Perkembangan Manajemen

Seiring perkembangan jaman dan teknologi, pola-pola manajemen mulai bergeser

Manajemen 2.0 (terbaru) mulai hadir dengan ciri: Menghilangkan ketakutan. Meningkatkan
kepercayaan.Mengurangi control. Mengurangi lapisan struktur organisasi. Siklus perencanaan makin
pendek. Humanisasi bahasa dan praktik bisnis (2010:5)

Asumsi memahami manusia: Kebanyakan orang di kebanyakan waktu ingin berbuat baik. Individu itu unik dan
masing-masing memiliki potensi yang luar biasa. Motivasi sudah ada dalam diri manusia, kita hanya perlu
menyingkirkan hambatannya. Kepuasan dan kekecewaan tidak berada dalam satu kontinum. Membina hubungan
interpersonal mutlak diperlukan. Output proses (P)= kontribusi individu (X) + kontribusi sistem (Y) + kontribusi
interaksi keduanya (XY).
What is an Organization?

Organisasi intangible,, kita melihat produk dan pelayanan yang diberikan organisasi tersebut.

Organisasi adalah tool yang digunakan oleh orang-orang untuk mengkoordinasikan aksi mereka untuk
mencapai tujuan mereka.

Organization is a response to and a means of satisfying some human need. Organizations provide goods
and services. Organizations bring together people and resources to produce products and services

How Does an Organization Create Value?

Value creation takes place at three stages: Inputs: include human resources, information and knowledge,
raw materials, money and capital. Conversion: the way the organization uses human resources and
technology to transform inputs into outputs. Output: finished products and services that the organization
releases to its environment

Values atau tata nilai adalah kumpulan nilai yang diturunkan dari sesuatu yang dipercayai (ending belief)
dan memberikan kekuatan bila dijalankan. Tata nilai dapat difokuskan pada suatu hasil akhir di masa
depan (future end) dan atau tata cara (proses, mean) untuk mengerjakan atau menyelesaikan sesuatu

Pada konteks Indonesia:

Nilai tidak mencerminkan apa yang dipercaya pemimpin/para pendahulu untuk mencapai keberhasilan. Nilai
hanya dirangkai dalam singkatan agar mudah diingat. Nilai terlalu dipaksakan, top down tidak diikat dalam
system. Sekedar jadi hiasan di dinding/web. Nilai-nilai tersebut tidak dijadikan budaya..
Organizational theory: the study of how organizations function and how they affect and are affected by the
environment in which they operate we examine the principles that underlie the design, operation, change, and
redesign of organizations to maintain and increase their effectiveness.

Organization is a group of people, working toward objectives, which developes and maintains relatively stable
and predictable behaviour patterns, even though the individuals in the organization may change. Usually we
describe organizations in term of how they differ on three dimensions:Complexity, Formalization,
Centralization.

Organizational structure: the formal system of task and authority relationships that control how people to
coordinate their actions and use resources to achieve organizational goals organizational structure evolves to
increase the effectiveness of the organizations control of the activities necessary to achieve its goals.
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Organizational culture: is the set of key values, beliefs, and attitudes shared by organizational members and
helps shape the behavior within the organization. An organizations culture is shaped by the people inside the
organization, by the ethics of the organization, by the employment rights given to employees, and by the type of
structure used by the organization.
Organizational design: the process by which managers select and manage aspects of structure and culture so
that an organization can control the activities necessary to achieve its goals.
Organizational change: the process by which organizations move from their present state to some desired future
state to increase their effectiveness. The goal of organizational change is to find new or improved ways of using
resource and capabilities to increase an organizations ability to create value, and hence, its performance.
How Do Managers Measure Organizational Effectiveness?
Control: external resource approach

Monitors how effectively an organization manages and controls its external environment

To measure the effectiveness of their control over the environment, managers use indicators such as
stock price, profitability, and return on investment, which compare the performance of their organization
with the performance of other organization.

Top managements ability to percieve and respond to changes in the environment or to initiate change
and be the first to take advantage of a new opportunity is another indicator of an organizations ability to
influence and control its environment.

Innovation: internal system approach

Develops an organizations skills and capabilities to change, adapt, and improve the way it functions

Organization needs a structure and a culture that foster adaptability and quick responses to changing
condition in the environment.

Organization needs to be flexible.

Efficiency: technical approach

Measures how efficiently an organization converts a fixed amount of resources into finished goods and
services

Technical effectiveness is measured in terms of productivity and efficiency (the ratio of outputs and
inputs).

Productivity measures are objective indicators of the effectiveness of an organizations production

operations.

Employee attitude and motivation and a desire to cooperate are also important factors influencing
productivity and efficiency.

Measuring Effectiveness: Organizational Goals

Official goals: guiding principles that the organization formally states in its annual report and in other
public documents

Mission: a mission statement explains why the organization exists and what it should be doing

Operative goals: specific long- and short-term goals that guide managers and employees as they
perform the work of the organization

When managers create a set of goals to measure organizational effectiveness, they must make sure that
official goals and operative goals work together to enhance effectiveness.
Organizational Stakeholders
Stakeholders : people who have an interest, claim, or stake in an organization, in what it does, and in how well
it performs.
Inside Stakeholders: People who are closest to an organization and have the strongest and most direct claim on
organizational resources. Shareholders: the owners of the organization, investor. Managers: the employees who
are responsible for coordinating organizational resources and ensuring that an organizations goals are
successfully met. The workforce: all non-managerial employees.
Outside Stakeholders: People who do not own the organization, are not employed by it, but do have some interest
in it. Customers: an organizations largest outside stakeholder group. Suppliers: provide reliable raw materials
and component parts to organizations. The government: Standardizing regulations, no company can obtain an
unfair competitive advantage. Trade unions: relationships with companies can be one of conflict or cooperation.
Local communities: their general economic well-being is strongly affected by the success or failure of local
businesses. The general public. Wants local businesses to do well against overseas competition. Wants
corporations to act in socially responsible way
Organizational Effectiveness: Satisfying Stakeholders Goals and Interests:
An organization must at least minimally satisfy the interest of all the groups that have a stake in the
organization.
Each group evaluates the effectiveness of the organization by judging how well it meets the groups goals
Problems that an organization faces as it tries to win stakeholders approval include choosing which
stakeholders goals to satisfy, deciding how to allocate organizational rewards to different stakeholders group,
and balancing shor-term and long-term goals.

Stakeholder Goals: Shareholders: return on their investment. Customers: product reliability and product value.
Employees: compensation, working conditions, career prospects
Competing Goals: Maximizing shareholders wealth. Managers may follow goals that promote their own interest
and not the interests of shareholders. But even if all stakeholders agreed upon the goals that an organization
should follow, selecting goals that will enhance of survival and future prosperity is no easy task. There are no
easy rules to follow;in many ways, being effective means making more right choices than wrong choices.
Allocating Rewards: Managers must decide how to allocate inducements to provide at least minimal satisfaction
of the various stakeholder groups. Managers must also determine how to distribute extra rewards. Managerial
rewards should be determined by the organizations effectiveness. The allocation of reward is an important
component of organizational effectiveness because the inducement offered to stakeholders now determine their
motivation in the future.
Top Managers and Organizational Authority: Top management is the stakeholder group that has the ultimate
responsibility for setting company goals and objectives, and for allocating organizational resource to achieve
these objective. Authority: the power to hold people accountable for their actions and to make decisions
concerning the use of organizational resources. Shareholders: the ultimate authority over the use of a
corporations resources: They own the company. They exercise control over it through their representatives. The
board of directors (inside & Outsides) : has the legal authority to hire, fire, and discipline corporate
management. Monitors corporate managers activities and rewards corporate managers who pursue activities that
satisfy stakeholder goals. Inside directors: hold offices in a companys formal hierarchy. Outside directors:
not full-time employees. Corporate-level management: the inside stakeholder group that has ultimate
responsibility for setting company goals and allocating organizational resources
The Chief Executive Officers (CEO): The CEO is the person ultimately responsible for setting organizational
strategy and policy. CEO is the most powerful person in the corporation because she or he control the allocation
of resources. Often the same person is both chief executive officer and chair of the board.
A CEO can influence organizational effectiveness and decision making in five principal ways.
1. The CEO is responsible for setting the organizations goals and designing its stucture.
2. The CEO selectskey executives to occupy the topmost levels of the managerial hierarchy.
3. The CEO determines top managements rewards and incentives.
4. The CEO controls the allocation of scarce resource such as money and decision making power among the
organizations functional areas or business divisions.
5. The CEOs actions and reputation have a major impact on inside and outside stakeholders views of the
organization and affect the organization ability to attract resources from its environment.

Top Management Roles: CEOOften has primary responsibility for managing the organizations relationship
with external stakeholders. COO / president Responsible for managing the organizations internal operations.
Exec. Vice PresidentsOversees and manages the companys most significant line and staff roles.
Top Management Team : A group of managers who report to the CEO and COO and help the CEO set the
companys strategy and its long-term goals and objective.
Corporate managers: the members of top-management team whose responsibility is to set strategy for the
corporation as a whole
Divisional managers: managers who set policy only for the division they head
Functional managers: managers who are responsible for developing the functional skills and capabilities that
collectively provide the core competences that give the organization its competitive advantage
Line-role: managers who have direct responsibility for the production of goods and services
Staff-role: managers who are in charge of a specific organizational function such as sales or research and
development (R&D). Are advisory only.

An Agency Theory Perspective: Agency theory suggests a way to understand the conflict that often arises
between shareholder goals and top managers goals. Agency problem: a problem in determining managerial
accountability which arises when delegating authority to managers. Agency relation occurs when one person
(the principle, i.e. shareholders) delegates decision-making authority to another (the agent, i.e. managers)
The Moral Hazard Problem: A moral hazard problem exists when agents have the opportunity and incentive
to pursue their own interests: Very difficult to evaluate how well the agent has performed because the agent
possesses an information advantage over the principal. Self-dealing describes the conduct of corporate managers
who take advantage of their position in an organization to act in their own interests
Solving The agency problem: In agency theory, the central issue is to overcome the agency problem by using
governance mechanisms, or forms of control that align the interests of principal and agent so that both parties
have the incentive to work together to maximize organization effectiveness. First, the principal role of the board
of directors is to monitor top managers activities, question their decision making and strategies, and intervene,
when necessary. The next step in solving the agency problem is to find the right set of incentives to align the
interest of managers and shareholders.
Stock-based compensation schemes: Stock-based compensation shemes, here managers receive a large part of
their monetary reward in the form of stocks or stock options that are linked to the companys performance.
Promotion tournaments and career paths: Developing organizational career paths that allow managers to rise
to the top of the organization. All organizations have promotion tournaments, where executives compete for
limited promotion opportunities by displaying their superior skills and competencies.
Top managers and organizational ethics: Ethics are the inner-guiding moral principles,values, and beliefs that
people use to analyze or interpret a situation and then decide what is the right or appropriate way to behave.
Ethical dilemma: the quandary people find themselves in when they have to decide if they should act in a way
that might help another person or group even though doing so might go against their own self-interest. The
essential problem in dealing with ethical issues, and thus solving moral dilemmas, is that there are no absolute or
indisputable rules or principles that can be developed to decide if an action is ethical or unethical.
Ethics and the law: In studying the relationship between ethics and law, it is important to understand that neither
laws and ethics are fixed principles that remain constant over time. Both ethical and legal rules are relative: no
absolute or unvarying standards exist to determine how we should behave, and people are caught up in moral
dilemmas all the time, because of this we have to make ethical choices.
Ethics and organizational stakeholders: Ethics are moral principles and beliefs about what is right or wrong.
These beliefs guide individuals in their dealings with other individuals and groups (stakeholders) and provide a
basis for deciding whether a particular decision or behavior is right and proper. Manager have trouble deciding
what to do and experience an ethical dilemma when weighing or comparing the competing claims or rights of
various stakeholders groups.
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Source of organizational ethics: Societal Ethics: Societal ethics are codified in a societys legal system, in its
customs and practices, and in the unwritten norms and values that people use to interact with each other. An
organization and its managers are legally required to follow all the laws of a societyand to behave toward
individuals and stakeholders according to the law. Professional Ethics: Professional ethics are the moral rules
and values that a group of people uses to control the way they perform a task or use resources. Individual Ethics:
Individual ethics are the personal and moral standards used by individuals to structure their interactions with
other people. Personal ethics influence how a person will act in an organization. Organizational ethics may be
defined as the rules or standards used by an organization and its members in their dealings with other stakeholders
groups.
Why do ethical rules develop?: Ethical rules often develop to slow or temper the pursuit of self-interest. Ethical
laws and rules emerge to control self-interested behavior by individuals and organizations that threatens societys
collective interest. Without these rules, free and fair competition degenerates into conflict and warfare, and
everybody loses. Ethical rules reduce transactional cost between people, that is, the cost of monitoring,
negotiating, and enforcing agreements with other people.
Why does unethical behavior occur?: Personal ethics people learn ethical principles and moral codes as they
mature as individuals in a society. Self Interest we normally confront ethical issues when we are weighing our
personal interests against the effects of our actions on others. Outside pressure many studies find that the
likehood of a persons engaging in unethical or criminal behavior is much greater when outside pressure exists
for that person to do so.
Creating an ethical organization: Beyond personal considerations, an organization can encourage people to
act ethically by putting in place incentives for ethical behavior and disincentives to punish those who behave
unethically. Designing an ethical structure and control system ethics influence the choice of the structure
and culture that coordinate resource and motivate employees. Managers can design an organizational structure
that reduces the incentives for people to behave unethically. Creating an ethical culture the values, rules,
norms that define an organizations ethical position are part of culture. The behavior of top managers strongly
influences organizational culture. Supporting the interests of stakeholder groups pressure from outside
stakeholders has become increasingly important in promoting ethical organizational behavior.