EFEK TRADISIONAL DAN PYRAMIDAL SISTEM PELATIHAN RESISTENSI

PADA MUSCULAR KEKUATAN, MASSA OTOT, DAN RESPON HORMONAL

PADA WANITA TUA: A DENGAN UJI CROSSOVER
EFFECTS OF TRADITIONAL AND PYRAMIDAL RESISTANCE TRAINING
SYSTEMS ON MUSCULAR STRENGTH, MUSCLE MASS, AND HORMONAL
RESPONSES IN OLDER WOMEN: A RANDOMIZED CROSSOVER TRIAL

Penulis
Nama : Lalu Muh. Furqon Ali Hidayat
Nim : 1810301056

DOSEN PENANGGUNG JAWAB MODUL FISIOLOGI LATIHAN

Tyas Sari Ratna Ningrum, SST.Ft.,M.Or

PROGRAM STUDI FISIOTERAPI

FAKULTAS ILMU KESEHATAN
UNIVERSITAS ‘AISYIYAH YOGYAKARTA
 Abstrak
Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui pengaruh latihan ketahanan yang dilakukan
dalam piramida (PR) dan sistem tradisional pada kekuatan otot, massa otot, dan hormonal respon pada
wanita yang lebih tua. Dua puluh lima wanita yang lebih tua (67,66 5,1 tahun, 65,9 6 11.1 kg, 154,7 6 5,8
cm, dan 27,5 6 4,5 kg $ m 22).
Program resistance training dan latihan tradisional di desain dengan seimbang Program T terdiri
dari 3 set 8-12 repetisi maksimum (RM) dengan beban konstan untuk 3 set, sedangkan sistem PR terdiri
dari 3 set 12/10/8-RM dengan beban secara bertahap untuk setiap set. Pelatihan dilakukan dalam 2 tahap
dari 8 minggu masing-masing, dengan washout 12 minggu antara fase 8 minggu. Salah satu repetisi
maksimum (1RM) tes yang digunakan sebagai ukuran kekuatan otot.Pemerikasaan X-ray digunakan untuk
memperkirakan massa otot rangka.
 Pendahuluan
Pelatihan dengan memberikan tahanan mempromosikan adaptasi positif yang melemahkan efek
buruk dari penuaan (2,5,14). Namun, telah menunjukkan bahwa orang yang lebih tua menampilkan respon
diubah untuk Recompared dengan mudah (21,23), sehingga pemerikasaan mengenai respon dari orang tua
untuk berbagai program pelatihan RT atau sistem. Penelitian ini menunjukkan hubungan dosis dengan
respons yang antara besarnya beban dan peningkatan kekuatan otot pada orang dewasa. Namun, untuk
hipertrofi otot, beban yang lebih besar tidak selalu menghasilkan adaptasi maksimal. hipertrofi otot
dirangsang oleh stres mekanik dan metabolisme, kerusakan otot, dan interaksi antara faktor-faktor ini, dan
volume moderat dan intensitas untuk mengoptimalkan hipertrofik adaptasi. Hal ini disebabkan oleh saling
ketergantungan antara intensitas dan volume; yaitu, pelatihan intensitas tinggi tidak memungkinkan
Volume pelatihan memadai untuk menciptakan lingkungan anabolik yang optimal.
 Metode
Penelitian ini dilakukan selama 36 minggu dibagi menjadi 3 fase. Dalam fase pertama, peserta
secara acak dibagi menjadi 2 kelompok yang dilakukan 8 minggu (minggu 3-10) dari RT baik TD dan
sistem PR. Tahap 2 adalah periode 12-minggu detraining (minggu 13-24) di mana tidak ada training
resistance dilakukan. Maksud dari fase detraining adalah untuk kembali tingkat kebugaran fisik peserta
dengan nilai-nilai dasar. Tahap 3 digunakan crossover sehingga subyek yang melakukan sistem PR dalam
fase 1 menjalani 8 minggu pelatihan menggunakan sistem TD (minggu 27-34) dan orang-orang yang
sebelumnya dilakukan sistem TD terlibat dalam program 8 minggu menggunakan sistem PR . Pada awal
dan akhir setiap fase percobaan, 2 minggu dialokasikan untuk evaluasi (minggu 1-2,11-12, 25-26, dan 35-
36) yang terdiri dari pengukuran antropometri, tes 1 repetisi maksimum (1RM), analisis komposisi tubuh
oleh dual- X-ray absorptiometry (DXA), dan kerja darah untuk analisis biokimia.
 Hasil
Rata-rata dari jumlah pengulangan per latihan yang dilakukan selama pelatihan secara statistik ( p,
0,001) berbeda antara sistem dengan lebih pengulangan per latihan yang dilakukan selama pelatihan TD
(32.2 6 1,6, 95% percaya diri interval [CI] = 31,4-32,8) dibandingkan dengan pelatihan PR (30.1 6 0,3,
95% CI = 30,0-30,3). Ada efek utama signifikan dari kelompok ( p # 0,05), di mana, seperti yang
diharapkan, PR disajikan nilai yang lebih tinggi daripada TD. efek utama signifikan dari waktu ( p # 0,05)
dengan kedua kelompok menunjukkan peningkatan; Namun, tidak ada interaksi kelompok-by-time tercatat
( p. 0,05). Tidak ada signifikan interaksi kelompok-by-time ( p. 0,05) untuk setiap latihan dianalisis dan
untuk jumlah dari 3 latihan. perbedaan antara kedua kelompok mulai dari minggu ketiga, dengan sistem
TD mencapai beban volume yang lebih tinggi dibandingkan dengan sistem PR.
Efek signifikan utama dari waktu yang diamati ( p, 0,001), di mana kenaikan diamati untuk pers
dada (TD = 12,4% dan ES = 0,86 vs PR = 11,5% dan ES = 0,74), ekstensi lutut (TD = 12,5% dan ES =
0,61 vs PR = 11,8% dan ES = 0.62), curl pengkhotbah (TD = 10,9% dan ES = 0,63 vs PR = 8,6%
dan ES = 0,54), dan total kekuatan (TD = 11,6% dan ES = 0,78 vs PR = 10,6% dan ES = 0,71). Untuk
komposisi tubuh, tidak ada signifikan interaksi kelompok-by-time untuk setiap komponen yang ditentukan
( p. 0,05). efek signifikan dari waktu ( p, 0,001) diamati di mana kedua kelompok telah meningkatkan
massa bebas lemak (TD = 2,1% dan ES = 0,27 vs PR = 1,3% dan ES = 0,18) dan massa otot rangka (TD =
3,6% dan ES = 0,32 vs PR = 2,4% dan ES = 0,24).
 Diskusi
Penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa RT dilakukan dalam sistem PR adalah sama efektifnya seperti
sistem TD untuk adaptasi dalam kekuatan otot dan hipertrofi pada wanita dewasa. Berdasarkan pada
pendapatbahwa intensitas dan volume pelatihan 2 variabel utama yang merangsang adaptasi
neuromuscular (2,28), kita memiliki hipotesis bahwa sistem PR akan menghasilkan hasil yang lebih
unggul. Secara khusus, itu berspekulasi bahwa sistem PR akan memungkinkan penggunaan dengan
intensitas tinggi. Dapat disimpulkan bahwa RT dilakukan dalam sistem PR merupakan metode yang
efektif untuk mempromosikan positif adaptasi jangka pendek dari kekuatan otot dan hipertrofi pada wanita
yang lebih tua. Namun, tidak ada keuntungan yang signifikan. Dengan demikian, praktisi dapat
memutuskan sistem yang digunakan tergantung pada preferensi pribadi peserta.
 PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
Penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa kedua sistem RT (PR dan TD) sama-sama efektif untuk
meningkatkan kekuatan dan massa otot pada wanita yang dewasa. Hasil menunjukkan bahwa praktisi
memiliki eksibilitas memilih sistem RT didasarkan pada preferensi peserta. Praktisi juga memiliki pilihan
untuk menggunakan kombinasi sistem RT yang berbeda dari waktu ke waktu, karena hal ini dapat
membantu mempertahankan minat dan motivasi untuk melakukan RT dengan memungkinkan program
bervariasi RT (Resistance latihan).
Lampiran Jurnal

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/308210125

Effects of Traditional and Pyramidal Resistance Training Systems on Muscular

Strength, Muscle Mass, and Hormonal Responses in Older Women: A Randomized
Crossover Trial
Article in The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research · July 2017
DOI: 10.1519/JSC.0000000000001653

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EFFECTS OF TRADITIONAL AND PYRAMIDAL
RESISTANCE TRAINING SYSTEMS ON MUSCULAR
STRENGTH, MUSCLE MASS, AND HORMONAL
RESPONSES IN OLDER WOMEN: A RANDOMIZED
CROSSOVER TRIAL
ALEX S. RIBEIRO,1 BRAD J. SCHOENFELD,2 STEVEN J. FLECK,3 FA BIO L.C. PINA,1 MATHEUS
A. NASCIMENTO,1,4 AND EDILSON S. CYRINO1
1
Metabolism, Nutrition, and Exercise Laboratory, Londrina State University, Londrina, Brazil; 2Exercise Science
Department, CUNY Lehman College, Bronx, New York; 3Andrews Research and Education Foundation, Gulf
Breeze, Florida; and 4Parana´ State University, UNESPAR, Paranavaı´ Campus, Paranavaı´, Brazil
ABSTRACT
Ribeiro, AS, Schoenfeld, BJ, Fleck, SJ, Pina, FLC, Nascimento,
MA, and Cyrino, ES. Effects of traditional and pyramidal resistance
training systems on muscular strength, muscle mass, and
hormonal responses in older women: a randomized cross-over
trial. J Strength Cond Res 31(7): 1888–1896, 2017—The purpose
of this study was to investigate the effect of resistance training (RT)
performed in a pyramid (PR) versus a traditional (TD) system on
muscular strength, muscle mass, and hormonal re-sponses in
older women. Twenty-five older women (67.6 6 5.1 years, 65.9 6
22
11.1 kg, 154.7 6 5.8 cm, and 27.5 6 4.5 kg$m ) performed both a
TD and PR system RT program in a balanced crossover design.
The TD program consisted of 3 sets of 8–12 repetition maximum
(RM) with a constant load for the 3 sets, whereas the PR system
consisted of 3 sets of 12/10/8-RM with incrementally higher loads
for each set. Training was performed in 2 phases of 8 weeks each,
with a 12-week washout between the 8-week phases. One
repetition maximum (1RM) tests were used as measures of
muscular strength. Dual X-ray absorptiometry was used to
estimate skeletal muscle mass. Testosterone and IGF-1
concentrations were determined preintervention and postinter-
vention after 12 hours fasting. Significant (p # 0.05) increases were
observed in both groups for muscular strength in the 1RM chest
press (TD = 12.4% and effect size [ES] = 0.86 vs. PR = 11.5% and
ES = 0.74), knee extension (TD = 12.5% and ES = 0.61 vs. PR =
11.8% and ES = 0.62), preacher curl (TD = 10.9% and ES = 0.63
vs. PR = 8.6% and ES = 0.54),
Address correspondence to Alex S. Ribeiro, alex-silvaribeiro@
hotmail.com.
31(7)/1888–1896
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
2016 National Strength and Conditioning Association
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1888 Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
´
and for skeletal muscle mass (TD = 3.6% and ES = 0.32 vs. PR =
2.4% and ES = 0.24) with no differences between groups. There
were no significant (p . 0.05) main effects for IGF-1 and
testosterone. The results suggest that the PR and TD systems
performed are similarly effective for promoting positive adaptations
in muscular strength and hypertrophy in older women.
KEY WORDS strength training, aging, training system,
hypertrophy
INTRODUCTION
A
ging is associated with various physiological changes that
detrimentally affect the neuromuscu-lar system, including a
reduction in muscular strength and skeletal muscle mass
(4,8). The loss
of strength and muscle mass are 2 of the main reasons for a
decrease in performance of daily life activities in older in-
dividuals and negatively affect health, functional autonomy,
survival, and quality of life in older individuals (4,8,24). Older
women are particularly susceptible to the damaging effects of
sarcopenia and dynapenia because of hormonal alterations after
menopause and because women usually have lower ini-tial levels
of strength and muscle mass than do men (4,18).
Resistance training (RT) promotes positive adaptations that
attenuate the deleterious effects of aging (2,5,14). However, it has
been demonstrated that older individuals display an altered
response to RT compared with the young (21,23), thus
investigations concerning the response of the elderly to vari-ous
RT training programs or systems are warranted. Resis-tance
training prescription involves a number of variables of which
training volume and intensity are key components (2). Training
volume is a summation of the total number of rep-etitions
performed multiplied by the resistance used and is affected by the
number of sets, repetitions, and exercises per-formed as well as
training frequency (2). Intensity refers to the
Copyright © National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.

absolute or relative resistance used for a given exercise or
movement (2) and is affected by the rest interval between sets
and exercises and velocity of movement.
Studies indicate a clear dose-response relationship between
the magnitude of load and muscular strength increase in older
individuals (11,13,27,34). However, for muscular
hypertrophy, greater loads do not necessarily result in
maximal adaptations (29). Muscular hypertrophy is
hypothesized to be stimulated by mechanical and metabolic
stress, muscle damage, and the interaction between these
factors (28), and moderate volume and intensity are pur-
ported to optimize hypertrophic adaptations (2). This is
mainly due to the interdependence between intensity and
volume; that is, high-intensity training does not allow a suf-
ficient training volume to create an optimal anabolic
environment. To optimize the hypertrophic response of RT
systems that allow the use of higher intensities without drastic
reductions in volume have been suggested.
The pyramid system (PR), because of its inherent
characteristic of varying the resistance used and number of
repetitions, permits exercise performance at higher intensi-ties
without necessarily causing a loss in volume, thus maintaining
a favorable anabolic environment for increased muscle
hypertrophy and thus strength gains. Hypothetically, if a PR
system allows training with high intensity and maintains
volume, the metabolic and mechanical stimuli necessary to
maximize muscle growth may be optimized. Based on this
information, we cannot rule out the possibility that the PR
system may elicit greater improvements of adaptations
induced by RT. However, although the PR system is widely
used by practitioners, there is little scientific basis to support
its actual effectiveness.
The main anabolic hormones involved in muscle growth
and remodeling are testosterone and insulin-like growth factor
(IFG-1) (30). Mechanical loading elicits acute in-creases in
anabolic hormones such as testosterone and IGF-1, although
the hypertrophic effects of this response remain equivocal
(28–30). There is evidence that basal levels of testosterone
and IGF-1 influence the anabolic response to RT (3,12).
However, it remains largely unknown whether there are
differential effects between RT systems with respect to
changes in the basal hormonal levels.
Therefore, the main objective of this study was to
investigate the effect of RT performed in a PR system and
traditional (TD) system on muscular strength, muscle mass,
and hormonal responses in older women. We hypothesized
that the PR system would result in greater increases in
muscular strength and hypertrophy compared with a TD
system. The rationale for this hypothesis is based on the dose-
response relationship between intensity and volume on
muscular strength, and hypertrophy, because the PR system
ostensibly allows for the use of higher intensities of load
during the final sets of an exercise without impairing volume
in the target repetition range (i.e., 8–12 repetition maximum
[RM]).
Copyright © National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
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METHODS
Experimental Approach to the Problem
The study was performed over a period of 36 weeks divided
into 3 phases. In the first phase, participants were randomly
separated into 2 groups that performed 8 weeks (weeks 3–10)
of RT of either a TD and PR system. Phase 2 was a 12-week
period of detraining (weeks 13–24) in which no resistance
exercise was performed. The intent of the detraining phase
was to return participant’s physical fitness levels to baseline
values. Phase 3 used a crossover so that subjects who per-
formed the PR system in phase 1 underwent 8 weeks of
training using the TD system (weeks 27–34) and those who
previously performed the TD system engaged in an 8-week
program using the PR system. At the beginning and the end of
each phase of the experiment, 2 weeks were allocated for
evaluations (weeks 1–2, 11–12, 25–26, and 35–36) consisting
of anthropometric measures, tests of 1 repetition maximum
(1RM), body composition analysis by dual-energy X-ray ab-
sorptiometry (DXA), and blood work for biochemical analy-
sis. The experimental design is displayed in Figure 1.
Subjects
Participants were recruited through newspaper and radio
advertisements and home delivery of leaflets in residential
neighborhoods. All participants completed health history and
physical activity questionnaires and met the following
inclusion criteria: 60 years old or older, physically indepen-
dent, free from cardiac or orthopedic problems, not receiving
hormonal replacement therapy, and not performing any
regular physical exercise more than once a week during the 6
months before start of the study. Participants passed a
diagnostic, graded exercise stress test with a 12-lead
electrocardiogram reviewed by a cardiologist and were
released by the cardiologist for participation in this study with
no restrictions on physical activity. Forty older women were
accessed for eligibility. After individual interviews, 11
women who did not meet the inclusion criteria were excluded.
The remaining 29 older women were selected for
participation and then were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 RT
groups: a group that performed the TD system (n = 14) or a
group that performed the PR system (n = 15) in the first phase
of the study protocol. A total of 25 participants (67.6 6 5.1
22
years, 65.9 6 11.1 kg, 154.7 6 5.8 cm, and 27.5 6 4.5 kg$m )
completed all stages of the study and were included in the
analyses. The reasons for withdrawal from the study were
reported as lack of time, transportation issues, lack of
motivation, and personal reasons. Adherence to the program
was satisfactory, with all subjects participating in .85% of the
total sessions. Figure 2 is a schematic representation of
participants’ recruitment and group assignment.
Written informed consent was obtained from all subjects
after a detailed description of study procedures was pro-
vided. This investigation was conducted according to the
Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the local
University Ethics Committee.
VOLUME 31 | NUMBER 7 | JULY 2017 | 1889
 Resistance Training Systems in Older Women
Figure 1. Experimental design.
Anthropometry
Body mass was measured to the nearest 0.1 kg using a
calibrated electronic scale (Balmak, Laboratory Equipment
Labstore, Curitiba, Brazil), with the participants wearing light
workout clothing and no shoes. The height was measured to
the nearest 0.1 cm with a stadiometer attached to the scale
with subjects wearing no shoes. The body mass index was
calculated as body mass in kilograms divided by the square of
height in meters.
Muscle Mass
Skeletal muscle mass was estimated by the predictive
equation proposed by Kim et al. (20). The appendicular fat-
free mass used for the equation was determined by a DXA
scan (Lunar Prodigy, model NRL 41990; GE Lunar, Madison,
WI). Before scanning, participants were instructed to remove
their personal objects containing metal. Scans were performed
with the subjects lying in the supine position along the table’s
longitudinal centerline axis. Feet were taped together at the
toes to immobilize the legs while the hands were maintained
in a pronated position within the scanning region. Subjects
remained motionless during the entire scanning procedure.
the TM
1890 Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
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Both the calibration check and analysis were performed by a
skilled laboratory technician. The equipment calibration was
checked following the manufacturer’s recommendations. Soft-
ware generated lines using standard anatomical landmarks
that separated the limbs from the trunk and head. These lines
were adjusted, if needed, by the same technician using
specific anatomical landmarks. Analyses during the
intervention were performed by the same technician who was
blinded to the intervention time point and which RE training
program the participants were performing at the different time
points of the study. Previous test-retest scans resulted in an SE
of mea-surement of 0.29 kg and intraclass correlation
coefficient of 0.997 for skeletal muscle mass.
Muscular Strength
Maximal dynamic strength was evaluated using the 1RM test
assessed for the chest press, knee extension, and preacher curl
performed in the order listed. Testing for each exercise was
preceded by a warm-up set (6–10 repetitions), with
approximately 50% of the estimated load used in the first
attempt of the 1RM. This warm-up was also used to
familiarize the subjects with the testing equipment and lifting
 the TM

Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research | www.nsca.com

Figure 2. Schematic representation of participants’ recruitment and allocation.

technique. The testing procedure was initiated 2 minutes after
the warm-up set. The subjects were instructed to try to
accomplish 2 repetitions with the load in 3 attempts in all
exercises tested. The rest period was 3–5 minutes between
each attempt and 5 minutes between exercises. The 1RM was
recorded as the last resistance lifted in which the subject was
able to complete only 1 repetition (1). The technique for each
exercise was standardized and continuously monitored to
ensure reliability. All 1RM testing sessions were super-vised
by 2 experienced researchers to maximize safety and test
reliability. Verbal encouragement was given throughout each
test. Three 1RM sessions were performed separated by 48
hours (intraclass correlation coefficient $0.96). The highest
load achieved among the 3 sessions was used for analysis in
each exercise. Total strength was determined as the sum of the
3 exercises.
Biochemical Analysis
Serum levels of testosterone and IFG-1 were measured after
12 hours of fasting with blood taken from the antecubital
vein. The subjects were instructed not to perform vigorous
exercise for the preceding 24 hours and to avoid alcohol or
caffeinated beverages 72 hours before the blood collections.
Measurements were performed by standard methods in a
University Hospital laboratory. Samples were collected in
vacutainers with a gel separator without anticoagulant and
were centrifuged for 10 minutes at 3,000 rpm for serum
separation. Interassay and intra-assay CVs were ,10% as
determined in human serum. Serum testosterone and IGF-1
concentrations were determined by a chemilumines-cence
method using a Liaison XL Immunoassay Analyzer (DiaSorin
S.p.A, Saluggia, Italy).
Volume Load
During every RT session, the load and number of repetitions
performed during each set of the 8 exercises were recorded.
The volume for each set of all exercises was calculated by
multiplying the load times the number of repetitions in each
set performed. Volume of each exercise per session was
calculated as the sum of the volume of all 3 sets for each

TABLE 1. Training loads (in kg) at the first and last week of the resistance training program.*

Traditional Pyramid Effects F p

First week 1,219.8 6 104.6 1,389.9 6 107.1† Group 3.84 0.05
Last week 1,901.2 6 189.9z 2,064.1 6 196.1†z Time 391.05 ,0.001
D% 55.9 48.5 Interaction 2.29 0.11
Effect size 4.63 4.45

*Data are expressed as mean 6 SD.

†p , vs. traditional group.
zp # 0.05 vs. pretraining.

VOLUME 31 | NUMBER 7 | JULY 2017 | 1891

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Resistance Training Systems in Older Women

Figure 3. Muscular strength (A-D), fat-free mass (E), and skeletal muscle mass (F) at pre- and posttraining. *p # 0.05 vs. pretraining. Data are
expressed as mean and SD. There was no statistically significant group-by-time interaction.

exercise. The total volume per session was calculated as the
sum of all 8 exercises. Weekly volume was calculated as the
sum of the 3 sessions performed in a week.
Resistance Training Program
Supervised RT was performed during the morning hours in
the State University facilities. The protocol was based on
recommendations for RT in an older population to improve
muscular strength and hypertrophy (2,14). All participants
the
were personally supervised by physical education professio-
nals to help ensure consistent and safe exercise performance.
Subjects performed RT using a combination of free weights
and machines. The sessions were performed 3 times per week
on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays. The RT pro-gram
was a whole-body program of 8 exercises with 1 exer-cise
performed with free weights and 7 with machines. Exercises
were performed in the following order: chest press, horizontal
leg press, seated row, knee extension, preacher
TM

1892 Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research

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 the TM

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the subject’s abilities and im-

provements in exercise capacity
throughout the study to ensure
that the subjects were exercising
with as much resistance as pos-
sible while maintaining proper
exercise technique. The incre-
mental adjustment of loads from
set to set was in the magnitude of
approximately 2–5%. Pro-
gression for the TD occurred
when the upper limits of the
repetition zone was completed for
2 consecutive training ses-sions.
Progression for the PR occurred
when the participant was able to
perform 12 and 10
Figure 4. Weekly volume of load during a
training system. *p # 0.05 vs. previous week. **p # 0.05 vs. 2 previous weeks. §p # 0.05 vs. pyramid. There is resistance training program in older
a statistically significant group-by-time interaction. women according to resistance
repetitions with the 12 and 10

RM loads and 10 repetitions with

curl (free weights), leg curl, triceps pushdown, and seated calf
raise.
Participants of the TD group performed 3 sets of 8–12 RM
with the same load for all 3 sets, whereas the participants of the
PR group performed 3 sets of 12, 10, and 8 RM. For both
systems, the participants carried sets to muscle failure or an
inability to sustain exercise performance with proper exer-cise
technique.
Participants were instructed to inhale during the eccentric phase
and exhale during the concentric phase of each repetition while
maintaining a constant velocity of movement at a ratio of
approximately 1:2 (concentric and eccentric phases, respectively).
Participants were allowed 1–2 minutes of rest between sets of an
exercise and 2–3 minutes between exercises. Researchers adjusted
the loads of each exercise according to
the 8 RM load. Progression for
both training systems was
accomplished by increasing the
load for the upper limb and lower limb exercises by 2–5% and
5–10%, respectively, in the next session (2).
Statistical Analyses
Two-way analysis of variance for repeated measures was used
for comparisons of the 2 training groups. When an F-ratio was
significant, Bonferroni’s post hoc test was used to identify
where the mean differences were significant. The comparison
between RT systems for the number of repetitions performed
was assessed by Student’s dependent t test. The effect size
(ES) was calculated as posttraining mean minus pretraining
mean divided by pooled SD before and after training (9). For
all statistical analyses, significance was accepted at p # 0.05.
The data were analyzed using STATISTICA software version
10.0 (StatSoft, Inc., Tulsa, OK, USA).

TABLE 2. Anabolic hormones in older women before and after training according to the resistance training system.*

Traditional Pyramid Effects F p

IGF-1 (ng$ml21)
Pretraining 137.1 635.0 134.2 643.7 Group 3.01 0.10
Posttraining 140.1 632.9 137.5 639.2 Time 0.30 0.58
D% 2.2 2.5 Interaction 0.17 0.68
Effect size 0.09 0.08
Testosterone (ng$ml21)
Pretraining 0.35 60.7 0.33 60.4 Group 1.37 0.25
Posttraining 0.36 60.5 0.34 60.3 Time 0.29 0.59
D% 2.9 3.0 Interaction 1.56 0.22
Effect size 0.02 0.03

*Data are expressed as mean 6 SD.

VOLUME 31 | NUMBER 7 | JULY 2017 | 1893

Copyright © National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
Resistance Training Systems in Older Women

RESULTS
The average of number of repetitions per exercise performed
Interaction
throughout the training was statistically (p , 0.001) different
between systems with more repetitions per exercise per-
0.94

0.96
680.
530.
480.

320.
280.
0.61 formed during the TD training (32.2 6 1.6, 95% confidence
interval [CI] = 31.4–32.8) compared with PR training (30.1 6
0.3, 95% CI = 30.0–30.3). The total training loads in both the
,0.001

,0.001
,0.001
,0.001
Time

0.01
010.

090.
060.
first and the last week of the RT program are depicted in
p

Table 1. There was a significant main effect of group (p #

0.05), in which, as expected, the PR presented higher values
Group

than did the TD. There was a significant main effect of time
0.26

0.19
440.
470.
540.

210.
150.
0.82

(p # 0.05) with both groups showing increases; however, no

group-by-time interaction was noted (p . 0.05).
24.8

29.5
25.4
21.3

21.8

23.5
29.4
24.1
D%

Figure 3 shows the results for muscular strength, fat-free

mass, and skeletal muscle mass before and after training for
both groups. There was no significant group-by-time inter-
20.40

20.19
20.71
20.40
20.15

20.18

20.12
20.20
ES

action (p . 0.05) for any of the exercises analyzed and for the
sum of the 3 exercises. However, a significant main effect of
Pyramid (n = 12)

time was observed (p , 0.001), in which increases were

Predetraining Postdetraining

†297.14.2

69133. 39.5

observed for chest press (TD = 12.4% and ES = 0.86 vs. PR =

6 †35.4.96

†42.9.54
†119.2.7

†37.3.56

6 †16.1.71

6290. 0.1

11.5% and ES = 0.74), knee extension (TD = 12.5% and ES =

0.61 vs. PR = 11.8% and ES = 0.62), preacher curl (TD =
6 SD

10.9% and ES = 0.63 vs. PR = 8.6% and ES = 0.54), and total

6
6
6
6

strength (TD = 11.6% and ES = 0.78 vs. PR = 10.6% and ES

= 0.71). For body composition, there was no significant
67102. 13.6

68138. 42.8

group-by-time interaction for any of the com-ponents

637. 4.14

6121. 2.9

638. 3.11

616. 1.74

6320. 0.2
644. 9.32

determined (p . 0.05). However, a significant main effect of

Mean

time (p , 0.001) was observed in which both groups had

increased fat-free mass (TD = 2.1% and ES = 0.27 vs. PR =
1.3% and ES = 0.18) and skeletal muscle mass (TD = 3.6%
24.3

29.1
24.4
22.1

21.7

22.9
25.4
22.9
D%

and ES = 0.32 vs. PR = 2.4% and ES = 0.24).

Figure 4 depicts the weekly volume load. There was a sig-
Traditional(n=13)

20.30

20.25
25.53
20.35
20.30

20.18

20.26
20.03

nificant group-by-time interaction (p , 0.001), in which

ES

differences between both groups started from the third week,

ES=effectsize.*#p0.05vs.predetraining.†
$Testosterone(ngml
Hormones
T3.Changesafter12weeksofdetraining.* AB LE

Bodycomposition66†Fat-freemass(kg)39.2.438.2.902
66†Kneeextension(kg)44.4.943.5.663

66†36Totalstrength(kg)106.12.6101.14.6
66†03Preachercurl(kg)22.3.720.3.9

66†Musclemass(kg)17.1.617.1.730
Muscularstrength66†Chestpress(kg)39.5.338.6.270
6MeanS

$IGF-1(ngml

with the TD system reaching higher volume loads in

D
Predetraini ngPostdet rainin g

comparison with PR system.

60139. 28.9
6350. 0.7

Resting values before and after training for IGF-1 and

testosterone are presented in Table 2. There were no signif-
icant differences for the hormones tested (p . 0.05). The effect
of 12 weeks of detraining is presented in Table 3; there was
no group-by-time interaction (p . 0.05) for any of the
61143. 32.4

outcomes analyzed, which indicates that the TD and PR

6370. 0.8

systems showed similar loss of adaptations due to detraining.

DISCUSSION
)
21

The main and novel finding of this study was that the RT
performed in the PR system is equally as effective as a TD
)
21

system for promoting adaptations in muscular strength and

hypertrophy in older women. Based on the premise that
intensity and volume of training are 2 primary variables that
stimulate neuromuscular adaptations (2,28), we had hypoth-
esized that the PR system would produce superior results.
Specifically, it was speculated that the PR system would allow
the use of higher intensities of load during the final
the TM

1894 Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research

Copyright © National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.

sets of an exercise without impairing volume in the target
repetitions range (i.e., 8–12 repetitions maximum). The
greatest gains in maximum strength are achieved by training
with higher loads, and there is a dose-response relationship
between magnitude of load and muscular strength in older
adults (11,13,27,34). Contrary to our hypothesis, the results of
this study failed to demonstrate superiority of the PR over the
TD system.
Previously, Hunter et al. (19) investigated the effect of
variable loads in older adults and observed that a varied daily
loading approach (80, 65, and 50% of 1RM) reduced the
difficulty of performing daily activity tasks to a greater extent
than did training with a constant load (80% of 1RM) despite
similar increases in muscular strength and fat-free mass
between groups. However, some methodological differences
between this study and the study by Hunter et al. (19) need to
be pointed out. The study by Hunter et al. (19) had a wider
variance of load and included both older men and women,
which might affect the results because older women respond
differently than older men to a RT program (25). Moreover,
we used a crossover design, an experimental procedure that
reduces interindividual bias, and therefore strengthens
confidence in our findings.
A confounding issue when evaluating muscle mass increases in
studies that compare different intensities of training is that the
total volume often differs between models (32). When the aim is
to analyze hypertrophic responses, studies show that the total
volume does affect the hypertrophic response. For example,
studies that compared different intensities with matched volumes
did not find statistical differences in muscle hypertrophy between
low and high intensities (6,31). Alterna-tively, studies without
volume equalization generally show that lower intensity RT
results in inferior hypertrophic gains compared with moderate
intensities (7,26). The PR system theoretically allows training
with higher loads, at least during the final sets of an exercise,
without reducing the training volume from a loading zone
standpoint. The results observed in this study indicate that
increases in skeletal muscle mass are similar between the RT
systems, despite a significantly lower volume load observed in
the PR condition. A clear dose-response relationship has been
reported between RT volume and muscular strength and
hypertrophy (22). The current re-sults show that the PR system
did allow higher loads, but the weekly training volume was lower
with the PR system than with the TD system. However, beneficial
effects of increasing the volume undoubtedly follows an inverted-
U curve, whereby once a given threshold is reached, any further
increases in volume would have no further effect and at some
point lead to regression in gains. The results of our study would
seem to indicate that the threshold for volume in the population
stud-ied was achieved in the PR system, making the discrepancies
in the volume of load irrelevant in terms of producing a hyper-
trophic response. Alternatively, it is possible that increased
intensities of load used in the later sets may have compensated
for the reduced volume, thereby balancing out gains between
Copyright © National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
the TM
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research | www.nsca.com
training groups. These hypotheses warrant further
investigation.
Blood concentrations of anabolic hormones are dimin-ished
with aging (10,17,33), which may lead to attenuation of
anabolic effects on muscles. No statistically significant
changes were observed with respect to resting circulating
testosterone and IGF-1 levels after the RT period. These
results are in line with previous studies that investigated the
effects of RT on testosterone and IGF-1 in older women
(15,16). Despite low levels of anabolic hormones, older
women nevertheless show significant increases in muscular
hypertrophy after RT. Our study measured only serum hor-
monal values; it is possible that the RT program induced
changes at the hormone receptor level that enhanced the
anabolic processes (35).
It is important to note that this study has several limitations.
The findings are specific to untrained older women and
cannot necessarily be extrapolated to other populations.
Whether results would differ for younger individuals, men, or
those with previous RT experience remains to be deter-mined.
Moreover, our results are limited to a short-term RT period,
and we cannot rule out the possibility that findings would
differ over longer training durations.
We conclude that RT performed in a PR system is an
effective method to promote positive short-term adaptations
of muscular strength and hypertrophy in older women.
However, it does not provide any inherent advantages over a
TD system. Thus, the practitioner can decide which system to
use depending on the trainees’ personal preference.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
Our findings show that both RT systems (PR and TD) are
equally effective for increasing strength and muscle mass in
older women. The results indicate that practitioners have the
flexibility of choosing the RT system based on the trainees’
preference. Practitioners also have the option of using a com-
bination of different RT systems over time, as this may help
to maintain interest in and motivation to perform RT by
allowing a varied RT program.
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