go to within a fraction of an electron volt of their
present energy. Limited to a tiny depth of energy, these interactions are Semiconductor
limited to "ripples on the Fermi sea". concepts

"Tingkat Fermi" adalah istilah yang digunakan untuk menggambarkan Semiconductors

bagian atas kumpulan tingkat energi elektron pada suhu nol mutlak. for electronics
Konsep ini berasal dari statistik Fermi-Dirac. Elektron fermion dan
dengan prinsip eksklusi Pauli tidak bisa eksis dalam keadaan energi
identik. Jadi pada nol mutlak mereka berkemas ke negara terendah
energi yang tersedia dan membangun sebuah "Fermi laut" dari keadaan
energi elektron. Tingkat Fermi adalah permukaan yang laut di nol
mutlak di mana tidak ada elektron akan memiliki energi yang cukup
untuk naik di atas permukaan. Konsep energi Fermi merupakan konsep
yang sangat penting untuk memahami sifat listrik dan termal padatan.
Kedua proses listrik dan termal biasa melibatkan energi sebagian kecil
dari volt elektron. Tapi energi Fermi logam berada di urutan volt
elektron. Ini berarti bahwa sebagian besar elektron tidak dapat
menerima energi dari proses-proses tersebut karena tidak ada keadaan
energi yang tersedia bagi mereka untuk pergi ke dalam sebagian kecil
dari sebuah volt elektron energi mereka saat ini. Terbatas kedalaman
kecil energi, interaksi ini terbatas pada "riak di laut Fermi".
At higher temperatures a certain
fraction, characterized by the Fermi
function, will exist above the Fermi
level. The Fermi level plays an
important role in the band theory of
solids. In doped semiconductors, p-
typeand n-type, the Fermi level is
shifted by the impurities, illustrated by
their band gaps. The Fermi level is
referred to as the electron chemical
potential in other contexts.

Pada suhu yang lebih tinggi sebagian

kecil tertentu, yang ditandai dengan
fungsi Fermi, akan ada di atas tingkat
Fermi. Tingkat Fermi memainkan peran
penting dalam teori pita zat padat.
Dalam semikonduktor didoping, tipe-p
dan tipe-n, tingkat Fermi digeser oleh
kotoran, digambarkan oleh kesenjangan
band mereka. Tingkat Fermi disebut
sebagai potensial kimia elektron dalam
konteks lain.

In metals, the Fermi energy gives us

information about the velocities of the
electrons which participate in ordinary
electrical conduction. The amount of
energy which can be given to an
electron in such conduction processes is
on the order of micro-electron volts
(seecopper wire example), so only those
electrons very close to the Fermi energy
can participate. The Fermi velocity of
these conduction electrons can be
calculated from the Fermi energy.

Dalam logam, energi Fermi memberi

kita informasi tentang kecepatan
elektron yang berpartisipasi dalam
konduksi listrik biasa. Jumlah energi
yang dapat diberikan untuk sebuah
elektron dalam proses konduksi tersebut
di urutan volt mikro elektron (lihat
contoh kawat tembaga), sehingga hanya
mereka elektron sangat dekat dengan
energi Fermi dapat berpartisipasi. Fermi
kecepatan elektron konduksi ini dapat
dihitung dari energi Fermi.

Table

This speed is a part of the microscopic

Ohm's Law for electrical conduction.
For a metal, the density of conduction
electrons can be implied from the Fermi
energy.

Kecepatan ini adalah bagian dari Hukum

Ohm mikroskopis untuk konduksi
listrik. Untuk logam, kepadatan elektron
konduksi dapat tersirat dari energi
Fermi.

The Fermi energy also plays an important role in understanding the

mystery of why electrons do not contribute significantly to the specific
heat of solids at ordinary temperatures, while they are dominant
contributors to thermal conductivity and electrical conductivity. Since
only a tiny fraction of the electrons in a metal are within the thermal
energy kT of the Fermi energy, they are "frozen out" of the heat
capacity by the Pauli principle. At very low temperatures, the electron
specific heat becomes significant.

Fermi energi juga memainkan peran penting dalam memahami misteri

mengapa elektron tidak memberikan kontribusi yang signifikan untuk
panas spesifik dari padatan pada suhu biasa, sementara mereka
kontributor dominan terhadap konduktivitas termal dan konduktivitas
listrik. Karena hanya sebagian kecil dari elektron dalam logam berada
dalam energi kT termal dari energi Fermi, mereka "terdepak" dari
kapasitas panas dengan prinsip Pauli. Pada suhu yang sangat rendah,
elektron tertentu panas menjadi signifikan.

Fermi energies for metals

Table of Fermi energies

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 Fermi Function
The Fermi function f(E) gives the probability that a given available electron
energy state will be occupied at a given temperature. The Fermi function comes
from Fermi-Dirac statistics and has the form

Fermi fungsi f (E) memberikan probabilitas bahwa keadaan energi yang

tersedia elektron diberikan akan ditempati pada suhu tertentu. Fungsi Fermi
berasal dari statistik Fermi-Dirac dan memiliki bentuk

The basic nature of this function dictates that at ordinary temperatures, most of
the levels up to the Fermi level EF are filled, and relatively few electrons have
energies above the Fermi level. The Fermi level is on the order of electron volts
(e.g., 7 eV for copper), whereas the thermal energy kT is only about 0.026 eV
at 300K. If you put those numbers into the Fermi function at ordinary Index
temperatures, you find that its value is essentially 1 up to the Fermil level, and
rapidly approaches zero above it. Semiconductor
concepts
Sifat dasar fungsi ini menyatakan bahwa pada suhu biasa, sebagian besar
tingkat ke tingkat EF Fermi diisi, dan relatif sedikit elektron memiliki energi di Semiconductors
atas tingkat Fermi. Tingkat Fermi adalah di urutan volt elektron (misalnya, 7 for electronics
eV untuk tembaga), sedangkan energi panas kT hanya sekitar 0,026 eV di
300K. Jika Anda menempatkan angka-angka ke dalam fungsi Fermi pada suhu
biasa, Anda menemukan bahwa nilai dasarnya 1 sampai ke tingkat Fermi, dan
cepat mendekati nol di atasnya.

The illustration below shows the implications of the Fermi function for the
electrical conductivity of a semiconductor. The band theory of solids gives the
picture that there is a sizable gap between the Fermi level and the conduction
band of the semiconductor. At higher temperatures, a larger fraction of the
electrons can bridge this gap and participate in electrical conduction.

Ilustrasi di bawah ini menunjukkan implikasi dari fungsi Fermi untuk

konduktivitas listrik semikonduktor. Teori band padatan memberikan gambaran
bahwa ada kesenjangan yang cukup besar antara tingkat Fermi dan pita
konduksi dari semikonduktor. Pada suhu yang lebih tinggi, sebagian besar dari
elektron dapat menjembatani kesenjangan ini dan berpartisipasi dalam
konduksi listrik.
Note that although the Fermi function has a finite value in the gap, there is no
electron population at those energies (that's what you mean by a gap). The
population depends upon the product of the Fermi function and the electron
density of states. So in the gap there are no electrons because the density of
states is zero. In the conduction band at 0K, there are no electrons even though
there are plenty of available states, but the Fermi function is zero. At high
temperatures, both the density of states and the Fermi function have finite
values in the conduction band, so there is a finite conducting population.

Perhatikan bahwa meskipun fungsi Fermi memiliki nilai terbatas dalam

kesenjangan, tidak ada populasi elektron pada mereka energi (itu yang Anda
maksud dengan celah). Populasi tergantung pada produk dari fungsi Fermi dan
kerapatan elektron negara. Jadi dalam kesenjangan tidak ada elektron karena
kepadatan negara adalah nol. Dalam pita konduksi di 0K, tidak ada elektron
meskipun ada banyak negara yang tersedia, tetapi fungsi Fermi adalah nol.
Pada suhu tinggi, baik kepadatan negara bagian dan fungsi Fermi memiliki nilai
yang terbatas di pita konduksi, sehingga ada populasi budidaya yang terbatas.

Fermi-Dirac distribution as a function of temperature

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 Density of Energy States
The Fermi function gives the probability of occupying an available energy
state, but this must be factored by the number of available energy states to
determine how many electrons would reach the conduction band.This density
of states is the electron density of states, but there are differences in its
implications for conductors and semiconductors. For the conductor, the
density of states can be considered to start at the bottom of the valence band
and fill up to the Fermi level, but since the conduction band and valence band
overlap, the Fermi level is in the conduction band so there are plenty of
electrons available for conduction. In the case of the semiconductor, the
density of states is of the same form, but the density of states for conduction
electrons begins at the top of the gap.

Fungsi Fermi memberikan probabilitas menempati keadaan energi yang

tersedia, tetapi ini harus diperhitungkan dengan jumlah keadaan energi yang Index
tersedia untuk menentukan berapa banyak elektron akan mencapai pita
konduksi. Keadaan kepadatan ini adalah kerapatan elektron dari suatu Semiconductor
keadaan, tetapi ada perbedaan implikasinya terhadap konduktor dan concepts
semikonduktor. Untuk konduktor, keadaan kepadatan dapat dianggap mulai
di bagian bawah pita valensi dan mengisi ke tingkat Fermi, tapi karena pita Semiconductors
konduksi dan pita valensi tumpang tindih, tingkat Fermi dalam pita konduksi for electronics
sehingga ada banyak elektron yang tersedia untuk konduksi. Dalam kasus
semikonduktor, keadaan kepadatan adalah bentuk yang sama, tetapi keadaan Reference
kepadatan untuk elektron konduksi dimulai di bagian atas kesenjangan. Simpson
Sec 4.7

Electron energy density function

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Population of Conduction Band for a

Semiconductor

Index

The population of conduction electrons for a semiconductor is given by Semiconductor

concepts

Show Semiconductors
for electronics

where Reference
Simpson
Sec 4.7

For a semiconductor with bandgap eV (1.1 eV for Si, 0.72 eV for Ge)

at temperature K= °C

the conduction electron population is x10^ electrons/m3.

You could use this calculation to verify that the conduction electron population
Ncb in germanium doubles for about a 13 degree rise in temperature. For
silicon, Ncb doubles for about an 8 degree rise in temperature. Because of the
larger band gap, there will be fewer conduction electrons in silicon than
germanium for any given temperature.

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The Fermi-Dirac Distribution

The Fermi-Dirac distribution applies to fermions, particles with half-
integerspin which must obey the Pauli exclusion principle. Each type
of distribution function has a normalization term multiplying the exponential
in the denominator which may be temperature dependent. For the Fermi-Dirac
case, that term is usually written:

Distribusi Fermi-Dirac berlaku untuk fermion, partikel dengan setengah-bulat

berputar yang harus mematuhi prinsip eksklusi Pauli. Setiap jenis fungsi
distribusi memiliki jangka normalisasi mengalikan eksponensial dalam
denominator yang mungkin bergantung pada temperatur. Untuk kasus Fermi-
Dirac, istilah yang biasanya tertulis:
Index

Applied
statistics
concepts
The significance of the Fermi energy is most clearly seem by setting T=0. At
absolute zero, the probability is =1 for energies less than the Fermi energy
and zero for energies greater than the Fermi energy. We picture all the levels
up to the Fermi energy as filled, but no particle has a greater energy. This is
entirely consistent with the Pauli exclusion principle where each quantum
state can have one but only one particle.

Arti penting dari energi Fermi yang paling jelas tampak dengan menetapkan T
= 0. Pada nol mutlak, probabilitas adalah = 1 untuk energi kurang dari energi
Fermi dan nol untuk energi lebih besar dari energi Fermi. Kami
membayangkan semua tingkat hingga energi Fermi sebagai diisi, tetapi tidak
ada partikel memiliki energi yang lebih besar. Hal ini sepenuhnya konsisten
dengan prinsip eksklusi Pauli di mana setiap negara kuantum dapat memiliki
satu tetapi hanya satu partikel.
 Distribution functions Numerical example
Fermi level in solids Fermi level in band theory of solids

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Index

Fermi-Dirac Details Applied

statistics
concepts
 The Fermi-Dirac distribution.

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 Conduction Electron Population for
Semiconductor

The conduction electron population for a semiconductor is calculated by Index

multiplying the density of conduction electron states (E) times the Fermi
function f(E). The number of conduction electrons as a function of energy is Semiconductor
then given by concepts

Semiconductors
for electronics

Reference
This can be simplified by noting that for the energies of the conduction band, Simpson
E-EF>>1, so the 1 in the denominator of the Fermi function becomes Sec 4.7
insignificant. I.e., the tail of the function which extends into the conduction
band is so far out that it can be approximated by the Boltzmann function. Using
the fact that

EF = Egap/2

The population density can then be written

The total number of electrons in the conduction band, Ncb, can then be obtained
by integrating the above function from the bottom of the conduction band
upward. For all practical purposes, the upper limit of the integral can be taken
to be infinity since by the time we reach the top of the conduction band, the
integrand will be essentially zero.

Calculation

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 Pauli Exclusion Principle
No two electrons in an atom can have identical quantum numbers. This is an example of a general
principle which applies not only to electrons but also to other particles of half-integer spin (fermions).
It does not apply to particles of integer spin (bosons).

Tidak ada dua elektron dalam atom dapat memiliki bilangan kuantum yang sama. Ini adalah contoh
dari prinsip umum yang berlaku tidak hanya untuk elektron tetapi juga untuk partikel lain dari
setengah bulat berputar (fermion). Ini tidak berlaku untuk partikel integer berputar (boson).

The nature of the Pauli exclusion principle

can be illustrated by supposing that electrons
1 and 2 are in states a and b respectively. The
wavefunction for the two electron system
would be

Sifat prinsip eksklusi Pauli dapat

diilustrasikan dengan mengandaikan bahwa
elektron 1 dan 2 berada di negara masing-
Index
masing a dan b. Fungsi gelombang untuk
sistem dua elektron akan
Atomic
Structure
Concepts

but this wavefunction is unacceptable because

the electrons are identical and
indistinguishable. To account for this we must
use a linear combination of the two
possibilities since the determination of which
 electron is in which state is not possible to
determine.

tapi fungsi gelombang ini tidak dapat diterima

karena elektron yang identik dan tidak bisa
dibedakan. Untuk menjelaskan kita ini harus
menggunakan kombinasi linear dari dua
kemungkinan karena penentuan yang elektron
di mana negara tidak mungkin untuk
menentukan.

The wave function for the state in which both states "a" and "b" are occupied by the electrons
can be written

Fungsi gelombang untuk suatu keadaan di mana keduanya menyatakan "a" dan "b" ditempati
oleh elektron dapat ditulis

The Pauli exclusion principle is part of one of our most basic observations of nature: particles
of half-integer spin must have antisymmetric wavefunctions, and particles of integer spin must
have symmetric wavefunctions. The minus sign in the above relationship forces the
wavefunction to vanish identically if both states are "a" or "b", implying that it is impossible
for both electrons to occupy the same state.

Pauli prinsip eksklusi adalah bagian dari salah satu pengamatan yang paling dasar kita tentang
alam: partikel setengah bulat berputar harus memiliki fungsi gelombang antisimetrik, dan
partikel integer berputar harus memiliki fungsi gelombang simetris. Tanda minus dalam
hubungan atas memaksa fungsi gelombang menghilang identik jika kedua negara adalah "a"
atau "b", menyiratkan bahwa tidak mungkin untuk kedua elektron untuk menempati keadaan
yang sama.

Applications

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 Pauli Exclusion Principle Applications
Click on any of the bold text for links to further details.

Index

Atomic
Structure
Concepts

What is the origin of the Pauli exclusion principle?

Ionic bonding

Covalent bonding
Pauli principle role in:
Nuclear shell structure

Nuclear binding energy

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 Spin Classification
One essential parameter for classification of particles is their "spin" orintrinsic
angular momentum. Half-integer spin fermions are constrained by the Pauli
exclusion principle whereas integer spin bosons are not. Theelectron is a
Index
fermion with electron spin 1/2.

The spin classification of particles determines the nature of the energy

distribution in a collection of the particles. Particles of integer spin obeyBose-
Einstein statistics, whereas those of half-integer spin behave according
to Fermi-Dirac statistics.

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 Fermions
Fermions are particles which have half-integer spin and therefore are
constrained by the Pauli exclusion principle. Particles with integer spin are
called bosons. Fermions include electrons, protons, neutrons. The
wavefunction which describes a collection of fermions must be antisymmetric
with respect to the exchange of identical particles, while the wavefunction for
a collection of bosons is symmetric. Index

The fact that electrons are fermions is foundational to the buildup of the
periodic table of the elements since there can be only one electron for each
state in an atom (only one electron for each possible set of quantum numbers).
The fermion nature of electrons also governs the behavior of electrons in a
metal where at low temperatures all the low energy states are filled up to a
level called the Fermi energy. This filling of states is described by Fermi-Dirac
statistics.

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Bosons
Bosons are particles which have integer spin and which therefore are not
constrained by the Pauli exclusion principle like the half-integer spinfermions.
The energy distribution of bosons is described by Bose-Einstein statistics. The
wavefunction which describes a collection of bosons must be symmetric with
respect to the exchange of identical particles, while the wavefunction for a
collection of fermions is antisymmetric.
Index
At low temperatures, bosons can behave very differently than fermions
because an unlimited number of them can collect into the same energy state.
The collection into a single state is called condensation, or Bose-Einstein
condensation. It is responsible for the phenomenon of superfluidity in liquid
helium. Coupled particles can also act effectively as bosons. In the BCS
Theory of superconductivity, coupled pairs of electrons act like bosons and
condense into a state which demonstrates zero electrical resistance.

Bosons include photons and the characterization of photons as particles with

frequency-dependent energy given by the Planck relationship allowed Planck
to apply Bose-Einstein statistics to explain the thermal radiation from a hot
cavity.

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Bose-Einstein Condensation
In 1924 Einstein pointed out that bosons could "condense" in unlimited
numbers into a single ground state since they are governed by Bose-Einstein
statistics and not constrained by the Pauli exclusion principle. Little notice was
taken of this curious possibility until the anomalous behavior of liquid
helium at low temperatures was studied carefully.

When helium is cooled to a critical temperature of 2.17 K, a remarkable

Index
discontinuity in heat capacity occurs, the liquid density drops, and a fraction of
the liquid becomes a zero viscosity "superfluid". Superfluidity arises from the
fraction of helium atoms which has condensed to the lowest possible energy.

A condensation effect is also credited with producing superconductivity. In

the BCS Theory, pairs of electrons are coupled by lattice interactions, and the
pairs (called Cooper pairs) act like bosons and can condense into a state of
zero electrical resistance.

The conditions for achieving a Bose-Einstein condensate are quite extreme.

The participating particles must be considered to be identical, and this is a
condition that is difficult to achieve for whole atoms. The condition
ofindistinguishability requires that the deBroglie wavelengths of the particles
overlap significantly. This requires extremely low temperatures so that the
deBroglie wavelengths will be long, but also requires a fairly high particle
density to narrow the gap between the particles.

Since the 1990s there has been a surge of research

into Bose-Einstein condensation since it was
discovered that Bose-Einstein condensates could be
formed with ultra-cold atoms. The use of laser
cooling and the trapping of ultra-cold atoms
withmagnetic traps has produced temperatures in the
nanokelvin range. Cornell and Wieman along with
Ketterle of MIT received the 2001 Nobel Prize in
Physics "for the achievement of Bose-Einstein
condensation in dilute gases of alkali atoms, and for
early fundamental studies of the properties of the
condensates". Cornell and Wieman led an active
group at the University of Colorado, Boulder which
has produced Bose-Einstein condensates
withrubidium atoms. Other groups at MIT, Harvard
and Rice have been very active in this rapidly
advancing field.

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