Theory and Sources of Knowledge

Superstition and Intuition (Takhayul dan

Intuisi)
• knowledge via superstition Knowledge that is based on subjective feelings,
interpreting random events as nonrandom events, or believing in magical events.
ex: “Bad things happen in threes” , number 13 is bad things
• knowledge via intuition, it means that Knowledge gained without being
consciously aware of its source.

Pengetahuan yang didasarkan pada perasaan subjektif, menafsirkan peristiwa acak

sebagai peristiwa nonrandom, atau percaya pada peristiwa magis. mantan: "Hal
buruk terjadi dalam bertiga", nomor 13 adalah hal yang buruk Pengetahuan melalui
intuisi, itu berarti bahwa Pengetahuan diperoleh tanpa sadar menyadari sumbernya.
Authority (wewenang)
• Knowledge via authority is Knowledge gained from those viewed as
authority figures.
• Our parents provided information that, for the most part, you did not
question, especially when you were very young.
• Gained knowledge from teachers whom you viewed as authority
figures, at times blindly accepting what they said as truth
• Celebrities are often used to deliver the message or a testimonial
concerning a product
• Accepting the word of an authority figure may be a reliable and valid
means of gaining knowledge,
Pseudoscience
Pseudosains mengklaim bahwa tampaknya ilmiah tetapi itu benar-
benar melanggar kriteria ilmu pengetahuan.
• contoh. Mereka yang percaya pada persepsi ekstrasensori (ESP,
pseudosains) sering berdebat dengan fakta bahwa tidak ada contoh
ESP yang dapat diverifikasi secara publik yang pernah
didokumentasikan melalui empirisme sistematis..
Tujuan Ilmu Pengetahuan

Deskripsi adalah hati-hati mengamati perilaku untuk

menggambarkannya.
Prediksi memungkinkan kita untuk mengidentifikasi faktor-faktor yang
menunjukkan kapan suatu peristiwa atau peristiwa akan terjadi.
Penjelasan memungkinkan kita untuk mengidentifikasi penyebab yang
menentukan kapan dan mengapa perilaku terjadi.
•
Metode Penelitian dalam Sains

• Descriptive Methods
• Metode observasional ex. Melakukan pengamatan perilaku manusia atau
hewan.
• Pengamatan naturalistik ex. Mengamati perilaku manusia atau hewan di
habitat alami mereka.
• Observasi laboratorium Ex. Mengamati perilaku manusia atau hewan dalam
situasi yang lebih terkontrol dan terkendali, biasanya laboratorium.
• Metode studi kasus ex. Studi mendalam tentang satu atau lebih individu.
• Survey method— mempertanyakan individu tentang suatu topik atau topik
dan kemudian menjelaskan tanggapan mereka.
• Predictive (Relational) Methods
• Correlational method Is A method that assesses the degree of relationship
between two variables.
• Ex. Correlation between height and weight
• One problem with correlational research is that it is often misinterpreted.
• Correlation does not imply causation.
• Positive relationship is A relationship between two variables in which an increase in one
variable is accompanied by an increase in the other variable.
• Negative relationship Is A relationship between two variables in which an increase in one
variable is accompanied by a decrease in the other variable.
• Quasi-experimental method Research that compares naturally occurring groups of
individuals; the variable of interest cannot be manipulated.
Ex. We could examine whether alcohol consumption by students in a fraternity or sorority differs
from that of students not in such organizations
• Alternative explanation is The idea that it is possible that some other, uncontrolled,
extraneous variable may be responsible for the observed relationship.
example, maybe those who choose to join Greek organizations come from higher-income families and
have more money to spend on such things as alcohol.
• Explanatory Method
• Experimental method A research method that allows a researcher to
establish a cause- and-effect relationship through manipulation of a variable
and control of the situation.
• The researcher manipulates at least one variable (known as the independent
variable) and measures at least one variable (known as the dependent
variable).
• The control group is the group that serves as the baseline or “standard”
condition.
• The experimental group is the group that receives the treatment
• Random assignment is Assigning participants to conditions in such a way that
every participant has an equal probability of being placed in any condition.
Resources of Knowledge
Selecting a Problem
• Getting started on a research project begins with selecting a problem
• How to find a problem:
• One place to start is with past research on a topic
• A second place from which to generate ideas is past theories on a topic.
• A third source of ideas for a research project is observation
• Ideas for research projects are often generated from practical problems
encountered in daily life.
Reviewing the Literature
• Library Research
• Journals
• Abstract
• Text book
• Other Resources
Reading a Journal Article: What to Expect
• Abstract
• The Abstract is a brief description of the entire paper that typically discusses each section of the paper
• Introduction
• The Introduction has three basic components:
• an introduction to the problem under study;
• a review of relevant previous research, which cites works that are pertinent to the issue but not works of marginal or peripheral significance;

• the purpose and rationale for the study.

• Method
• The Method section describes exactly how the study was conducted, in sufficient detail
• Results
• The Results section summarizes the data collected and the type of statistic used to analyze the data.
• Discussion
• The results are evaluated and interpreted in the Discussion section.
• Relationship between the results and past research and theories
• Criticisms of the study (such as possible confounds) and implications for future research are presented.
Definition of Classes and Levels of
Evidence
Applying Classification of Recommendations and Level of Evidence
Summary
• There are various sources of knowledge, including intuition,
superstition, authority, tenacity, rationalism, empiricism, and science.
• It is importance of using the scientific method to gain knowledge
• The scientific method is a combination of empiricism and rationalism;
• It must meet the criteria of systematic empiricism, public verification,
and empirically solvable problems.
• There aret three goals of science (description, prediction, and
explanation) and related them to the research methods
• It is important how to select a problem and conduct a literature search
Thank you