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(Geometrical Construction)

Sambungan PEMBINAAN GEOMETRI (PADU) Keterangan Padu (Pepadu) Pepadu mengandungi tiga ukuran iaitu panjang, tinggi dan lebar serta mempunyai isipadu. Ianya terbahagi kepada dua kumpulan iaitu Polyhedral dan solid of revolution. Polihedra Polihedra diistilah sebagai pepadu yang dikelilingi oleh satah yang dipanggil permukaan. Regular Polihedra Apabila semua permukaan adalah sama polihedron ini dipanggil regular polihedra. Contoh-contoh ada disenaraikan dibawah.

1. Tetrahedron Ianya mengandungi empat permukaan yang mana setiap satu permukaan adalah segitiga kaki sama.

2. Kiub atau Hexahedron Mengandungi enam permukaan yang mana setiap satu permukaannya adalah segiempat sama.

3. Prisma bersudut tepat. (Right regular prism). Prisma bersudut tepat mempunyai sisi yang bersudut 90? dengan tapak. Kesemua permukaan sisinya adalah empat segi bujur.

4. Prisma condong (oblique) Prisma ini mempunyai axis yang condong (bersudut) dengan tapak. 5. Piramid Piramid adalah satu polihedra yang mengandungi permukaan sebagai tapak dan sisinya mengandungi beberapa permukaan segitiga yang bertemu antara satu sama lain pada titik yang dipanggil puncak (vertex) atau apex. Garisan bayangan yang menghubungkan pusat (tengah tapak) dengan puncak dipanggil axis Piramid tepat (right regular pyramid) Piramid ini mempunyai axis yang bersudut 90? dengan tapak. Semua permukaannnya adalah sama iaitu segitiga sisi sama.

Octahedron Mengandungi lapan permukaan mana segitiga sisi sama adalah permukaannya.

Dodecahedron Mengandungi duableas permukaan dan pentagon (sisi lima) sebagai permukaannya.

Isosahedron Mengandungi dua puluh permukaan dan segitiga sisi sama adalah permukaannya.

Prisma (prism)

Adalah polihedra yang terdapat dua permukaan yang sama dipanggil (dikenali) sebagai tapak dan atas, selari antara satu sama lain dan dihubungkan dengan segi empat selari. Garisan bayangan untuk mengukur tinggi dikenali sebagai axis. Piramid condong (oblique pyramid) Piramid ini mempunyai axis yang bersudut dengan tapak. Prisma dan piramid dinamakan bergantung kepada bentuk tapak (base) sebagai contoh triangular piramid, squares pentagonal dan lain-lain. Bulatan padu (solid of revolution) Adalah satu silinder berbentuk bulat tepat serta padu, yang digerakkan oleh satu permukaan segi empat, pada salah satu daripada permukaan yang tetap. Mempunyai tapak bulat. Garisan yang menyambung antara tapak dan atas dipanggil axis. Kon bersudut tepat (right circular cone) Kon bersudut tepat terhasil daripada pergerakan segitiga padu bersudut tepat yang mana salah satu daripada sisinya yang bersudut tepat adalah tetap. Ia mengandungi satu tapak bulat. Conic Section Apabila sebuah kon dipotong oleh keratan satah pada sudut yang berlainan, ia akan menghasilkan beberapa bentuk permukaan geometri yang berbeza. Gambarajah dibawah menunjukkan pandangan sisi sebuah kon yang dipotong dalam sudutsudut yang berbeza serta nama-nama geometri yang terhasil daripada pemotongan tersebut.

Apabila satah keratan a. Bersudut 90? dengan axis, hasil daripada pemotongan tersebut adalah bulatan (circle)

b. Bersudut lebih besar dengan axis daripada sisi condong akan menghasilkan ellipse.

c. Bersudut sama besar dengan sisi pada axis akan menghasilkan parabola.

d. Bersudut lebih kecil dari pada sudut sisi condong pada axis akan menghasilkan hyperbola.

Bentuk sebenar keempat-empat hasil keratan tersebut boleh didapati dengan melukiskan pandangan auxiliarynya. Ianya boleh

juga didapati dengan cara pembinaan geometri yang mana didefinisikan sebagai berikut. Ellipse, parabola dan hyperbola adalah lokus satu titik yang bergerak, yang mana jarak daripada titik tetap dipanggil focus atau foci dan jarak bersudut tepat daripada satu garis lurus tetap dipanggil directrix adalah sama nisbahnya antara satu sama lain dipanggil eccentricity. Tamat

Definition

A tessellation is created when a shape is repeated over and over again covering a plane without any gaps or overlaps. Another word for a tessellation is a tiling. Read more here: What is a Tiling? A dictionary* will tell you that the word "tessellate" means to form or arrange small squares in a checkered or mosaic pattern. The word "tessellate" is derived from the Ionic version of the Greek word "tesseres," which in English means "four." The first tilings were made from square tiles. A regular polygon has 3 or 4 or 5 or more sides and angles, all equal. A regular tessellation means a tessellation made up of congruent regular polygons. [Remember: Regular means that the sides and angles of the polygon are all equivalent (i.e., the polygon is both equiangular and equilateral). Congruent means that the polygons that you put together are all the same size and shape.] Only three regular polygons tessellate in the Euclidean plane: triangles, squares or hexagons. We can't show the entire plane, but imagine that these are pieces taken from planes that have been tiled. Here are examples of a tessellation of triangles a tessellation of squares a tessellation of hexagons When you look at these three samples you can easily notice that the squares are lined up with each other while the triangles and hexagons are not. Also, if you look at 6 triangles at a time, they form a hexagon, so the tiling of triangles and the tiling of hexagons are similar and they cannot be formed by directly lining shapes up under each other - a slide (or a glide!) is involved. You can work out the interior measure of the angles for each of these polygons: Shape triangle square pentagon hexagon more than six sides Angle measure in degrees 60 90 108 120 more than 120 degrees

Since the regular polygons in a tessellation must fill the plane at each vertex, the interior angle must be an exact divisor of 360 degrees. This works for the triangle, square, and hexagon, and you can show working tessellations for these figures. For all the others, the interior angles are not exact divisors of 360 degrees, and therefore those figures cannot tile the plane. Reinforce this idea with the Regular Tessellations interactive activity: Teacher Lesson Plan || Student Page

Naming Conventions
A tessellation of squares is named "4.4.4.4". Here's how: choose a vertex, and then look at one of the polygons that touches that vertex. How many sides does it have? Since it's a square, it has four sides, and that's where the first "4" comes from. Now keep going around the vertex in either direction, finding the number of sides of the polygons until you get back to the polygon you started with. How many polygons did you count? There are four polygons, and each has four sides.

For a tessellation of regular congruent hexagons, if you choose a vertex and count the sides of the polygons that touch it, you'll see that there are three polygons and each has six sides, so this tessellation is called "6.6.6":

A tessellation of triangles has six polygons surrounding a vertex, and each of them has three sides: "3.3.3.3.3.3".

Semi-regular Tessellations

You can also use a variety of regular polygons to make semi-regular tessellations. A semiregular tessellation has two properties which are: 1. 2. It is formed by regular polygons. The arrangement of polygons at every vertex point is identical.

Here are the eight semi-regular tessellations:

Interestingly there are other combinations that seem like they should tile the plane because the arrangements of the regular polygons fill the space around a point. For example:

If you try tiling the plane with these units of tessellation you will find that they cannot be extended infinitely. Fun is to try this yourself.
1.

2. 3. 4.

Hold down on one of the images and copy it to the clipboard. Open a paint program. Paste the image. Now continue to paste and position and see if you can tessellate it.

There are an infinite number of tessellations that can be made of patterns that do not have the same combination of angles at every vertex point. There are also tessellations made of polygons that do not share common edges and vertices. You can learn more by following the links listed in Other Tessellation Links and Related Sites. Michael South has contributed some thoughts to the discussion. *Steven Schwartzman's The Words of Mathematics (1994, The Mathematical Association of America) says: tessellate (verb), tessellation (noun): from Latin tessera "a square tablet" or "a die used for gambling." Latin tessera may have been borrowed from Greek tessares, meaning "four," since a square tile has four sides. The diminutive of tessera was tessella, a small, square piece of stone or a cubical tile used in mosaics. Since a mosaic extends over a given area without leaving any region uncovered, the geometric meaning of the word tessellate is "to cover the plane with a pattern in such a way as to leave no region uncovered." By extension, space or hyperspace may also be tessellated.

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