54 Community Ecology

Chapter 54
Community Ecology
PowerPoint® Lecture Presentations for
Biology
Eighth Edition
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece
Lectures by Chris Romero, updated by Erin Barley with contributions from Joan Sharp
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Latihan Soal
Acacia nilotica adalah salah satu pohon yang termasuk tumbuhan invasif di
Taman Nasional Baluran di Jawa Timur. Tumbuhan ini awalnya ditanam di
beberapa kawasan, namun saat ini tumbuh dengan sangat subur sehingga
menginvasi padang rumput yang merupakan habitat bagi banteng. Hewan ini
selain menjadi pemakan bagian tumbuhan A. nilotica, juga membantu penyebaran
biji tumbuhan invasif ini.
Tentukan apakah pernyataan berikut benar (B) atau salah (S).
A.Tumbuhan invasif di kawasan ini tidak akan memengaruhi keanekaragaman

ekosistem padang rumput.
B.Tumbuhan invasif ini dapat mengubah kondisi iklim mikro di padang rumput.
C.Interaksi antara banteng dengan tumbuhan A. nilotica adalah herbivori.
D. A. nilotica merupakan tumbuhan yang memiliki toleransi tinggi terhadap

intensitas cahaya yang tinggi.

Latihan Soal
Acacia nilotica adalah salah satu pohon yang termasuk tumbuhan invasif di
Taman Nasional Baluran di Jawa Timur. Tumbuhan ini awalnya ditanam di
beberapa kawasan, namun saat ini tumbuh dengan sangat subur sehingga
menginvasi padang rumput yang merupakan habitat bagi banteng. Hewan ini
selain menjadi pemakan bagian tumbuhan A. nilotica, juga membantu penyebaran
biji tumbuhan invasif ini.
Tentukan apakah pernyataan berikut benar (B) atau salah (S).
A.Tumbuhan invasif di kawasan ini tidak akan memengaruhi keanekaragaman

ekosistem padang rumput.
B.Tumbuhan invasif ini dapat mengubah kondisi iklim mikro di padang

rumput. (B)
C.Interaksi antara banteng dengan tumbuhan A. nilotica adalah herbivori

dan mutualisme. (B)
D. A. nilotica merupakan tumbuhan yang memiliki toleransi tinggi terhadap

intensitas cahaya yang tinggi.

OSP 2019

A. B  tampak pada grafik bagian kanan, skor agresinya
terus turun, setelah burung western mengalahkan burung
mountain
B. B  Relung yang sama akan menimbulkan kompetisi,

karena pada setiap relung hanya ada 1 spesies
C. S  Burung barat memiliki agresifitas yang tinggi dan

mengalahkan burung gunung
D. B  Saat ada burung gunung, burung barat agresif, tp

agresifitasnya menurun saat tidak ada burung gunung

Georgyi Gause menumbuhkan
paramecium pada medium
yang dapat menumbuhkan
bakteri dan yeast sebagai
makanan paramecium.
Gambar. a menunjukkan
pertumbuhan populasi saat
ditumbuhkan sendiri masing-
masingnya.
Gambar b pada saat
ditumbuhkan 2 populasi pada
1 tempat
Tentukan pernyataan di bawah ini benar atau salah
A.Kompetisi intraspesifik akan lebih tinggi dibandingkan kompetisi interspesifik
B.Hal yang terjadi pada P. aurelia dan P. caudatum disebut dengan kompetisi eksklusi
C.P. aurelia dan P. caudatum menggunakan makanan yang sama sehingga P. caudatum kalah dan
beresiko punah
D.P. caudatum dan P. bursaria dapat hidup bersama selamanya jika jumlah bakteri sumber makanannya
ditambah satu kali

Species May Coexist If They Do Not Occupy
Identical Niches
A. B  secara teori
B. B
C. B  From these experiments Gause concluded that species with exactly the
same requirements cannot live together in the same place and use the same
resources, that is, occupy the same niche. His conclusion, later termed the
competitive exclusion principle by Garrett Hardin (1960), essentially means
that complete competitors cannot coexist.
D. S  Dapat hidup bersama karena P. bursaria dapat makanan yang lain.

Namun, masih ada kompetisi, sehingga
P. bursaria was better able to utilize the yeast in the lower part of the culture
tubes. P. bursaria have tiny green algae inside them which produce oxygen
and allow P. bursaria to thrive in the lower oxygen levels at the bottom of the
tubes.
Species may avoid competitive exclusion by partitioning resources or being of

different sizes, which permits them to feed on differentsized resources

B

B
B
Overview: A Sense of Community
• A biological community is an assemblage of

populations of various species living close enough for
potential interaction. All life / all populations in an
area.
• Ecologists call relationships between species in a
community interspecific interactions.
• Interspecific interactions can affect the survival and
reproduction of each species. Effects can be positive
(+), negative (–), or no effect (0).
• Examples: competition, predation, herbivory, and
symbiosis (parasitism, mutualism, commensalism).

Competition
• Interspecific competition (–/– interaction)

terjadi pada spesies yang berbeda untuk
memperebutkan SDA yang ada.
• Kompetisi yang kuat, dapat menimbulkan
terjadinya kompetisi  eliminasi local pada
spesies yang kalah
• Prinsip dari kompetisi eksklusi : 2 spesies
berkompetisi untuk 1 SDA yang sama, mereka
tidak dapat koeksis pada tempat yang sama =
1 species per niche.

Competition theory.
• Ian Kaplan and Robert Denno (2007) outlined several

theoretical predictions that are suggested by competition
theory.
• 1. Intraspecific competition should be more severe than
interspecific competition, since resource overlap is greater.
• 2. The strength of interspecific competition is greater
between more closely related species or species in similar
guilds.
• 3. The strength of interspecifi c competition increases with
decreased resources.

Ecological Niches
• SDA biotik dan abiotic yang dapat dipakai oleh suatu

spesies => ecological niche.
• An ecological niche can also be thought of as an
organism’s ecological role.
• Ecologically similar species can coexist in a
community if there are one or more significant
differences in their niches.
• Resource partitioning is differentiation of ecological
niches; enables similar species to coexist in a
community.

A. Lizard species perches on B. lizard species usually perches
fences and other sunny surfaces.
Resource
on shady branches.
parti t i oni ng
is
dif f erent iat ion
of
ecological
niches,
enabling
similar
species
t o coexist
in a
communit y
A. ricordii
A. insolitus
A. aliniger A. christophei
A. distichus
A. cybotes
A. etheridgei
Interspecific => Competition Between Species:
Can Lead to Resource Partitioning
• As a result of interspecific competition, a
species’ fundamental niche may differ from its
realized niche --> the niche it occupys after
resource partitioning.

How a species’ niche can be influenced by
interspecific competition?
Later - Realized Niche
High tide
Chthamalus
Balanus Chthamalus
realized niche
Balanus
realized niche
Ocean Low tide
Ist - Fundamental Niche High tide
Chthamalus
fundamental niche
Ocean Low tide

Character Displacement
• Character displacement is a tendency for

characteristics / particular traits to be more
divergent in sympatric populations of two
species than in allopatric populations of the
same two species.
• An example is variation in beak size between
populations of two species of Galápagos
finches.

Character displacement:
Indirect
Evidence
G. fuliginosa G. fortis
of Past Competition
Beak
depth
Percentages of individuals in each size class

60 Los Hermanos
40 G. fuliginosa,
20 allopatric
0
60 Daphne
40
G. fortis,
20 allopatric
0
60 Santa María, San Cristóbal Sympatric

populations
40
20
0
8 10 12 14 16
Beak depth (mm)
Predation
• Predation (+/– interaction) refers to interaction

where one species, the predator, kills and eats
the other, the prey.
• Some feeding adaptations of predators are
claws, teeth, fangs, stingers, and poison.
• Prey display various defensive adaptations:
such as behavior and coloration.

Prey: Defensive Adaptations
• Behavioral defenses include hiding, fleeing, forming

herds or schools, self-defense, and alarm calls.
• Animals also have morphological and physiological
defense adaptations:
• Cryptic coloration = camouflage, makes prey difficult
to spot.
• Aposematic coloration: Animals with effective
chemical defense / poison / often exhibit bright
warning coloration. Predators are particularly cautious
in dealing with prey that display such coloration.

(a) Cryptic
coloration
Canyon tree frog
(b) Aposematic
coloration
Poison dart frog
(c) Batesian mimicry: A harmless species mimics a harmful one.

Hawkmoth
larva (d) Müllerian mimicry: Two “yuck”
unpalatable species mimic each other.
Green parrot snake Cuckoo bee
Yellow jacket
Mimicry = “Look-alikes” Defense
• In some cases, a prey species may gain

significant protection by mimicking the
appearance of another species:
• In Batesian mimicry, a harmless species
mimics an unpalatable or harmful model… One
is a “pretender.”
• In Müllerian mimicry, two or more unpalatable
species resemble each other… BOTH are
“yuck.”

Herbivory: Herbivores = Plant Predators
• Herbivory (+/– interaction) refers to an

interaction in which an herbivore eats parts of a
plant or alga.
• It has led to evolution of plant defenses
against herbivores: secondary compounds =
are chemical defenses; and mechanical
defenses which are often osmoregulated.

Symbiosis: ++ +0 +-
• Symbiosis is a dependency relationship where

two or more species live in direct and intimate
contact with one another. The relationship is
generally based one or some combination of
the following benefits:
• Nutrition (food, water)
• Protection
• Reproduction

Parasitism +-
• In parasitism (+/– interaction), one organism, the

parasite, derives nourishment from another organism,
its host, which is harmed in the process.
• Endoparasites = parasites that live within the body of
their host.
• Ectoparasites = parasites that live on the external
surface of a host.
• Many parasites have a complex life cycle involving a
number of hosts.
• Some parasites change the behavior of the host to
increase their own fitness (reproduce more offspring).
Mutualism ++
• Mutualistic symbiosis, or mutualism (+/+

interaction), is an interspecific interaction that
benefits both species.
• A mutualism can be:
– Obligate = MUST where one species cannot
survive without the other.
– Facultative = OPTIONAL where both species
can survive alone.

Commensalism +0
• In commensalism (+/0 interaction), one

species benefits and the other is apparently
unaffected.
• Commensal interactions are hard to document
in nature because any close association likely
affects both species.

A possible example of commensalism between cattle egrets (birds) and water buffalo: The Birds eat insects disturbed by the Buffalo as they move.
Summary of the types of species interactions.
Dominant and keystone species exert strong
controls on community structure
• A few species in a community often exert

strong control on that community’s structure.
• Two fundamental features of community
structure = species diversity and feeding
relationships.

Species Diversity
• Species diversity of a community is the

variety of organisms that make up the
community.
• It has two components: species richness and
relative abundance.
• Species richness is the total number of
different species in the community.
• Relative abundance is the proportion each
species represents of the total individuals in the
community.
Trophic Structure = a key factor in community
dynamics
• Trophic structure is the feeding relationships
between organisms in a community.
• Food chains link trophic levels from producers to top
carnivores.
• A food web is a branching food chain with complex
trophic interactions.
• Species may play a role at more than one trophic
level.
• Food chains in a food web are usually only a few links
long. WHY?

Terrestrial and
Marine
Food Chains
Quaternary
consumers
Carnivore Carnivore
Tertiary
consumers
Carnivore Carnivore
Secondary
consumers
Carnivore Carnivore
Primary
consumers
Herbivore Zooplankton
Primary
producers
Plant Phytoplankton
A terrestrial food chain A marine food chain
An Antarctic Marine
Food Web
Humans
Smaller
Baleen Sperm
toothed
whales whales
whales
Crab-eater Leopard Elephant

seals seals seals
Birds Fishes Squids
Carnivorous
plankton
Euphausids Copepods
(krill)
Phyto-
plankton
Limits on Food Chain Length
• Food chains in food webs are usually only a few links

long.
• Two hypotheses attempt to explain food chain length:
the energetic hypothesis and the dynamic stability
hypothesis.
• The energetic hypothesis suggests that length is
limited by inefficient energy transfer.
• The dynamic stability hypothesis proposes that
long food chains are less stable than short ones.
• Most data support the energetic hypothesis.

Latihan
Rusty crayfish (O. rusticus) yang berasal dari

Ohio dibawa oleh pemancing lalu menyebar di
Amerika Utara. Setelah dilakukan penelitian
terhadap crayfish native pada daerah introduksi,
diperoleh hasil seperti grafik.
Tentukan pernyataan di bawah ini benar atau

salah
A.O. rusticus merupakan spesies invasif yang

dapat mengurangi kepadatan spesies crayfish
asli
B. Spesies invasif biasanya memiliki kemampuan kompetisi yang lebih baik
C. O. rusticus menggantikan O. propinquus dan O.viralis sebagai spesies dominan

D. Spesies dominan selalu merupakan predator sehingga dapat mengontrol
jumlah populasi spesies lainnya

A. B
B. B
C. B
D. S  tidak selalu
Dominant species: Species that have high

abundance relative to other species in a
community, and have proportionate effects
on environmental conditions, community
diversity and/or ecosystem function.
Species with a Large Impact
• Certain species have a very large impact on

community structure. Such species are highly
abundant OR play a pivotal role in community
dynamics.
• Dominant species = those that are most
abundant or have the highest biomass.
• Biomass is the total mass of all individuals in a
population. Dominant species exert powerful
control over the occurrence and distribution of
other species.
Invasive species, typically introduced to a new
environment by humans, often lack predators
or disease pathogens. Invasive species disrupt
ecosystem dynamics. They frequently out-
compete / displace native populations.

Keystone Species
• Keystone species exert strong control on a

community by their ecological roles, or niches.
• In contrast to dominant species, they are not
necessarily abundant in a community.
• Field studies of sea stars exhibit their role as a
keystone species in intertidal communities.
• Sea otter populations and their predation
shows how otters affect ocean communities.
Sea otters are keystone predators in the North
Pacific.
Seastar are keystone predators.
They are key in preserving species diversity in their ecosystem.
EXPERIMENT
RESULTS
Number of species
20
With Pisaster (control)

present
15
10
5 Without Pisaster (experimental)
0
1963 ’64 ’65 ’66 ’67 ’68 ’69 ’70 ’71 ’72 ’73
Year
Sea otters are keystone predators in the
North Pacific
100
(% max. count)
80
Otter number
60
40
20
0
(a) Sea otter abundance
400
Grams per
300
0.25 m2
200
100
0
(b) Sea urchin biomass
10
Number per
8
0.25 m2
6
4
2
0
1972 1985 1989 1993 1997
Year
(c) Total kelp density
Food chain
Foundation Species (Ecosystem “Engineers”)
• Foundation species (ecosystem “engineers”)

cause physical changes in the environment
that affect community structure.
• For example, beaver dams can transform
landscapes on a very large scale.
• Some foundation species act as facilitators
that have positive effects on survival and
reproduction of some other species in the
community.

Beavers are a Foundation Species = ecosystem“engineers”
Bottom-Up and Top-Down Controls
• The bottom-up model of community

organization proposes a unidirectional
influence from lower to higher trophic levels.
• In this case, presence or absence of mineral
nutrients determines community structure,
including abundance of primary producers.
• The top-down model, also called the trophic
cascade model, proposes that control comes
from the trophic level above.
• In this case, predators control herbivores,
which in turn control primary producers.
Disturbance influences species diversity and
composition
• Pollution can affect community dynamics.
• Biomanipulation can help restore polluted
communities. Bio remediation is an effective
strategy to restore polluted and damaged
areas.
• Decades ago, most ecologists favored the view
that communities are in a state of equilibrium.
• Recent evidence of change has led to a
nonequilibrium model, which describes
communities as constantly changing after
being buffeted by disturbances.
Characterizing Disturbance
• A disturbance is an event that changes a community,

removes organisms from it, and alters resource
availability.
• Fire is a significant large scale disturbance in most
terrestrial ecosystems. It is often a necessity in some
communities.
• The intermediate disturbance hypothesis suggests
that moderate levels of disturbance can foster greater
diversity than either high or low levels of disturbance.

The large-scale fire in Yellowstone National Park in 1988 demonstrated that communities can often respond very rapidly to a massive disturbance.
(a) Soon after fire (b) One year after fire

Ecological Succession
Ecological succession is the sequence of

community and ecosystem changes after a
disturbance, over time.
• Primary succession occurs where no soil
exists when succession begins. Pioneer
organisms, such as lichen, are the foundation
of the community and soil building.
• Secondary succession begins in an area
where soil remains after a disturbance /
disaster such as fire or field abandonment.
• Early-arriving species and later-arriving
species may be linked in one of three
processes:
– Early arrivals may facilitate appearance of later
species by making the environment favorable
– They may inhibit establishment of later species
– They may tolerate later species but have no

impact on their establishment
• Glacier retreating -- predictable pattern of
ecologial succession …
1 Pioneer stage = soil builders / fireweed dominant
2 Dryas stage grasses and shrubs
3 Alder stage: trees and shrub
4 Spruce stage = Climax Community STABLE
• Succession is the result of changes induced by
the vegetation itself.
• On the glacial moraines, vegetation lowers the
soil pH and increases soil nitrogen content.

Changes in soil nitrogen content during succession at Glacier
Bay
60
50
Soil nitrogen (g/m2)
40
30
20
10
0
Pioneer Dryas Alder Spruce
Successional stage
Human Disturbance
• Humans have the greatest impact on biological

communities worldwide. Human disturbance to
communities usually reduces species diversity.
• Humans also prevent some naturally occurring
disturbances, which can be important to
community structure.

Disturbance of the ocean floor by trawling
Biogeographic factors affect community
biodiversity
• Latitude and area are two key factors that
affect a community’s species diversity.
• Species richness generally declines along an
equatorial-polar gradient and is especially
great in the tropics.
• Two key factors in equatorial-polar gradients of
species richness are probably evolutionary
history and climate.
• The greater age of tropical environments may
account for the greater species richness.
• Climate is likely the primary cause of the
latitudinal gradient in biodiversity.
• Two main climatic factors correlated with
biodiversity are solar energy and water
availability. They can be considered together
by measuring a community’s rate of
evapotranspiration.
• Evapotranspiration is evaporation of water
from soil plus transpiration of water from plants.

Area Effects
• The species-area curve quantifies the idea

that, all other factors being equal, a larger
geographic area has more species.
• A species-area curve of North American
breeding birds supports this idea.

Island Equilibrium Model
• Species richness on islands depends on

island size, distance from the mainland,
immigration, and extinction.
• The equilibrium model of island biogeography
maintains that species richness on an
ecological island levels off at a dynamic
equilibrium point.
• Studies of species richness on the Galápagos
Islands support the prediction that species
richness increases with island size.

The equilibrium model of island biogeography
Im ar is
Rate of immigration or extinction

Im
Im ge
d)
(n
isl n
m
m
an n
(la
all ctio
m
an
e
io
o
ig land
ig
d)
ig lan
r i cti
r
ct
ra
ra
ra
(s xtin
tin
(fa tin
Im
tio
tio )
tio d)
is
sl
Ex
Ex
n )
n
n
m
n
Im tio nd (fa ig
c a r i rat n
(s m
m ig x tin isl sl i
an on ctio d)
n
al ra E ge d) tin la
l i tio r Ex r is
sl
an n (la ea
d) (n
Equilibrium number Small island Large island Far island Near island
Number of species on island Number of species on island Number of species on island
(a) Immigration and extinction rates (b) Effect of island size (c) Effect of distance
from mainland
Community ecology is useful for understanding
pathogen life cycles and controlling human disease
• Ecological communities are universally

affected by pathogens, which include disease-
causing microorganisms, viruses, viroids, and
prions.
• Pathogens can alter community structure
quickly and extensively.
• For example, coral reef communities are being
decimated by white-band disease.

White-band disease on coral is destroying the reef.
Community Ecology and Zoonotic Diseases
• Human activities are transporting pathogens around

the world at unprecedented rates.
• Community ecology is needed to help study and
combat them.
• Zoonotic pathogens have been transferred from other
animals to humans.
• The transfer of pathogens can be direct or through an
intermediate species called a vector.
• Many of today’s emerging human diseases are
zoonotic. Avian flu is a highly contagious virus of
birds.

Review
Suksesi
Suksesi Sekunder
Post Test
Tentukan Benar atau Salah
1.Competition is not more frequent where more resources are consumed
2.Biological control agents may compete with one another, reducing their
effectiveness
3.Some species that can’t partition resources cause competition and promote
coexistence
4.In apparent competition, two species do compete for the same resource and do
share the same natural enemies.
5.Apparent competition can lead to the exclusion of the more susceptible species
because they are eaten by predator
6.the winners of competitive interactions may vary as a function of both abiotic and
biotic factors
7.Divergence in morphology that is a result of competition is termed Resource
partitioning
Post Test
You should now be able to:
1. Distinguish between the following sets of

terms: competition, predation, herbivory,
symbiosis; fundamental and realized niche;
cryptic and aposematic coloration; Batesian
mimicry and Müllerian mimicry; parasitism,
mutualism, and commensalism;
endoparasites and ectoparasites; species
richness and relative abundance; food chain
and food web; primary and secondary
succession.

2. Define an ecological niche and explain the
competitive exclusion principle in terms of the
niche concept.
3. Explain how dominant and keystone species

exert strong control on community structure.
4. Distinguish between bottom-up and top-down

community organization.
5. Describe and explain the intermediate

disturbance hypothesis.
6. Explain why species richness declines along
an equatorial-polar gradient.
7. Define zoonotic pathogens and explain, with

an example, how they may be controlled.

54 Community Ecology

Diunggah oleh

Informasi Dokumen

Hak Cipta

Format Tersedia

Bagikan dokumen Ini

Bagikan atau Tanam Dokumen

Opsi Berbagi

Apakah menurut Anda dokumen ini bermanfaat?

Apakah konten ini tidak pantas?

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

54 Community Ecology

Diunggah oleh

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

Chapter 54

PowerPoint® Lecture Presentations for

Tentukan apakah pernyataan berikut benar (B) atau salah (S).

A.Tumbuhan invasif di kawasan ini tidak akan memengaruhi keanekaragaman

C.Interaksi antara banteng dengan tumbuhan A. nilotica adalah herbivori.

D. A. nilotica merupakan tumbuhan yang memiliki toleransi tinggi terhadap

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Tentukan apakah pernyataan berikut benar (B) atau salah (S).

A.Tumbuhan invasif di kawasan ini tidak akan memengaruhi keanekaragaman

B.Tumbuhan invasif ini dapat mengubah kondisi iklim mikro di padang

C.Interaksi antara banteng dengan tumbuhan A. nilotica adalah herbivori

D. A. nilotica merupakan tumbuhan yang memiliki toleransi tinggi terhadap

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

B. B  Relung yang sama akan menimbulkan kompetisi,

C. S  Burung barat memiliki agresifitas yang tinggi dan

D. B  Saat ada burung gunung, burung barat agresif, tp

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Tentukan pernyataan di bawah ini benar atau salah

A.Kompetisi intraspesifik akan lebih tinggi dibandingkan kompetisi interspesifik

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

D. S  Dapat hidup bersama karena P. bursaria dapat makanan yang lain.

Species may avoid competitive exclusion by partitioning resources or being of

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

• A biological community is an assemblage of

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

• Interspecific competition (–/– interaction)

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

• Ian Kaplan and Robert Denno (2007) outlined several

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

• SDA biotik dan abiotic yang dapat dipakai oleh suatu

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Later - Realized Niche

Ist - Fundamental Niche High tide

Ocean Low tide

• Character displacement is a tendency for

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Percentages of individuals in each size class

60 Santa María, San Cristóbal Sympatric

• Predation (+/– interaction) refers to interaction

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

• Behavioral defenses include hiding, fleeing, forming

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

(c) Batesian mimicry: A harmless species mimics a harmful one.

• In some cases, a prey species may gain

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

• Herbivory (+/– interaction) refers to an

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

• Symbiosis is a dependency relationship where

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

• In parasitism (+/– interaction), one organism, the

• Mutualistic symbiosis, or mutualism (+/+

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

• In commensalism (+/0 interaction), one

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

• A few species in a community often exert

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

• Species diversity of a community is the

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Crab-eater Leopard Elephant

Birds Fishes Squids

• Food chains in food webs are usually only a few links