Salinan Terjemahan Yunus

TUJUAN Ketika Anda selesai
mempelajari bab ini, Anda harus

dapat:
RADIASI HEAT TRANSFER ■ Menentukan faktor tampilan, dan
memahami pentingnya hal ini
dalam perhitungan perpindahan
panas radiasi,
Mengembangkan hubungan faktor
■
saya tampilan, dan menghitung faktor

n Bab 12, kita dianggap aspek fundamental dari
tampilan yang tidak diketahui dalam
selungkup dengan menggunakan
relasi ini ,
radiasi dan
sifat-sifatradiasi dari permukaan. Kami sekarang berada dalam posisi
■ Menghitung perpindahan panas
untuk mempertimbangkan pertukaran radiasi antara dua atau lebih permukaan, yang
radiasi antara permukaan hitam,
merupakan jumlah utama yang diminati dalam sebagian besar masalah radiasi.
■ Menentukan perpindahan panas
Kami memulai bab ini dengan diskusi tentang faktor tampilan dan aturan yang
radiasi antara permukaan difus dan
terkait dengannya. Lihat ekspresi faktor dan bagan untuk beberapa konfigurasi umum
abu-abu dalam selungkup
yang diberikan, dan metode crossed-string disajikan. Kami kemudian membahas menggunakan konsep radiositas,
perpindahan panas radiasi, pertama antara permukaan hitam dan kemudian antara
permukaan nonblack menggunakan pendekatan jaringan radiasi. Kami melanjutkan
dengan perisai radiasi dan membahas efek radiasi pada pengukuran suhu dan
kenyamanan. Akhirnya, kami mempertimbangkan radiasi gas, dan mendiskusikan
emisivitas efektif dan daya serap badan gas dari berbagai bentuk. Kami juga
membahas pertukaran radiasi antara dinding ruang bakar dan gas pembakaran bersuhu
tinggi dan menyerap di dalamnya.
BAB
13
■ Hitung efek pelindung radiasi terhadap pengur
panas radiasi antara dua permukaan, dan sadar
radiasi dalam pengukuran suhu.
767
768 RADIASI PEMANASAN PANAS
13–1 FAKTOR PANDANGAN

■
Perpindahan panas radiasi antar permukaan bergantung pada orientasi permukaan relatif satu sama lain serta sifat dan sifa
diilustrasikan pada Gambar 13-1. Sebagai contoh, seorang kemping dapat memanfaatkan api unggun pada malam yang dingin de
sedekat mungkin dengan api dan dengan menghalangi sebanyak mungkin radiasi yang berasal dari api dengan memutar bagian
alih-alih sisi. Demikian juga, seseorang dapat memaksimalkan jumlah insiden radiasi matahari pada dirinya dan berjemur d
telentang daripada berdiri.
Untuk menjelaskan efek orientasi pada perpindahan panas radiasi antara dua permukaan, kami mendefinisikan parameter baru ya
faktor tampilan, yang merupakan kuantitas geometris murni dan tidak tergantung pada sifat permukaan dan suhu. Ini juga disebu
faktor konfigurasi, dan faktor sudut. Faktor tampilan berdasarkan pada asumsi bahwa permukaan adalah pemancar difus dan refl
disebut faktor tampilan difus, dan faktor tampilan berdasarkan asumsi bahwa permukaan adalah pemancar difus tetapi reflektor t
faktor tampilan specular. Dalam buku ini, kami mempertimbangkan pertukaran radiasi antara permukaan difus saja, dan dengan
faktor tampilan hanya berarti faktor tampilan difusi. Faktor tampilan dan didefinisikan sebagai
dari permukaan i ke permukaan j dilambangkan dengan Fi S j atau hanya Fij,
Fij 5 fraksi permukaan meninggalkan radiasi i yang menghantam permukaan j secara langsung
Faktor notasi adalah untuk radiasi Fi S j adalah instruktif yang untuk pemula, karena ini menekankan perjalanan dari permukaan
bahwa pandangan j. Namun, notasi ini menjadi agak canggung ketika harus digunakan berkali-kali dalam suatu masalah. Dalam
akan lebih mudah jika permukaan menyentuh permukaan 2 faktor yang menyerang 2 F12 secara langsung, mewakili permuka
langsung. 21 menggantikan fraksi itu dengan radiasi singkatannya meninggalkan per
1 mewakili fraksi dari leav radiasi- Perhatikan bahwa radiasi yang menyerang suatu permukaan tidak perlu diserap oleh perm
radiasi yang menyerang permukaan setelah dipantulkan oleh permukaan lain tidak dipertimbangkan dalam evaluasi
Untuk mengembangkan ekspresi umum untuk faktor tampilan, pertimbangkan dua permukaan yang berbeda masing
dAditunjukkan 1 dan sudut antara dan dalam dAGambar. 2 normal pada 13-2. dua dari sewenang-wenang. Jarak permukaan yan
antara dan garis permukaan dA1 yang dan A1 menghubungkan dAdan 2 adalah Ar, 2, dAdifusi 1 dan dAdi 2 semuanya adalah arah u
masing-masing. a Permukaan 1 memancarkan intensitas konstan yang digantikan oleh dALaju di mana Memperhatikan bahw
GAMBAR 13–1 Pertukaran panas radiasi antara permukaan tergantung pada orientasi permukaan relatif satu sama lain, dan ketergant
orientasi ini adalah diperhitungkan oleh faktor tampilan.
dA1
dan mencerminkan radiasi
2,
2 5 ketika dAradiasi 2 cos dilihat u2/rdaun dengan dAporsi dA1 adalah 1 di dvthe 21.
arah ini radiasi I1, dari dan uthat 1 sudut padat adalah pemogokan I1 cos u
#
Q dA1 S dA2 5 I1 cos u1 dA1 dv21 5 I1 cos u1 dA1 Permukaan 3 Sumber titik
dA2 cos u2
r2 (13–1)
Arah total rate adalah pada yang radiasi radiositas (yang meninggalkan adalah J1 5 dApI1 (melalui 1) kali emisi permukaan dan re
secara keseluruhan
#
Q
dA1 5 J1 dA1 5 pI1 dA1 (13–2 ) 2
u2
dA2
u1
dv21
r A2 A1
GAMBAR 13–2 Geometri untuk penentuan faktor tampilan antara dua permukaan.
769 BAB 13
Kemudian faktor tampilan diferensial dFdA1 S dA2, yang merupakan fraksi radiasi yang meninggalkan dA1 yang menyerang dA2 seca
menjadi
Q#
dFdA1 S dA2 5
#
dAQ
1 dAS 1
dA2
cos u cos 2 u
5 pr1 2
dA (13–3)
2
Faktor tampilan diferensial yang menukar subskripsi 1 dFdan dA2 S 2.

dA1 dapat ditentukan dari Persamaan. 13–3 oleh
Faktor tampilan dari diferensial yang ditambang dari fakta bahwa fraksi penjumlahan dari fraksi radiasi kedepan, faktor tampil
luas radiasi dA1 yang mencolok ditentukan oleh diferensial meninggalkan diferensial. daerah dA1 daerah yang A2 ka
dAmengintegrasikan dFdA1 S dA2 menjadi 2lebih. deter
A2,
FdA1 S A2 5 # A2
cos u1 cos pr2 u2

dA (13-4)
2
tion) total dalam semua arah laju di mana

radiasi meninggalkan seluruh A1 (melalui emisi dan pantulan-
#
Q
A1 5 J1A1 5 pI1A1 (13–5)
Bagian radiasi radiasi ini lebih dari A1,
yang meninggalkan dA1 dan pemogokan menyerang dA2 dA(diberikan 2 ditentukan oleh Persamaan 13-1), dengan mempertimban
mengintegrasikan
#
Q
A1 S dA2 5 # A1
#
Q
dA1 S dA2 5 # A1
I1 cos u1 cos r2 u2 dA2

dA (13–6)
1
Integrasi dari hubungan ini di atas A2 memberikan radiasi yang menyerang seluruh A2,
#
Q
A1 S A2 5 # A2
#
Q
A1 S dA2 5 ## A2 A1
I1 cos u1 r2 cos u2
dA
1 dA2 (13-7)
Membagi ini dengan total tion radiasi (atau F 12 untuk radiasi pendek),
meninggalkan A1 yang pemogokan meninggalkan A2, Ayang 1 (dari Persamaan 13–5) memberikan frac- adalah faktor tampilan F
Q#
#
AQ1
S A1
A2 2
5 A1
1
## A2 A1cos u1 cos pr2 u2
dA dA (13–8)
1 2
Faktor tampilan bscripts 1 dan FA2 S 2,

A1 siap ditentukan dari Persamaan. 13–8 dengan menukar
Q#
F21 5 FA2 S A1 5
#
AQ 2S A2
A1
5A
1
2 # A2 cos u1 cos pr2 u2
dA dA (13–9 )
1 2 Perhatikan bahwa I1 dalam konstanta kecuali urutan # A1
r, karena u1, dan integrasi u2 adalah variabel. batas Juga, adalah konstanta. integrasi-ini dapat
Hubunganhubunganmengkonfirmasi bahwa faktor tampilan antara dua permukaan tergantung pada orientasi relatif mereka dan ja
mereka.
770 RADIASI HEAT TRANSFER
1terakhir
Digabungkan oleh A2 menghasilkan
Persamaan. 13–8 dan 13–9 setelah mengalikan yang pertama dengan A1 dan
(a) Permukaan pesawat
A1F12 5 A2F21 (13-10) yang dikenal sebagai hubungan timbal balik untuk faktor tampilan. Ini memungkinkan penghitungan fak
pengetahuan yang lain. 2Hubungan faktor tampilan yang dikembangkan di atas berlaku untuk dua permukaan i dan j asalkan p
pemancar difus dan reflektor difus (sehingga asumsi intensitas konstan valid). Un
(b) permukaan cembung
pada j 5 i, kami memiliki
3Fi S i 5 fraksi radiasi yang meninggalkan permukaan i yang menyerang sendiri secara langsung.
Memperhatikan bahwa dengan tidak adanya medan elektromagnetik yang kuat, sinar radiasi bergerak di jalur lurus, faktor tampil
permukaan ke dirinya sendiri adalah nol kecuali
(c) permukaan cekung
GAMBAR 13–3 Faktor tampilan dari permukaan ke dirinya sendiri adalah nol untuk bidang atau cembung
permukaan Fi Nilai S i Þ 0 “melihat” itu sendiri. Oleh karena itu, untuk permukaan cekung, seperti yang diilustrasikan Fi S i 5 0 un
cembung pada Gambar 13-3.
rentang faktor tampilan antara nol dan satu. permukaan dan The membatasi kasus sama lain, Fi S j 5 0 menunjukkan bahwa
meninggalkan dua permukaan tidak memiliki pandangan langsung dari permukaan saya tidak bisa menyerang permukaan j lang
dan bukan nol untuk ce
Permukaan pembatas lainnya i, sehingga seluruh kasus Fi S j radiasi5 1 menunjukkan bahwa permukaan j benar-benar mengelil
yang dicegat oleh permukaan j. Sebagai contoh, dalam sebuah geometri yang terdiri dari dua bola ko
bola luar2
radiasi meninggalkan permukaan bola yang lebih kecil (permukaan 1) menyerang faktor pandangan bola yang lebih besar (permu
terbukti 2), dan dengan demikian sangat F1 S berguna 2 5 1, dalam analisis radiasi yang diilustrasikan pada Gambar. Karena
13-4.
ini memungkinkan kita untuk mengekspresikan fraksi radiasi yang meninggalkan permukaan yang menyerang permuka
orientasi kedua permukaan ini relatif terhadap satu sama lain. Asumsi yang mendasari dalam proses ini adalah bahwa radiasi yan
permukaan dari suatu sumber berbanding lurus dengan sudut yang ditunjukkan permukaan bila dilihat dari sumbernya. Ini aka
hanya jika radiasi yang berasal dari sumber seragam di semua arah di seluruh permukaannya dan media antara permukaan
memancarkan, atau menyebarkan radiasi. Yaitu, itu adalah kasus ketika permukaan isotermal d
emitor dan reflektor dan permukaan dipisahkan oleh berpartisipasi media yang tidakseperti vakum atau udara. dalam F1 → 1 = 0 F2
F3 → 3 Þ 0
1
GAMBAR 13–4 Bola dalamDalam geometri yang terdiri dari dua bola konsentris, faktor tampilan Fmenyisakan 1S 2 5 the 1 sejak perm
seluruhlebih kecil
radiasi yang
boladicegat oleh bola yang lebih besar.
The pandangan sistematis faktor cara F1 S 2 pertama antara dengan mengungkapkan dua permukaan pandangan A1 dan fakto
ditentukan dua ferential dif- membentuk daerah diperlukan dA1 dan integrasi. dA2 dalam hal Namun, dari spasial variabel ini men
maka pra
sejak, bahkan untuk geometri sederhana, integrasi yang dihasilkan biasanya sangat kompleks dan sulit untuk melakukan.
Faktor tampilan untuk ratusan geometri umum dievaluasi dan hasilnya diberikan dalam bentuk analitis, grafik, dan tabular di be
Faktor tampilan untuk geometri terpilih diberikan dalam Tabel 13–1 dan 13–2 dalam analitis bentukdan dalam Gambar. 13–5 hin
grafik bentuk. Faktor tampilan pada Tabel 13-1 adalah untuk geometri tiga dimensi. Faktor tampilan pada Tabel 13-2, di sisi la
geometri yang panjangnya tak terhingga dalam arah tegak lurus terhadap bidang kertas dan karenanya dua dimensi.
771 BAB 13
TABEL 13–1
Lihat ekspresi faktor untuk beberapa geometri umum ukuran hingga (3-D)
Relasi Geometri
Aligned parallel rectangles
––X = X/L dan –– Y = Y/L Fi → j = —— pXY
+ X(1 + Y –– + Y(1 + X
2 –– –– 2)1/2 tan–1 ———–— (1 + X Y –– 2)1/2 –– –– 2)1/2 tan–1 ———–— (1 + Fi → j =
Fi → j = Fj → i = 1 +
13–2 LIHAT HUBUNGAN FAKTOR

■
Analisis radiasi pada selungkup yang terdiri dari N permukaanmembutuhkan evaluasi N2 pandang faktor, dan proses evaluasi ini
yang paling memakan waktu bagian dari analisis radiasi. Namun, tidak praktis dan tidak diperlukan untuk mengevaluasi semua p
langsung. Setelah jumlah yang memadai pandang faktor yang tersedia , sisanya dapat ditentukan dengan memanfaatkan beb
mendasar untuk faktor tampilan, seperti yang dibahas selanjutnya.
j
L
–––– ln (1 ——————— 1 + + X–– X––

2) (1 2 +
+ Y-
Y-2
-
Y X- 2)1/2 - X - tan-1 X - - - Y tan-1 - Y pW - 11/2
Z
X i
Y 2) Y XCoaxial disk paralel
rjRi = ri/L dan Rj = rj/L jri L
i
S=1+
1 ——– + R2 i R2 j1–2
S - S2 - 4
( ) -rrji 2 1/2
Untuk ri = rj = r dan R = r/L:

√
1 ---------- - ⎯ ⎯ ⎯ 2R4R2 2 + 1 persegi panjang tegak lurus H = Z/X dan W = Y
Fi → j = (
W tan–1 -W
1+ H tan–1 -H
- (H2 1 1
1 + W2)1/2 tan–1 —————— - (H2 + W2)1/2 + -4 ln ------- (1 1 + +
2) ------ —— (1 W+ 2(1 W+ 2) (WW2 2 + + HH22) ) W2 ×
———————— (1 H+ 2(1 H+ 2) (HH2 2 + + WW22) ) i
H2 )
772TRANSFER PANAS RADIASI
TABEL13–2
Lihat ekspresi faktor untuk beberapa geometri yang sangat panjang (2-D)
Geometri Relasi
Pelat paralel dengan garis tengah yang dihubungkan oleh garis tegak lurus
w
ii Wi = wi/L dan Wj = wj/L
L
Fi → j =
[(W—————————————— i + Wj)2 + 4]1/2 - (Wj - Wi)2 + 4]1/2 2Wi
wj
j
piring miring lebar sama dan dengantepi umum
j
w
Fi → j = 1 - sin
1-2 aa wi piring tegak lur

j
wj
Fi → j = Januari
w
1-2+ - wji -
1+ (-ww ji) 2 1/2 wi
i
Tiga sisi kandang
wk
wj k j
w+w-w
Fi → j = ----- i j k 2wi i
wi
pesawat tak terbatas dan baris silinder
+
+++++j
Fi → j = 1 - 1 - ((-D
s)) i 1 Timbal balik Hubungan The dua pandangan permukaan faktornya adalah. Fi S itu j dan,
Fj S i tidak sama satu sama lain kecuali bidang

Fj S i 5 Fi S j ketika Ai 5 Aj
Fj S i th Fi S j ketika Ai Þ Aj
s
D 2 1/2+ -Ds tan–1 —— s2 D- 2
D2 1/2
773 BAB 13
L2
10
0.9 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6
L1
A2
0.5
0.4
L 1/D
Ratio
` 453
1GAMBAR 13–5 Melihat faktor an
sejajar persegi panjang dengan ukuran yang sama.
0,15 D
A1
2
1,5
1 0,3
0,8 0,7
0,2
`0
0,6 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,09 0,08 0,1
0.50.6 0.8 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 20
A2
W
A1
L2 L1 e totpmysA0.4
0.3
0.2
0.10
10
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4 0.5 0.6 0
0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.

1 2 F1 → 2
456
810 5
20GAMBAR 13–6 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.50.6 0.8 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 20
Lihat faktor antara duategak lurus Rasio L2/W
persegi panjang dengan tepi yang sama.
774 RADIASI PEMANAS PANAS
1.0
0.9
r2 /L = 85
4
3
2 1.5
1.25
1.0
0.8
0.6
r1
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.100.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.6 1.0 2 3 4 5 6 8 10

L/r1
21
L
F1 → 2
GAMBAR 13–7 Melihat faktor antara dua disk paralel koaksial.
1.0
L
A2
0.8
r1
r2
A1
1.0
0.6
0.9
F2 → 1
/r = `
L 2
0.4
0.8
2
1
0.7
0.6
4
0.2
.5
0
.25
0
.1
0
L/r2 = `
F2 → 2
0.5
2
0.4
1 0.3
0.2
0.10
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 r1/r2
r1/r2 GAMBAR 13–8 Lihat faktor-faktor untuk dua silinder konsentris dengan panjang terbatas: (a) silinder luar ke silinder bagian dala
luar untuk dirinya sendiri.
0,5 0,25
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0
775 BAB 13
Kita telah menunjukkan mana N adalah jumlah permukaan selungkup. Misalnya, menerapkan atu
sebelumnya bahwa masing-masing penjumlahan ke permukaan 1 dari selungkup tiga permukaan menghasilk
oleh
mpilan Fi S j dan Fj S i terkait 3 F 5F 1F 1F 51
j51 a 1Sj 1S1 1S2 1S3
Aturan penjumlahan dapat diterapkan untuk masing-masing

AiFi S j 5 AjFj S i ( 13-11)
selungkup dengan memvariasikan i dari 1 hingga N. Oleh karena
Hubungan ini disebut sebagai hubungan timbal balik atau aturan timbal
penjumlahan yangbalik,
diterapkan untuk masing-masing N permukaandar
dan memungkinkan kita untuk menentukan mitra memberikan
dari faktor tampilan dari
N hubunganuntuk penentuan faktor tampilan. Juga, aturan
pengetahuan dari faktor tampilan itu sendiri dan area dari dua permukaan. Ketika
1 N(N 2 1) hubungan tambahan. Kemudian jumlah
menentukan pasangan yang lebih mudah secara langsung memberikan
melihat 2faktor dan
tampilan yang
kemudian Fi S lebih j dan sulit Fj S i, masuk akal untuk mengevaluasi perlu dievaluasi secara langsung untuk N-selungku
yang pertama
dengan menerapkanmenjadi
hubungan timbal balik.
2 Aturan Penjumlahan Analisis radiasi pada suatu permukaan N(N 2 1)] 5 1 N(N 2 1)
N2 2 [N 1 12 2
biasanya membutuhkan pertimbangan radiasi yang masuk atau keluar ke segala arah.
Oleh karena itu, sebagian besar masalah radiasi yang dihadapi dalam praktik
Misalnya, untuk enam -surface permukaan, kita perlu 6 (6 2 1) 5 15 dari
melibatkan ruang tertutup. Saat merumuskan masalah radiasi, kami biasanya 3
melihat faktor
membentuk selungkup yang terdiri dari permukaan yang berinteraksi secarasecara langsung. Menentukan sisa hanya 21 tampilan 12
radiasi.
faktorsifat
Bahkan bukaan diperlakukan sebagai permukaan imajiner dengan dapatradiasi
ditentukan
yang dari 21 persamaan yang diperoleh dengan mener
setara dengan bukaan. timbal balik dan aturan penjumlahan.
Permukaan i
Konservasi prinsip energi mensyaratkan bahwa seluruh radiasi yang
meninggalkan permukaan i dari selungkup dicegat oleh permukaan selungkup. Oleh
karena itu, jumlah faktor tampilan dari permukaan i dari penutup ke semua
permukaan selungkup, termasuk untuk dirinya sendiri, harus sama dengan satu. Ini
dikenal sebagai aturan penjumlahan untuk selungkup dan dinyatakan sebagai (Gbr.
13–9)
N F 5 1 (13-12) di
j51 a iSj
GAMBAR 13-9 Radiasi jumlah faktor tampilan dari permukaan i
meninggalkanpermukaan saya kandang ke masing-masing permukaan enklosur
harus dicegat sepenuhnya oleh haruslah satu.
permukaan kandang. Oleh karena itu,
776 RADIASI HEAT TRANSFER
CONTOH 13-1 View Faktor Terkait dengan Dua konsentris
Spheres
Tentukan tampilan faktor yang terkait dengan kandang yang dibentuk oleh dua bidang centric con, ditunjukkan pada Gambar. 13-10.
SOLUSI Faktor tampilan yang terkait dengan dua bola konsentris harus ditentukan. Asumsi Permukaan adalah pemancar dan reflekto
Analisis Permukaan luar bola yang lebih kecil (permukaan 1) dan permukaan bagian dalam bola yang lebih besar (permukaan 2) memb
dua permukaan. Oleh karena itu, N 5 2 dan penutup ini melibatkan N 2 5 22 5 4 faktor tampilan, yaitu F11, F12, F21, dan F22. Dalam penutup
ini, kita hanya perlu menentukan
3 2 (2 2 1) 5 1
12N(N 2 1) 5 12
faktor tampilan secara langsung. Tiga faktor tampilan yang tersisa dapat ditentukan oleh penerapan aturan penjumlahan dan timbal bal
kita dapat menentukan tidak hanya satu tetapi dua faktor tampilan secara langsung dalam kasus ini dengansederhana inspeksi:
F11 5 0, karena tidak ada radiasi yang meninggalkan permukaan 1 menyerang sendiri F12 5 1, karena semua radiasi meninggalkan permukaan 1
permukaan 2
Sebenarnya itu akan cukup untuk menentukan hanya satu dari faktor-faktor tampilan ini dengan inspeksi, karena kita selalu dapat men
dari aturan penjumlahan yang diterapkan ke permukaan 1 sebagai F11 1 F12 5 1.
Faktor tampilan F21 adalah ditentukan dengan menerapkan hubungan timbal balik ke permukaan 1 dan 2:
A1F12 5 A2F21
yang menghasilkan
F21 5 A1A2 F12 5 4pr4pr21
2 3 1 5 ar 2
2 r12 bAkhirnya, faktor tampilan F22 ditentukan dengan menerapkan aturan penjumlahan ke permukaan 2:
F21 1 F22 5 1
dan dengan demikian F22 5 1 2 F21 5 1 2 arr12r1 r2
1
2
GAMBAR 13–10 . Geometri yang dipertimbangkan dalam Contoh 13–1.
2
bDiskusi Perhatikan bahwa ketika bola luar jauh lebih besar dari bola dalam (r2 @ r1), F22 mendekati satu. Ini diharapkan, karena fraksi
meninggalkan bola luar yang dicegat oleh bola dalam akan diabaikan dalam kasus itu. Perhatikan juga bahwa dua bidang yang dibahas
perlu konsentris. Namun, analisis radiasi akan paling akurat untuk kasus bola konsentris, karena radiasi kemungkinan besar akan serag
permukaan dalam kasus itu.
777 BAB 13 3 Aturan Superposisi Kadang-kadang faktor tampilan yang terkait dengan geometri yang diberikan tida
tabel dan grafik standar. Dalam kasus seperti itu, diinginkan untuk menyatakan geometri yang diberikan sebagai jumlah ata
beberapa geometri dengan faktor tampilan yang diketahui, dan kemudian menerapkan aturan superposisi, yang dapat dinyatak
tampilan dari permukaan i ke permukaan. j sama dengan jumlah faktor tampilan dari permukaan i ke bagian permukaan j. P
kebalikan dari ini tidak benar. Artinya, pandangan faktor daripermukaan j ke permukaan i tidak sama dengan jumlah dari fakt
dari bagian permukaan j
Perhatikan geometri pada Gbr. 13-11, yang panjangnya tak terhingga dalam arah yang tegak lurus terhadap bidang kerta
meninggalkan permukaan 1 dan menyerang permukaan gabungan 2 dan 3 sama dengan jumlah radiasi yang menyerang permuka
karena itu, faktor tampilan dari permukaan 1 ke permukaan gabungan 2 dan 3 adalah
F1 S (2, 3) 5 F1 S 2 1 F1 S 3 (13-13)
Misalkan kita perlu menemukan tampilan untuk ekspresi dan grafik di bagian ini faktor Fmengungkapkan 1 S 3. Quick yang m
tampilan faktor tampilan seperti itu tidak dapat dievaluasi secara langsung. dari Persamaan. 13–13 setelah menentukan Tabel 1
itu, bagaimanapun, pandangan mungkin kedua F1 S ke 2 faktor menentukan dan F1 FS 1 S (2, 3 beberapa 3) dapat menjadi sulit dar
yang d
faktor-faktor dengan relatif mudah dengan mengungkapkan satu atau keduanya dari area sebagai jumlah atau perbedaan area dan
menerapkan aturan superposisi.
Untuk mendapatkan relasi untuk faktor tampilan F(2, 3) S 1, kami mengalikan Persamaan. 13–13 oleh A1,
A1F1 S (2, 3) 5 A1F1 S 2 1 A1F1 S 3
dan terapkan hubungan timbal balik untuk setiap istilah untuk mendapatkan
(A2 1 A3)F( 2, 3) S 1 5 A2F2 S 1 1 A3F3 S 1
atau
A F 1A F
F(2, 3) S 1 5 2 2S1 3 3S1
A2 1 A3
3
3=+
2
2
1
1
1
F1 → (2,3) = F1 → 2 + F1 → 3
GAMBAR 13–11 Faktor tampilan dari permukaan ke permukaan komposit sama dengan jumlah faktor tampilan dari permukaan
perm
1
3
r2 = 5 cm r3 = 8 cm
2 (13-14)
Area yang dinyatakan sebagai jumlah lebih dari dua bagian dapat ditangani dengan cara yang sama.
CONTOH 13–2 Fraksi Radiasi Meninggalkan
Pembukaan
r1 = 10 cm Tentukan fraksi radiasi yang meninggalkan dasar selungkup silindris yang ditunjukkan pada Gambar 13-12 yang lolos melalui b
koaksial pada permukaan atasnya. Jari-jari dan panjang selungkup masing-masing r1 5 10 cm dan L 5 10 cm, sedangkan jari-jari dalam
adalah r2 5 5 cm dan r3 5 8 cm.

GAMBAR 13–12 Selungkup silindris yang dipertimbangkan dal
778TRANSFER PANAS PANAS RADIASI
SOLUSI Fraksi radiasi yang meninggalkan dasar silinder tertutup melalui bukaan cincin koaksial di permukaan atasnya harus ditentuka
Permukaan dasar adalah emitor dan reflektor difus. Analisis Kami diminta untuk menentukan fraksi radiasi yang meninggalkan pangkal
lolos melalui lubang di permukaan atas. Sebenarnya, apa yang diminta untuk kita tentukan hanyalah faktor tampilancincin F1S dari dasar se
permukaan berbentuk cincin di bagian atas.
Kami tidak memiliki ekspresi analitis atau grafik untuk tampilan faktor antara area melingkar dan sebuah cincin koaksial, dan jadi
menentukan F1 cincin S secara langsung. Namun, kami memiliki bagan untuk melihat faktor-faktor antara dua disk paralel koaksial, dan
mengekspresikan cincin dalam hal disk.
Biarkan permukaan dasar jari-jari r1 5 10 cm menjadi permukaan 1, area lingkaran r2 5 5 cm di bagian atas menjadi permukaan 2, dan ar
cm menjadi permukaan 3. Menggunakan aturan superposisi, faktor tampilan dari permukaan 1 ke permukaan 3 dapat dinyatakan sebag
F1 S 3 5 F1 S 2 1 F1 S cincin
karena permukaan 3 adalah jumlah dari permukaan 2 dan area cincin. Faktor tampilan F1 S 2 dan F1 S 3 ditentukan dari grafik pada Gam
Symmetry Aturan Penentuan faktor pandangan dalam suatu masalah dapat disederhanakan lebih lanjut jika geometri
memiliki semacam simetri. Oleh karena itu, praktik yang baik untuk memeriksa keberadaan simetri dalam masalah sebelum men
menentukan faktor tampilan secara langsung. Kehadiran simetri dapat ditentukan dengan inspeksi, dengan tetap mengingat defin
tampilan. Permukaan identik yang berorientasi dengan cara yang identik sehubungan dengan permukaan lain akan mencegat jum
sama meninggalkan permukaan itu. Oleh karena itu, aturan simetri dapat dinyatakan sebagai dua (atau lebih) permukaan yang
tentang permukaan ketiga akan memiliki faktor tampilan yang identik dari permukaan itu (Gbr. 13-13).
Aturan simetri juga dapat dinyatakan seolah- olah permukaan j dan k adalah simetrik dapat tentang permukaan i kemudian menu
hubungan Fj S i 5 Fi FS kj 5 S i adalah Fi juga S k. Menggunakan timbal balik yang benar dalam kasus ini.
10 cm
aturan, kami 5 10
5 1 dan r 5 cm
cm 2L 5 10
5 0,5 (Gbr. 13–7)
cm 5 0,11
10 cm
Lr1 5 10
5 1 dan r 8 cm
cm 3L 5 10
5 0.8 (Gbr. 13–7)
cm 5 0,28
Oleh karena itu,
F1 S cincin 5 F1 S 3 2 F1 S 2 5 0,28 2 0,11 5 0,17
yang merupakan hasil yang diinginkan. Perhatikan bahwa F1 S 2 dan F1 S 3 mewakili fraksi radiasi yang meninggalkan alas yang mengha
lingkaran 2 dan 3, masing-masing, dan perbedaannya memberikan fraksi yang menghantam area cincin.
1
32
F(Juga, 1 → 2 = FF2 → 1 1 → 3 = F3 → 1)
GAMBAR 13–13 Dua permukaan yang simetris pada permukaan ketiga akan memiliki faktor tampilan yang sama dari permukaan ket
779 BAB 13
CONTOH 13–3 Lihat Faktor-Faktor yang Terkait dengan Tetragon
Tentukan faktor-faktor tampilan dari dasar piramida yang ditunjukkan pada Gambar 13–14 untuk masing-masing dari keempat permuka
piramida adalah bujur sangkar, dan permukaan sampingnya adalah segitiga sama kaki.
SOLUSI Faktor tampilan dari dasar piramida ke masing-masing permukaan empat sisinya untuk kasus basis persegi harus ditentukan.
Permukaan adalah pemancar dan reflektor yang tersebar. Analisis Dasar piramida (permukaan 1) dan permukaan empat sisinya (perm
dan 5) membentuk selungkup lima permukaan. Hal pertama yang kami perhatikan tentang penutup ini adalah simetri. Permukaan empa
tentang permukaan dasar. Kemudian, dari aturan simetri, kita memiliki
F12 5 F13 5 F14 5 F15
Juga, aturan penjumlahan yang diterapkan ke permukaan 1 menghasilkan
5 F
j51 a 1j 5 F11 1 F12 1 F1313 11 FF14 1 F15 5 1
Namun, F11 5 0, karena alasnya adalah rata permukaan yang. Kemudian dua hubungan di atas menghasilkan
F12 5 F13 5 F14 5 F15 5 0,25
Diskusi Perhatikan bahwa masing-masing dari empat permukaan sisi piramida menerima seperempat dari seluruh radiasi yang meningg
dasar, seperti yang diharapkan. Perhatikan juga bahwa keberadaan simetri sangat menyederhanakan penentuan faktor tampilan.
CONTOH 13–4 Faktor-faktor Pandangan yang Berhubungan dengan Saluran Segitiga
Tentukan faktor tampilan dari satu sisi ke sisi lain dari saluran segitiga panjang yang tak terhingga panjang yang penampang melintangn
pada Gambar 13-15.
SOLUSI Faktor tampilan yang terkait dengan saluran segitiga panjang tak terhingga harus ditentukan. Asumsi Permukaan adalah pem
reflektor yang tersebar. Analisis Lebar sisi penampang segitiga saluran adalah L1, L2, dan L3, dan area permukaan yang bersesuaian ad
A3. Karena saluran itu panjang tak terhingga, fraksi radiasi yang meninggalkan permukaan apa pun yang lolos melalui ujung saluran bisa
karena itu, saluran yang sangat panjang dapat dianggap sebagai selungkup tiga permukaan, N 5 3.
Selungkup ini melibatkan N 2 5 32 5 faktor tampilan9, dan kita perlu menentukan
3 3 (3 2 1) 5 3
12N(N 2 1) 5 12
dari faktor tampilan ini secara langsung. Untungnya, kita dapat menentukan ketiganya dengan memeriksa menjadi
F11 5 F22 5 F33 5 0
karena ketiga permukaannya rata. Enam faktor tampilan yang tersisa dapat ditentukan dengan penerapan aturan penjumlahan dan timb
3
2
GAMBAR 13–14 Piramida dipertimbangkan dal
1
4
5
3
1L3 2 L2
L1
GAMBAR 13–15 Saluran segitiga panjang tak hingga yang dipertimbangkan dal
780 RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER
Menerapkan aturan penjumlahan untuk masing-masing dari tiga permukaan menghasilkan
F11 1 F12 1 F13 5 1 F21 1 F22 1 F23 5 1 F31 1 F32 1 F33 5 1 Memperhatikan bahwa F11 5 F22 5 F33 5 0 dan mengalikan persamaan pertama d
kedua dengan A2, dan yang ketiga dengan A3 menghasilkan
A1F12 1 A1F13 5 A1 A2F21 1 A2F23 5 A2 A3F31 1 A3F32 5 A3 Akhirnya, menerapkan tiga hubungan timbal balik A1F12 5 A2F21, A1F13 5 A3F31, d
memberikan
A1F12 1 A1F13 5 A1 A1F12 1 A2F23 5 A2 A1F13 1 A2F23 5 A3 Ini adalah seperangkat tiga persamaan aljabar dengan tiga tidak diketahui , yang d
untuk mendapatkan
F12 5 A1 1 A2 2 A3 2A1 Lihat
Faktor-Faktor Antara Permukaan Panjang Yang Tak Terbata
Metode Melintasi-String Banyak masalah yang dihadapi dalam praktik melibatkan geometri penampang k
saluran dan saluran yang sangatpanjang dalam satu arah relatif terhadap arah lain. Geometri semacam itu dapat dengan mudah d
dua dimensi, karena setiap interaksi radiasi melalui permukaan ujungnya dapat diabaikan. Geometri ini selanjutnya dapat dimode
panjang yang tak terhingga, dan faktor tampilan antara permukaannya dapat ditentukan dengansederhana metode stringyang dik
HC Hottel pada 1950-an. Permukaan geometri tidak perlu rata; mereka dapat menjadi koneks, cekung, atau bentuk tidak teratur.
Untuk menunjukkan metode ini, mempertimbangkan geometri ditunjukkan pada Gambar. 13-16, dan biarkan kami 5 L1 2
1
A 1A 2A
F13 5 1 3 2 2A1 kita lakukan dicoba adalah mengidentifikasi untuk menemukan faktor pandangan titik akhir dari F1 S2 antara
2LL3 1
1
permukaan 1 dan 2. hal pertama (titik-titik A, B, C,dan D)dan

2L
2
(13 –15)
A 1A 2A
F23 5 2 3 1
2A2 5 L2 2LL3 2
1
2L
1
Diskusi Perhatikan bahwa kami telah mengganti area permukaan sisi dengan lebar yang sesuai untuk kesederhanaan, karena A 5 Ls da
difaktorisasi dan dibatalkan. We can generalize this result as the view factor from a surface of a very long triangular duct to another surfa
sum of the widths of these two surfaces minus the width of the third surface, divided by twice the width of the first surface.
2
L2
L1
FIGURE 13–16 Determination of the view factor Fcrossed-strings 1 S 2 by the application method. CD
L5
L3
L6L4
A
1
of the
B
781 CHAPTER 13
connect them to each other with tightly stretched strings, which are indicated by dashed lines. Hottel has shown that the view fac
lengths of these stretched strings, which Fare 1 S straight 2 can be lines, expressed as
in
(L 1 L ) 2 (L 1 L )
F1 S 2 5 5 6 3 4
2L1
(13–16)
Note is the that sum L5 of 1 the L6 lengths is the sum of of the the uncrossed lengths of strings the crossed attached strings,
endpoints. L3 1 L4 Therefore, Hottel's crossed-strings method can be expressed verbally as

g(Crossed strings) 2 g(Uncrossed strings)
Fi S j 5 2 3 (String on surface i)
(13–17)
The crossed-strings method is applicable even when the two surfaces considered share a common edge, as in a triangle. In such ca
edge can be treated as an imaginary string of zero length. The method can also be applied to surfaces that are partially blocked b
by allowing the strings to bend around the blocking surfaces.
EXAMPLE 13–5 The Crossed-Strings Method for View Factors
Two infinitely long parallel plates of widths a 5 12 cm and b 5 5 cm are located a distance c 5 6 cm apart, as shown in Fig. 13–17. (a) D
factor F1 S 2 from surface 1 to surface 2 by using the crossed-strings method. (b) Derive the crossed-strings formula by forming trian
geometry and using Eq. 13–15 for view factors between the sides of triangles.
SOLUTION The view factors between two infinitely long parallel plates are to be determined using the crossed-strings method, and the
view factor is to be derived. Assumptions The surfaces are diffuse emitters and reflectors. Analysis (a) First we label the endpoints of b
draw straight dashed lines between the endpoints, as shown in Fig. 13–17. Then we identify the crossed and uncrossed strings and app
strings method (Eq. 13–17) to determine the view factor F1 S 2:
g(Crossed strings) 2 g(Uncrossed strings)
F1 S 2 5 2 3 (String on surface 1)
5 (L 1 L ) 2 (L 1 L )
5 6 3 4
2L1
where
L1 5 a 5 12 cm L4 5 "72 1 62 5 9.22 cm L2 5 b 5 5 cm L5 5 "52 1 62 5 7.81 cm L3 5 c 5 6 cm L6 5 "122 1 62 5 13.4
[(7.81 1 13.42) 2 (6 1 9.22)] cm
F1 S 2 5 23 12 cm
5 0.250
(b) The geometry is infinitely long in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the paper, and thus the two plates (surfaces 1 and 2) and
b = L2 = 5 cm C 2
D
L3
L4
c = 6 cm
L5 L6
A1
B
a = L1 = 12 cm
FIGURE 13–17 The two infinitely long parallel plates considered
(imaginary surfaces 3 and 4) form a four-surface enclosure. Then applying the summation rule to surface 1 yields
F11 1 F12 1 F13 1 F14 5 1 But F11 5 0 since it is a flat surface. The refore,
F12 5 1 2 F13 2 F14 where the view factors F13 and F14 can be determined by considering the triangles ABC and ABD, respectively, and a
15 for view factors between the sides of triangles. We obtain F13 5 L1 1 2LL3 1 13–3 RADIATION BLACK SURF
■
HEAT TRANSFER: So far, we have considered the nature of radiation, the radiation properties of materials, and the v
we are now in a position to consider the rate of heat transfer between surfaces by radiation. The analysis of radiation exchange be
in general, is complicated because of reflection: a radiation beam leaving a surface may be reflected several times, with partial re
occurring at each surface, before it is completely absorbed. The analysis is simplified greatly when the surfaces involved can be a
blackbodies because of the absence of reflection. In this section, we consider radiation exchange between black surfaces only; w
analysis to reflecting surfaces in the next section.
Consider two black surfaces of arbitrary shape maintained at uniform temperatures a black surface T1 factor surface F2, 1 S the
at T2a , as rate shown the of fraction Eb in 5 Fig. sT of 13–18. 4 net rate of radiation heat Recognizing that radiation leaves per
and that the view radiation leaving surface 1 that strikes transfer from surface 1 to surface 2 can
Q#
5°
1S 2
2 L6
, F14 5 L1 1 2LL4 1
2 L5
Substituting,
L 1 L 2L
F12 5 1 2 1 2L 31 6
L 1L 2L
2 1 4 5
2L1 5 L5 L6 2L 1
( 1 ) 2
(L 1 L )
3 4
which is the desired result. This is also a miniproof of the crossed-strings method for the case of two infinitely long plain parallel surfaces
TA11
Q·
12 TA22 2 1
FIGURE 13–18 Two general black surfaces maintained at uniform temperatures T1 and T2.
Radiation leaving the entire surface 1 that stri
Radiation leaving the entire surface 2 that

5 A1Eb1 F1 S 2 2 A2Eb2 F2 S 1 (W) (13–18)
Applying the reciprocity relation A1F1 S 2 5 A2F2 S 1 yields
Q#
1S 2
5AF
1 1S 2
s(T41 2 T42) (W) (13–19)
783 CHAPTER 13 which is radiation the desired relation. A heat transfer is from surface negat
2 to surface 1.
indicates that net
1S2
Now consider an enclosure consisting of N black surfaces maintained at specified temperatures. The net radiation heat transfer fr
of this enclosure is determined by adding up the net radiation heat transfers from surface i to each of the surfaces of the enclosure
# 5
Q i Again a negative value N
Q#
j51 a
5 #
for i S j Q indicates N
AF s(T4 2 T4 ) (W) (13–20)
j51 a i iSj i j that net radiation heat transfer is to surface i (ie, surface i gains radiation energy instead of losin
heat transfer from a surface to itself is zero, regardless of the shap
EXAMPLE 13–6 Radiation Heat Transfer in a Black Furnace
Consider the 5-m 3 5-m 3 5-m cubical furnace shown in Fig. 13–19, whose surfaces closely approximate black surfaces. The base, top,
of the furnace are maintained at uniform temperatures of 800 K, 1500 K, and 500 K, respectively. Determine (a) the net rate of radia
between the base and the side surfaces, (b) the net rate of radiation heat transfer between the base and the top surface, and (c) the
transfer from the base surface.
SOLUTION The surfaces of a cubical furnace are black and are maintained at uniform temperatures. The net rate of radiation heat tran
base and side surfaces, between the base and the top surface, and from the base surface are to be determined. Assumptions The surf
and isothermal. Analysis (a) The geometry involves six surfaces, and thus we may be tempted at first to treat the furnace as a six-surfac
However, the four side surfaces possess the same properties, and thus we can treat them as a single side surface in radiation analysis.
#
base surface to be surface 1, the top surface the problem reduces The net rate of to be to surface determining 2, and Q
,#
the 1 S radiation heat transfer side 3Q
Q# , and Q#
1 surfaces 1 S 2
. from surface 1 to surface 3
to 1 S3 be surface 3. Then can be determined from Eq. 13–19, since both surfaces involved are black
#
Q
5AF s(T4 2 T4 )
1S3 1 1S3 1 3
But first we need to evaluate the view factor F1 S 3. After checking the view factor charts and tables, we realize that we cannot determin
directly. However, we can determine the view factor F1 S 2 from Fig. 13–5 to be F1 S 2 5 0.2, and we know that F1 S 1 5 0 since surface 1
applying the summation rule to surface 1 yields
F1 S 1 1 F1 S 2 1 F1 S 3 5 1 or
#
F1 S 3 5 1 2 F1 S 1 2 F1 S 2 5 1 2 0 2 0.2 5 0.8 Substituting, Q
1S35 (25 m2)(0.8)(5.67 3 1028 W/m2·K4)[(800 K)4 2 (500 K)4]
5 394 kW
2
T2 = 1500 K3
T3 = 500 K
1
T1 = 800 K
FIGURE 13–19 The cubical furnace of black surfaces considered
#
(b) The net rate of radiation heat transfer Q
from surface 1 to surface 2 is
1S2 determined in a similar manner from Eq. 13–19 to be
#
Q
5AF s(T4 2 T4 )
1S2 1 1S2 1 2
5 (25 m )(0.2)(5.67 3 1028 W/m2·K4)[(800 K)4 2 (1500 K)4] 5 21319 kW

2
The negative sign indicates that net radiation heat transfer is from surface 2 to surface 1. (c) The net radiation heat transfer from the ba
is determined from
1 Eq. 13–20 by replacing the subscript i by 1 and taking N 5 3:
#
Q
15 3
Q#
a
j51
#
1Sj5 Q
#
1S11 Q
#
1S21 Q
1S3
5 0 1 (21319 kW) 1 (394 kW) 5 2925 kW
Again the negative sign indicates that net radiation heat transfer is to surface 1. That is, the base of the furnace is gaining net radiation a
kW.
13–4 RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER: DIFFUSE, GRAY SURFACES

■
The analysis of radiation transfer in enclosures consisting of black surfaces is relatively easy, as we have seen, but most enclosure
practice involve nonblack surfaces, which allow multiple reflections to occur. Radia- tion analysis of such enclosures becomes v
unless some sim- plifying assumptions are made.
To make a simple radiation analysis possible, it is common to assume the surfaces of an enclosure to be opaque, diffuse, and g
surfaces are nontransparent, they are diffuse emitters and diffuse reflectors, and their radiation properties are independent of w
each surface of the enclosure is isothermal, and both the incoming and outgoing radiation are uniform over each surface. But fir
concept of radiosity introduced in Chap. 12.
Radiosity, J
Radiosity Incident
Reflected
Emitted
Surfaces emit radiation as well as reflect it, and thus the radiation leaving a radiation
radiation
radiation
surface consists of emitted and reflected parts. The calculation of radiation rG eEb
heat transfer between surfaces involves the total radiation energy stream-
G
ing away from a surface, with no regard for its origin. The total radiation energy leaving a surface per unit time and per unit are
radiosity and is denoted by J (Fig. 13–20). For a surface i that can be expressed as
is gray and opaque (ei 5 ai and ai 1 ri 5 1), the radiosity
Surface
FIGURE 13–20 Radiosity represents the sum of the radiation energy emitted and reflected
Ji 5 aRadiation by surface emitted
b 1 aRadiation reflected
i by surface
b
i
5 eiEbi 1 riGi by a surface.
5 eiEbi 1 (1 2 ei)Gi (W/m2) (13–21)
785 CHAPTER 13
where diation E(ie, bi 5 sTthe i4 radiation is the blackbody energy emissive power of surface incident on surface i per i unit an
irra- unit area). For a surface that can be ity relation reduces to
approximated as a blackbody (ei 5 1), the radios-
Ji 5 Ebi 5 sTi4 (blackbody) (13–22) That is, the radiosity of a blackbody is equal to its emissive power. This is expected, since a bla
reflect any radiation, and thus radiation coming from a blackbody is due to emission only.
Net Radiation Heat Transfer to or from a Surface During a radiation interaction, a surface loses
emitting radiation and gains energy by absorbing radiation emitted by other surfaces. A surface experiences a net gain or a net lo
#
depending on which quantity is larger. The Ai is denoted net by rate Q
and is expressed as
of i radiation heat transfer from a surface i
of surface area
#
Q
5 aRadiation leaving
i entire surface
b 2 aRadiation incident
i on entire surface
b
i
5 Ai(Ji 2 Gi) (W) (13–23) Solving for Gi from Eq. 13–21 and substituting into Eq. 13–23 yields
#
Q
J2eE
i5 Ai aJi 2 i i bi
Ae
1 2 ei b 5 i i
1 2 ei (Ebi 2 Ji) (W) (13–24) In an electrical analogy to Ohm's law, this equation can be rearranged as
#
Q
5E 2 J
i bi Ri i
(W) (13–25)
where
12e
Ri 5 i
Aiei
(13–26)
is the potential surface resistance to radiation. difference and the net rate of The radiation quantity heat Ebi transfer 2 Ji
corresponds to current in the electrical analogy, as illustrat
The direction of the net radiation heat transfer depends on the relative magnitudes of temperature Jof i . this Ebiradiation . A Ji o
#
radiosity) surface). negative value and for It Qis
indicates that heat transfer is
energy gained must i from Ebi (the emissive power of a blackbody at the the surface if Ebi . Ji and
the surface. All
if be removed from the other side of the surface through some mechanism if the surface temperature is to rema
surface resistance to radiation for and directly Ji 5 from Ebi. The net rate of radiation
a blackbody transfer in is this case zero is since determined ei 5 1
Some surfaces encountered in numerous practical heat transfer applications are modeled as being adiabatic since their back sides a
and the net heat transfer through them is zero. When the convection effects on the front (heat transfer) side of such a surface
steady-state
Q.i
1 – e
Ri = ——–– A ie i Ebi Ji Surface
i
i
FIGURE 13–21 Electrical analogy of surface resis
#
conditions are reache d, it gains, and thus the surface. radiation Setting energy Q
# 5 5 0. In such cases, the 0 in Eq. 13–25 yields
Q ii the surface must lose it receives, and such a
surface is said to reradiate all
as much radiation energy as surface is call
Ji 5 Ebi 5 sTi4 (W/m2) (13–27) Therefore, the temperature of a reradiating surface under steady conditions can easily be determined f
above once its radiosity is known. Note that the temperature of a reradiating surface is independent of its emissivity. In radia
surface resistance of a reradiating surface is disregarded since there is no net heat transfer through it. (This is like the fact that th
consider a resistance in an electrical network if no current is flowing through it.)
Net Radiation Heat Transfer between Any Two Surfaces Ebj
Surface j
Consider two diffuse, gray, and opaque surfaces of arbitrary shape maintained at uniform temperatures, as show
Recognizing that the radiosity J represents the rate of radiation leaving a surface per unit surface area and that t
i that strikes surface Fj, i the S j represents the fraction of radiation leaving surface net rate of radiation heat transfer from surface i
Q.ij
Jj
Rij = ——
1
Ji
surface j can be expressed as
#
Q
5°
iSj
RiSurface i
FIGURE 13–22 Electrical analogy of space resistance to radiation.
Radiation leaving
Radiation leaving AiFij
the entire surface i
¢2°
the entire surface j

¢ (13–28)
that strikes surface jthat strikes surface i5 Ai Ji Fi S j 2 Aj Jj Fj S i (W)
Ebi
#
Applying the reciprocity Q
5 AF (J 2 J ) (W) (13–29)
relation AiFi S j 5 AjFj S i yields i S j i iSj i j Again in analogy to Ohm's law, this equation can be rearran
#
Q
5J 2J
iSj iR j
i S j (W) (13–30) where

1
Ri S j 5
Ai Fi S j
(13–31)
is the space resistance to radiation. a potential difference, and the net Again rate of the quantity heat transfer between Ji 2 Jj co
surfaces corresponds to current in the electrical analogy, as illustrated in Fig. 13–22. The depends indicates direction of the n
magnitudes that net heat transfer radiation heat is from of surface Ji transfer and i Jto j. between A positive surface j. two v
#
Q A negative value i S j indicates the opposite. In an N-surface enclosure, the conservation of energy principle requires that the
from surface i be equal to the sum of the net heat transfers from surface i to each of the N surfaces of the en
787 CHAPTER 13
#
Q
5N
i
Q#
j51 a
5N
iSj
NAF (J 2 J ) 5
j51 a i iSj i j j51
aJi 2 Jj
#
Ri S j (W) (13–32) The network representation of net radiation heat transfer from surface i to the remaining Q the surfaces of an N-
(the net rate of heat transfer from a surface to itself) is zero regardless
enclosure is given in Fig. 13–23. Note i S shape i of t
Combining Eqs. 13–25 and 13–32 gives
of
that
Ebi 2 Ji
Q.i
R i1
Ri2
RiN J2Ebi
Ri
Ji
Ri(N–1)
Ri S j JN
FIGURE 13–23 Network representation of net radiation heat transfer from surface i to the remaining surfaces of an N-surface encl
which has the electrical analogy interpretation that the net radiation flow from a surface through its surface resistance is equal
radiation flows from that surface to all other surfaces through the corresponding space resistances.
Methods of Solving Radiation Problems In the radiation analysis of an enclosure, either the tem
net rate of heat transfer must be given for each of the surfaces to obtain a unique solution for the unknown surface temperatures
rates. There are two methods commonly used to solve radiation problems. In the first method, Eqs. 13–32 (for surfaces with speci
rates) and 13–33 (for surfaces with specified temperatures) are simplified and rearranged as
Surfaces net heat with specified
# #
transfer rate Q Q
i5 Ai N
F
j51 a i S j(Ji 2 Jj) (13–34)
12e
Surfaces with specified temperature Ti sTi4 5 Ji 1 i
N
ei
F (J 2 J ) (13–35) # 5 0 for insulated
j51 a iSj i j Note that Q black surfaces i drops out from The equations since either ei relation 5 1 ab
reradiating) surfaces, and sT 4
in that case. Also, the term corresponding i N since linear Jalgebraic i 2 Jj 5 Jequations i 2 Ji 5 0 in
for the determinati
of the N unknown radiosities for an N-surface enclosure. Once the radiosities Jfrom 1, J2, Eq. . . . , 13–34 JN are while available,
heat transfer rates can be determined unknown surface temperatures can be determined from Eq. be determined heat tra
temperatures of from from surface sTi4 5 i to Ji. other A positive surfaces insulated value for o
indicates net radiation
in the enclosure i surfaces can while a negative value indicates net radiation heat transf
The systematic approach described above for solving radiation heat transfer problems is very suitable for use with today's popular
such as EES, Mathcad, and Matlab, especially when there are a large number of surfaces, and is known as the direct method (form
method, since it resulted in matrices and the solution required a knowledge of linear algebra). The second method described b
network method, is based on the electrical network analogy.
The network method was first introduced by AK Oppenheim in the 1950s and found widespread acceptance because of its simpli
emphasis on
the physics of the problem. The application of the method is straightforward: draw a surface resistance associated with each surfac
and connect them with space resistances. Then solve the radiation problem by treating it as an electrical network problem where t
transfer replaces the current and radiosity replaces the potential.
The network method is not practical for enclosures with more than three or four surfaces, however, because of the increased c
network. Next we apply the method to solve radiation problems in two- and three-surface enclosures.
Radiation Heat Transfer in Two-Surface Enclosures Consider an enclosure consisting of two
at specified temperatures of radiation T1 heat and Ttransfer 2, as shown in Fig. 13–24, and try to determine the net rate between
with the network method. Surfaces 1 and 2 have emissivities are maintained at uniform temperatures only two surfaces in the en
5 Q#
and and
5 2Q #
1 thus T e1 2 we and and 2 TAe1 11
Q.12
eAT222 21
surface areas can T2, write
respectively. A1 and There A2 and are
Eb1 Q.1
J1 That is, the net rate of radiation heat transfer from surface 1 to surface 2 must
J2
Eb2
equal the net rate of radiation heat transfer from surface 1 and the net rate of radiation heat transfer to surface 2.
The radiation network of this two-surface enclosure consists of two surface R1 = —–— A1e1
resistances and one space resistance, as shown in Fig. 13–24. In an electrical network, the electric current flowing through
connected in series would be determined by dividing the potential difference between points A and B by the total resistance betwe
points. The net rate of radiation transfer is determined in the same manner and is expressed as
#
Q
5E 2E
12 b1 b2
#
R1 1 R12 1 R2 5 Q
5 2Q#
1
2
or
#
Q
5 s(T
12 1 2 e1 A1e1 1 Q.12
Q.2
1 – e1 R12 = —–— A11 F12
4 2 T4 )
1 2
1 12e
A1F12 1 2
A2e2 R2 = 1 —–— A– 2ee2 2

FIGURE 13–24 Schematic of a two-surface enclosure and the radiation network associated with it.
(W) (13–36)
This important result is applicable to any two gray, diffuse, and opaque surfaces that form an enclosure. The view fa
determined first. Simplified forms Fof 12 Eq. depends 13–36 on for the some geometry familiar arrangements that form a two-s
are given in Table 13–3. Note that F12 5 1 for all of the
1eQ.12
T1 1 EXAMPLE 13–7 Radiation Heat Transfer between Parallel Plates Two very large parallel plates are maintained at uniform
5 800 K and T2 5 500 K and have emissivities e1 5 0.2 and e2 5 0.7, respectively, as shown in Fig. 13–25. Determine the net rate of ra
fer between the two surfaces per unit surface area of the plates.
SOLUTION Two large parallel plates are maintained at uniform temperatures. The net rate of radiation heat transfer between
d
800 K
2
eT2 2 = = 0.7
500 K
FIGURE 13–25 The two parallel plates considered in Example 13–7.
789 CHAPTER 13
Assumptions Both surfaces are opaque, diffuse, and gray. Analysis The net rate of radiation heat transfer between the two plates per u
readily determined from Eq. 13–38 to be
#
q
Q#
12 5
s(T4 2 1 T4 ) (5.67 3 1028

12A5 1 1e1 1 e2 2 215 W/m10.2 2·K4)[(800 1 0.
Radiation heat transfer relations for some familiar two-surface arrangments
A1 = A2 = A
K)4 2 (500 K)4]
21
5 3625 W/m2
Discussion Note that heat at a net rate of 3625 W is transferred from plate 1 to plate 2 by radiation per unit surface area of either plate.
Small object in a large cavity
A1, T1, e1
(13–37)
Infinitely large parallel plates
Infinitely long concentric cylinders
Concentric spheres
.
—– AA12≈ 0 4 4 F12 = 1
F12 = 1
As(T
Q. 12 = ——————— — e1 1 + A1A2F12 = 1 1 4
Q12 = A1se1(T1 – T2 )
A2, T2, e2
A1, T1, e1
A2, T2, e2
— e1 2 – 1 —– = —–
r A
r12Q. 12 = ————————— — e1 11
s(T –
+ 1 ––—1 4 – e 2
T ) (13–39)
e 2 2 4 —– rr12 r1r2
—– A1 = —–
r
r122
A s(T – T 4 ) (13– 40)
Q. 12 = ————————— — e1 11 + A21 4 2 F12 = 1
1 ––—– e2
e2 —–
rr122
Radiation Heat Transfer in Three-Surface Enclosures We now consider an enclosure co

opaque, diffuse, and gray surfaces, as shown in Fig. 13–26. Surfaces 1, 2, and 3 have surface areas ATlowing 32, , respecti
standard emissivities The procedure: radiation e1, e2, network and e3; and of this uniform geometry temperatures is constructed T
resistance associated w
fol- each of the three surfaces and connect these surface resistances with space resistances, as shown in the figure. Relations fo
space resistances are given by Eqs. 13–26 and 13–31. The and Then Eall b3 are we considered known, need to find are the since
endpoint potentials temperatures are sp
for the determination of these three radiosities unknowns J1, Jare 2, and obtained J3. The three equations from the requirement t
sum of the currents (net radiation heat transfer) at each node must eq
Eb1 2 J1
J 2J
R1 1 2 1
J 2J
R12 1 3 1
R13 5 0
E 2
J1 2 J2 R12 1 b2 R2 e1, A1, T1
1
J
2
J 2 J
1 3R 23 2
5 0 (13–41)
J1 2 J3
J 2J
R13 1 2 3
E 2 J
R23 1 b3 R3 3
50
Once transfers the at radiosities each surface J1, Jcan 2, and be Jdetermined 3 are available, from the Eq. net 13–32.
rate of radiation heat
The set of equations above simplify further if one or more surfaces are “special” in some ing surface. Also, of radiation heat the t
#
Q transfer Ji)/Re2, A2, T2 2
3
e3, A3, T3
FIGURE 13–26 Schematic of a three-surface enclosure and the radiation network associated with it.
5 0 #
For i T1 = 700 K i should Q
for a reradiating surface. Finally, when the net rate is specified at surfac
i example, Ji 5 E bi 5 sT i4 for a black or reradiat-
i
the spec
of .
i
the temperature,
e1 = 0.8
T2 = 500 K e2 = 0.4
1 Q.1
Eb1 J1
R12 = —–— A1F12
R1 R= 13 —–— 1 A= – 1ee—–— A1 1 11
F13
Q.12Q.13
Q.2
Q.3
J2 Eb2
Eb3 Q.23 J3
R2 = —–— 1 A– 2ee2 2
R23 = —–— A21 F23
R3 = 1 —–— A– 3ee3 3
1
ro
Black T3 = 400 K
FIGURE 13–27 The cylindrical furnace considered in Example 13–8.
EXAMPLE 13–8 Radiation Heat Transfer in a Cylindrical Furnace
H
3
Consider a cylindrical furnace with ro 5 H 5 1 m, as shown in Fig. 13–27. The top (surface 1) and the base (surface 2) of the furnace hav
0.8 and e2 5 0.4, respectively, and are maintained at uniform temperatures T1 5 700 K and T2 5 500 K. The side surface closely appro
body and is maintained at a temperature of T3 5 400 K. Determine the net rate of radiation heat transfer at each surface during stea
explain how these surfaces can be maintained at specified temperatures.
2
SOLUTION The surfaces of a cylindrical furnace are maintained at uniform temperatures. The net rate of radiation heat transfer at eac
steady operation is to be determined. Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist. 2 The surfaces are opaque, diffuse, and gray. 3
transfer is not considered.
791 CHAPTER 13
Analysis We will solve this problem systematically using the direct method to demonstrate its use. The cylindrical furnace can be conside
surface enclosure with surface areas of
A1 5 A2 5 pro2 5 p(1 m)2 5 3.14 m2 A3 5 2proH 5 2p(1 m)(1 m) 5 6.28 m2
The view factor from the base to the top surface is, from Fig. 13–7, F12 5 0.38. Then the view factor from the base to the side surface
applying the summation rule to be
F11 1 F12 1 F13 5 1 S F13 5 1 2 F11 2 F12 5 1 2 0 2 0.38 5 0.62
since the base surface is flat and thus F11 5 0. Noting that the top and bottom surfaces are symmetric about the side surface, F21 5 F12 5
5 0.62. The view factor F31 is determined from the reciprocity relation,
A1F13 5 A3F31 S F31 5 F13(A1/A3) 5 (0.62)(0.314/0.628) 5 0.31

Also, F32 5 F31 5 0.31 because of symmetry. Now that all the view factors are available, we apply Eq. 13–35 to each surface to determine
5J 112e
Top surface (i 5 1): sT41 1 1
5J 112e
e1 [F12 (J1 2 J2) 1 F13 (J1 2 J3)] Bottom surface (i 5 2): sT42 2 2
e2 [F21 (J2 2 J1) 1 F23 (J2 2 J3)]

5 J 1 0 (since surface 3 is black and thus e 5 1)
Side surface (i 5 3): sT43 3 3
Substituting the known quantities,

1 2 0.8
(5.67 3 1028 W/m2·K4)(700 K)4 5 J1 1
[0.38(J 2 J ) 1 0.62(J 2 J )]
0.8 1 2 1 3
1 2 0.4
(5.67 3 1028 W/m2·K4)(500 K)4 5 J2 1
[0.38(J 2 J ) 1 0.62(J 2 J )]
0.4 2 1 2 3
(5.67 3 1028 W/m2·K4)(400 K)4 5 J3

Solving these equations for J1, J2, and J3 gives
J1 5 11,418 W/m2, J2 5 4562 W/m2, and J3 5 1452 W/m2
Then the net rates of radiation heat transfer at the three surfaces are determined from Eq. 13–34 to be
#
Q
5 A [F (J 2 J ) 1 F (J 2 J )]
1 1 1S2 1 2 1S3 1 3
#
5 (3.14 m2)[0.38(11,418 2 4562) 1 0.62(11,418 2 1452)] W/m 2 5 27.6 kW Q
5 A [F (J 2 J ) 1 F (J 2 J )]
2 2 2S1 2 1 2S3 2 3
5 (3.14 m )[0.38(4562 2 11,418) 1 0.62(4562 2 1452)] W/m2 5 22.13 kW

2

#
Q
5 A [F (J 2 J ) 1 F (J 2 J )]
3 3 3S1 3 1 3S2 3 2
5 (6.28 m )[0.31(1452 2 11,418) 1 0.31(1452 2 4562)] W/m2 5 225.5 kW

2
Note that the direction of net radiation heat transfer is from the top surface to the base and side surfaces, and the algebraic sum of thes
must be equal to zero. That is,
#
Q
1 Q#
1
1 Q#
2
5 27.6 1 (22.13) 1 (225.5) ù 0

3
Discussion To maintain the surfaces at the specified temperatures, we must supply heat to the top surface continuously at a rate of 27.6
ing 2.13 kW from the base and 25.5 kW from the side surfaces.
The direct method presented here is straightforward, and it does not require the evaluation of radiation resistances. Also, it can be app
with any number of surfaces in the same manner.
EXAMPLE 13–9 Radiation Heat Transfer in a Triangular Furnace
A furnace is shaped like a long equilateral triangular duct, as shown in Fig. 13–28. The width of each side is 1 m. The base surface has
0.7 and is maintained at a uniform temperature of 600 K. The heated left-side surface closely approximates a blackbody at 1000 K. The
is well insulated. Determine the rate at which heat must be supplied to the heated side externally per unit length of the duct in order
operating conditions.
SOLUTION Two of the surfaces of a long equilateral triangular furnace are maintained at uniform temperatures while the third surface i
external rate of heat transfer to the heated side per unit length of the duct during steady operation is to be determined. Assumptions 1
operating conditions exist. 2 The surfaces are opaque, diffuse, and gray. 3 Convection heat transfer is not considered. Analysis The fur
considered to be a three-surface enclosure with a radiation network as shown in the figure, since the duct is very long and thus the end
negligible. We observe that the view factor from any surface to any other surface in the enclosure is 0.5 because of symmetry. at that S
#
reradiating surface is zero. Then we surface must have Qsince
#
1 5 the 2Q
net 2, rate of heat transfer since the entire heat lost by surface 1 must be gained by surface 2. case is a simple series–parallel conne
can radiation dete
1 in th
5 E 2E 1
1 R1 1 b1 b2 aR 12 1
2 = 1000 K
3
Insulated
1
e1 = 0.7 T1 = 600 K
Q.1 Eb1
J1 R12
J =E
2 b2
R1
(JQ3 .3 = = E0 b3)FIGURE 13–28 The triangular furnace considered

21 5 E 2E
b b1 b2
1 2 e1
1
A1e1 1 aA1F12 1
1/A1F13 1 21 1/A2F23bin Example 13–9.
Q. 2 = – Q. 1
R13 R23
793 CHAPTER 13
where A1 5 A2 5 A3 5 wL 5 1 m 3 1 m 5 1 m2 (per unit length of the duct)

F12 5 F13 5 F23 5 0.5 (symmetry)
Eb1 5 sT 14 5 (5.67 3 1028 W/m2·K4)(600 K)4 5 7348 W/m2
Eb2 5 sT 24 5 (5.67 3 1028 W/m2·K4)(1000 K)4 5 56,700 W/m2

Substituting,
#
Q
5
1 1 2 0.7
1 (56,700 2 7348) W/m2
0.7 3 1 m2
c(0.5 3 1 m2 1
)1
1/(0.5 3 1 m2) 1 21
d
1/(0.5 3 1 m2)
5 28.0 kW
Therefore, heat at a rate of 28 kW must be supplied to the heated surface per unit length of the duct to maintain steady operation in the f
EXAMPLE 13–10 Heat Transfer through a Tubular Solar
Collector
A solar collector consists of a horizontal aluminum tube having an outer diameter of 2 in enclosed in a concentric thin glass tube of
shown in Fig. 13–29. Water is heated as it flows through the tube, and the space between the aluminum and the glass tubes is filled
pressure. The pump circulating the water fails during a clear day, and the water temperature in the tube starts rising. The aluminum tu
radiation at a rate of 30 Btu/h per foot length, and the temperature of the ambient air outside is 70°F. The emissivities of the tube and th
0.95 and 0.9, respectively. Taking the effective sky temperature to be 50°F, determine the temperature of the aluminum tube when
conditions are established (ie, when the rate of heat loss from the tube equals the amount of solar energy gained by the tube).
SOLUTION The circulating pump of a solar collector that consists of a horizontal tube and its glass cover fails. The equilibrium tempe
is to be determined. Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist. 2 The tube and its cover are isothermal. 3 Air is an ideal gas. 4 T
opaque, diffuse, and gray for infrared radiation. 5 The glass cover is transparent to solar radiation. Properties The properties of air shou
at the average temperature. But we do not know the exit temperature of the air in the duct, and thus we cannot determine the bulk fluid
temperatures at this point, and thus we cannot evaluate the average temperatures. Therefore, we assume
Solar energy
Glass cover e = 0.9
70°F
4 in
2 in
Aluminum
FIGURE 13–29 Schematic for Example 13–10.
the glass temperature to be 110°F, and use properties at an anticipated average temperature of (70 1 110)/2 5 90°F (Table A–15E),
1 1
k 5 0.01505 Btu/h·ft·°F Pr 5 0.7275 n 5 1.753 3 10 24 ft2/sb 5 T avg 5 550
R
Analysis This problem was solved in Chap. 9 by disregarding radiation heat transfer. Now we repeat the solution by considering natur
radiation occurring simultaneously.
We have a horizontal cylindrical enclosure filled with air at 1 atm pressure. The problem involves heat transfer from the aluminum tube
and from the outer surface of the glass cover to the surrounding ambient air. When steady operation is reached, these two heat transfer
the rate of heat gain. That is,
#
Q
5 Q#
tube-glass
5 Q#
glass-ambient
5 30 Btu/h (per foot of tube)

solar gain
The heat transfer surface area of the glass cover is

Ao 5 Aglass 5 (pDoL) 5 p(4/12 ft)(1 ft) 5 1.047 ft2 (per foot of tube)
To determine the Rayleigh number, we need to know the surface temperature of the glass, which is not available. Therefore, it is clea
requires a trial-and-error approach unless we use an equation solver such as EES. Assuming the glass cover temperature to be 110°F, t
ber, the Nusselt number, the convection heat transfer coefficient, and the rate of natural convection heat transfer from the glass cover
are determined to be
gb(T 2 T ) D3
RaDo 5 o n2 q o
Pr
(32.2 ft/s2
5 )[1/(550 (1.753 R)](110 3 1024 2 ft2/s)70 2 R)(4/12 ft)3
(0.7275) 5 2.053 3 106
0.387 Ra1/6
Nu 5 e0.6 1 [1 1 (0.559/Pr) Do
9/16 8/27 f
]
2 5 e0.6 1 0.387(2.053 [1 1 3 (0.559/0.7275)109/166)1/6

8/27 f
]
2
5 17.88
k 0.01505 Btu/h·ft·8F
ho 5 D o Nu 5 4/12
(17.88) 5 0.8073 Btu/h·ft2 #
ft ·°F Q
5 h A (T 2 T ) 5 (0.8073 Btu/h·ft2
o, conv o o o ` ·°F)(1.047 ft2)(110 2 70)°F
5 33.8 Btu/h
Also, Q#
)
o, rad 5 eo sAo(T4o 2 T4sky
5 (0.9)(0.1714 3 1028 Btu/h·ft2·R4)(1.047 ft2)[(570 R)4 2 (510 R)4]
5 61.2 Btu/h
#
Then the total Q
5 Q#
rate o, total of heat
1 Q#
loss o, conv from
the glass cover becomes
5 33.8 1 61.2 5 95.0 Btu/h
o, rad
795 CHAPTER 13
which is much larger than 30 Btu/h. Therefore, the assumed temperature of 110°F for the glass cover is high. Repeating the calculation
peratures (including the evaluation of properties), the glass cover temperature corresponding to 30 Btu/h is determined to be 78°F (it
radiation were ignored).
The temperature of the aluminum tube is determined in a similar manner using the natural convection and radiation relations for two horiz
cylinders. The characteristic length in this case is the distance between the two cylinders, which is
Lc 5 (Do 2 Di)/2 5 (4 2 2)/2 5 1 in 5 1/12 ft
Also,Ai 5 Atube 5 (pDiL) 5 p(2 /12 ft)(1 ft) 5 0.5236 ft2 (per foot of tube)
We start the calculations by assuming the tube temperature to be 122°F, and thus an average temperature of (78 1 122)/2 5 100°F 5 560
ties at 100°F,
RaL 5 gb(Ti 2 To)L3c
Pr
n2
(32.2 ft/s2
5 )[1/(560 R)](122 2 78 R)(1/12 ft)3
(0.726) 5 3.246 3 104
(1.809 3 1024 ft2/s)2
The effective thermal conductivity is
Fcyl 5 [ln(Do/Di)]4
(D23/5 1 D23/5 )5 5 [ln(4/2)]4
L 3c i o
5 0.1466
(1/12 ft)3 [(2/12 ft)23/5 1 (4/12 ft)23/5]5
Pr
keff 5 0.386k a
b1/4 0.726
0.861 1 Pr (FcylRaL)1/4 5 0.386(0.01529 Btu/h·ft·°F) a
b1/4
0.861 1 0.726 (0.1466 3 3.248 3 104)1/4 5 0.04032 Btu/h·ft·°F
Then the rate of heat transfer between the cylinders by convection becomes
#
Q
5 2pk
i, conv eff
(T 2 T ) 2p(0.04032 Btu/h·ft·8F)
ln(Do/Di) i o 5
(122 2 78)°F 5 16.1 Btu/h

ln(4/2)
Also, Q#
sA (T4 2 T4 )
i, rad 5 i i o
12e
1 ei 1 o
D
eo a iDob
(0.1714 3 1028
5 Btu/h·ft2·R4)(0.5236 ft2)[(582 R)4 2 (538 R)4]
1 2 0.9
10.95 1
a2 in
0.9
b
4 in
5 25.1 Btu/h
13–5 RADIATION THE RADIATION SHIELDS EFFECTS AND Radiation heat transfe
■
surfaces can be reduced greatly by inserting a thin, high-reflectivity (low-emissivity) sheet of material between the two surface
reflective thin plates or shells are called radiation shields. Multilayer radiation shields constructed of about 20 sheets per cm thi
by evacuated space are commonly used in cryogenic and space applications. Radiation shields are also used in temperature me
fluids to reduce the error caused by the radiation effect when the temperature sensor is exposed to surfaces that are much hotter o
fluid itself. The role of the radiation shield is to reduce the rate of radiation heat transfer by placing additional resistances in the
heat flow. The lower the emissivity of the shield, the higher the resistance. and Radiation e2 maintained heat transfer at unifo
· As(T 4 2 T4 )
temperatures two large T1 parallel and T2 is plates given of by emissivities Eq. 13–38: e1 Q 12, no shield 5 11 2 e1 1
Now consider a radiation shield placed between these two plates, as shown in Fig. 13–30. emay 3, 2, respectively. be Let the Note
the of emissivity the shield of facing different plates surfaces 1 and 2 of be th
different. The radiation network of this geometry is constructed, as usual, by drawing a surface resistance associated with e
connecting these surface resistances with space resistances, as shown in the figure. The resistances are connected in series, and
radiation heat transfer is
·
Q
12, one shield 5 1 2 e1
E 2E 1
b1 b2 A1 e1 1
12e
A1 F13 1 3, 1
12e
A3 e3, 1 1 3, 2
1
A3 e3, 2 1 A3 F32 Then the total rate of heat loss from the glass c
5 Q#
i, total
1 Q#
i, conv
5 16.1 1 25.1 5 41.2 Btu/h

i, rad
which is larger than 30 Btu/h. Therefore, the assumed temperature of 122°F for the tube is high. By trying other values, the tube tempera
ing to 30 Btu/h is determined to be 112°F (it would be 180°F if radiation were ignored). Therefore, the tube will reach an equilibrium temp
when the pump fails. Discussion It is clear from the results obtained that radiation should always be considered in systems that are hea
natural convection, unless the surfaces involved are polished and thus have very low emissivities.
12e
1 2
A2 e2
(13–42)
797 CHAPTER 13
Noting plates, Eq. that 13–42 F13 5 simplifies F32 5 1 to
and A1 5 A2 5 A3 5 A for infinite parallel
·
Q
5 1 As(T4 2 T4 ) 1 1
12, one shield ae 1 1 2 1 e2 2 1b 1 a e 3, 1 (1) Shield (2) Te1
1 Te3 3,1
1
1 e3, 2 Te3 3,2 1 – e1 e1A1
Eb1 Eb2
2 1b
Te2 2 Q.12
Q.12
Q.12
1
——– ——– A1
1 –
F13 ———– e3,1 eA3,1
1 –
3 ———– e3,2 eA3,2
1
3 ——– A3
F32 ———–
1 –
e 2Ae2
2 FIGURE 13–30 The radiation shield placed between two parallel plates and the radiation network a
(13–43)
where the terms in the second set of parentheses in the denominator represent the additional resistance to radiation introduced b
appear- ance of the equation above suggests that parallel plates involving multiple radiation shields can be handled by adding a gr
those in the second set of parentheses to the denominator for each radiation shield. Then the radiation heat transfer through lar
separated by N radiation shields becomes
·
Q
5 1 As(T4 2 T4 )
12, N shields ae 1 1 2
1 1 1 p 1 1
1 e2 2 1b 1 a e 3, 1 1 e3, 2 2 1b 1 1 a eN, 11 eN, 2 2 1b
(13–44)
If the emissivities of all surfaces are equal, Eq. 13–44 reduces to
·
Q
5 As(T4 2 T4 )
12, N shields 1 2
1 1 1 2 1b
(N 1 1)a e e
1
5N1
Q·
1
(13–45)
12, no shield
Therefore, when all emissivities are equal, 1 shield reduces the rate of radiation heat transfer to one-half, 9 shields reduce it to on
shields reduce it to one-twentieth (or 5 percent) of what it was when there were no shields. The equilibrium temperature be after
· from
determined evaluating conditions by Q are 12 expressing reached.
Eq. 13–43 and noting ·
Eq. of the 13–43 radiation for Q
that or QQ·
13 shield
· (which 5 Q·
T23 12 3 in Figure
5 involves Q·
13 13–30 can
when T )
23 3
Radiation shields used to reduce the rate of radiation heat transfer between concentric cylinders and spheres can be handled in a
In case of one and by shield, replacing Eq. the 13–42 A's by can the be proper used by area taking relations.
F13 5 F32 5 1 for both cases
Radiation Effect on Temperature Measurements A temperature measuring device indicates th

its sensor, which is supposed to be, but is not necessarily, the temperature of the medium that the sensor is in contact with. Whe
(or any other temperature measuring device such as a thermocouple) is placed in a medium, heat transfer takes place between
thermometer an
by convection until the sensor reaches the temperature of the medium. But when the sensor is surrounded by surfaces that a
temperature than the fluid, radiation exchange also takes place between the sensor and the
Tf
q.rad
Tw
q.conv
Twsurrounding surfaces. When the heat transfers by convection and radiation balance each other, the sensor indicates a temp
between the fluid and surface temperatures. Below we develop a procedure to account for the radiation effect and to determine
temperature.
Consider a thermometer that is used to measure the temperature of a fluid
FIGURE 13–31 A thermometer used to measure the temperature of a fluid in a channel.
flowing through a large channel whose walls are at a lower temperature than the fluid (Fig. 13–31). Equilibrium will be establishe
of the thermometer will stabilize when heat gain by convection, as measured by the sensor, equals heat loss by radiation (or vic
on a unit-area basis,
· ·
q conv, to sensor 5 q rad, from sensor
)
h(Tf 2 Tth) 5 es(T4th 2 T4w or
es(T4 2 T4 )
Tf 5 Tth 1 th h w
(K) (13–46)
where
TTTth h wf 5 5 5 5 actual temperature of the fluid, K
temperature value measured by the thermometer, temperature of the surrounding surfaces, K convection heat transfer coefficient,
K
e 5 emissivity of the sensor of the thermometer
The last term in Eq. 13–46 is due to the radiation effect and represents the radiation correction. Note that the radiation correct
significant when the convection heat transfer coefficient is small and the emissivity of the surface of the sensor is large. Ther
should be coated with a material of high reflectivity (low emissivity) to reduce the radiation effect.
Placing the sensor in a radiation shield without interfering with the fluid flow also reduces the radiation effect. The sensors of temp
ment devices used outdoors must be protected from direct sunlight since the radiation effect in that case is sure to reach unaccept
The radiation effect is also a significant factor in human comfort in heat- ing and air-conditioning applications. A person who fee
at a specified temperature may feel chilly in another room at the same temperature as a result of the radiation effect if the walls of
are at a considerably lower temperature. For example, most people feel comfortable in a room at 22°C if the walls of the room
at that temperature. When the wall temperature drops to 5°C for some reason, the interior temperature of the room must be raise
to maintain the same level
799 CHAPTER 13
of comfort. Therefore, well-insulated buildings conserve energy not only by reducing the heat loss or heat gain, but also by allowin
to be set at a lower temperature in winter and at a higher temperature in summer without compromising the comfort level.
EXAMPLE 13–11 Radiation Shields
A thin aluminum sheet with an emissivity of 0.1 on both sides is placed between two very large parallel plates that are maintained at unifo
T1 5 800 K and T2 5 500 K and have emissivities e1 5 0.2 and e2 5 0.7, respectively, as shown in Fig. 13–32. Determine the net rate of radia
between the two plates per unit surface area of the plates and com- pare the result to that without the shield.
SOLUTION A thin aluminum sheet is placed between two large parallel plates maintained at uniform temperatures. The net rates of rad
transfer between the two plates with and without the radiation shield are to be determined. Assumptions The surfaces are opaque, diffu
Analysis The net rate of radiation heat transfer between these two plates without the shield was determined in Example 13–7 to be 3625
transfer in the presence of one shield is determined from Eq. 13–43 to be
· 5 Q#
q 12, one shield
12, one A shield
5 1 s(T4 2 T4 )
ae 1 1 2
1 1 1
1 e2 2 1b 1 a e 3, 1 1 e3, 2 2 1b
(5.67 13 1 1028 1 2 1b 2 1 a 1
5 a 0.2 0.7 W/m ·K4 )[(800 0.1 K)4 2 (500 K)4]
1 12 1b
0.1
5 806 W/m2
Discussion Note that the rate of radiation heat transfer reduces to about one- fourth of what it was as a result of placing a radiation shield
parallel plates.
132
e1 = 0.2e3 = 0.1
e2 = 0.7 T1 = 800 K
T2 = 500 K
q.12
Furnace front e = 0.1
Tsurr = 30°C EXAMPLE
13–12 Prevention of Thermal Burn Hazards by
using Radiation Shields
Air, 30°C Heat treatment of metals is commonly done using electrically heated draw
h = 10 W/m2·K
batch furnaces. Consider a furnace that is situated in a room with surrounding air temperature of 30°C and an average convection heat t
of
Radiation 10 W/m2∙K, as shown in Fig. 13–33. Convection and radiation heat transfer
shields occur between the furnace outer surface and the surroundings. The furnace front is made of two parallel plates, where the inner p
temperature of 600°C. To ensure safety and prevent thermal burn on people working around the furnace, the outer surface of the furnac
below 45°C. Based on the given information, determine the number of radiation shields
T1 = 600°C T2 < 45°C that should be placed parallel in the furnace front. Assume all the surfaces have the same emissivity of 0.1.
Schematic fo
SOLUTION In this example, the concepts of Prevention through Design (PtD) are applied in conjunction with the concepts of radiation s
radiation heat transfer between surfaces. Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist. 2 The surfaces are opaque, diffuse, and gra
heat transfer in between the furnace front plates is not considered. 4 The ambient temperature is equal to the temperature of the surrou
Tq 5 Tsurr. Properties The emissivity of all the surfaces is given as e 5 0.1. Analysis The net radiation heat transfer between the parallel p
furnace front is
#
q
5 s(T4
12 12 T42)
1 1 1 2 1b
(N 1 1)a e e
The convection and radiation heat transfer between the outer furnace front surface and the surroundings are
#
q
5 h(T 2 T ) and q#
conv 2 surr
5 es(T4 )
rad 22 T4surr
Performing the energy balance on the outer surface, we have
#
q
5 q#
12
1 q#
rad
conv
1 1 1 2 1b
s(T4 12 T42) (N 1 1)a e e
2 T4 )
5 h(T2 2 Tq) 1 es(T42 surr
Hence,
N 5 a 1/e 1 EXAMPLE 13–13 Radiation Effect on Temperature Measurements
A thermocouple used to measure the temperature of hot air flowing in a duct whose walls are maintained at Tw 5 400 K shows a tempe
Tth 5 650 K (Fig. 13–34). Assuming the emissivity of the thermocouple junction to be e 5 0.6 and the convection heat transfer coeffi
W/m2·K, determine the actual temperature of the air.
1 bc s(T4
1/e 2 1 h(T2 12 T42)
2 T4 )d 2 1 1
2 Tq) 1 es(T42 surr 5 a 2/0.1
b (5.67 3 1028
2 1 c (10 W/m2·K)(318 2 W/m2·K4)(873303) K 1 (0.1)(5.67 3 4 2 3184) K4
d21
1028 W/m2·K4)(3184 2 3034) K4
5 9.63 ø 10
Thus, placing 10 radiation shields inside the furnace front will keep the outer surface temperature below 45°C to prevent therm
Discussion Without the radiation shield, the temperature of the furnace front outer surface will be 174°C. By placing radiation shields in
heat transfer through the furnace front is reduced to 45°C as specifie
problem statement.
Tf
e = 0.6
Tw = 400 K
801 CHAPTER 13
SOLUTION The temperature of air in a duct is measured. Accounting for the radiation effect, and the actual air temperature is to be det
Assumptions The surfaces are opaque, diffuse, and gray. Analysis The walls of the duct are at a considerably lower temperature than
thus we expect the thermocouple to show a reading lower than the actual air temperature as a result of the radiation effect. The actual a
determined from Eq. 13–46 to be
Tf 5 Tth 1 es(T4th h
2 T4 )
w
0.6 3 (5.67 3 1028

5 (650 K) 1 W/m2·K4)[(650 80 W/m2·K
K)4 2 (400 K)4]
5 715 K
Note that the radiation effect causes a difference of 65°C (or 65 K since °C ; K for temperature differences) in temperature reading in this
13–6 RADIATION AND ABSORBING EXCHANGE GASES WITH EMITT

■
considered radiation heat transfer between surfaces separated by a medium that does not emit, absorb, or scatter radiation—a
medium that is completely transparent to thermal radiation. A vacuum satis- fies this condition perfectly, and air at ordinary t
pressures comes very close. Gases that consist of monatomic molecules such as Ar and He parent and to symmetric radiation, d
molecules extremely such high as temperatures N2 and O2 are at essentially which
occurs. Therefore, atmospheric air can be considered to be a nonparticipating medium in radiation calculations. Gases
molecules such as carbons ate temperatures, HmCn may and participate by absorption in the and radiation emission Hprocess 2O
CO, absorption SO2, and hydro- at moder- temperatures such as those encountered in combustion chambers. Therefore, air or a
that contains such gases with asymmetric molecules at sufficient concentrations must be treated as a participating med
calculations. Combustion gases in a furnace or a combustion chamber, for example, contain sufficient amounts of furnaces m
and COinto 2, an
thus the emission and absorption of gases in
The presence of a participating medium complicates the radiation analysis considerably for several reasons:
• A participating medium emits and absorbs radiation throughout its entire volume. That is, gaseous radiation is a volumetric phe
thus it depends on the size and shape of the body. This is the case even if the temperature is uniform throughout the medium.
• Gases emit and absorb radiation at a number of narrow wavelength bands. This is in contrast to solids, which emit and absorb r
entire spectrum. Therefore, the gray assumption may not always be appropriate for a gas even when the surrounding surfaces are
• The emission and absorption characteristics of the constituents of a gas mixture also depends on the temperature, pressure, and
the gas mixture. Therefore, the presence of other participating gases affects the radiation characteristics of a particular gas.
The propagation of radiation through a medium can be complicated further by the presence of aerosols such as dust, ice particles
and soot (unburned carbon) particles that scatter radiation. Scattering refers to the change of direction of radiation due to reflectio
diffrac- tion. Scattering caused by gas molecules themselves is known as the Rayleigh scattering, and it has negligible effect
Radiation transfer in scattering media is considered in advanced books such as the ones by Modest (1993) and Siegel and Howel
The participating medium can also be semitransparent liquids or solids such as water, glass, and plastics. To keep complexities
level, we limit our consideration to gases that emit and absorb radiation. In particular, we consider the emission and absorption s
participating gases most of commonly radiation encountered by H2O and in C
(combustion products in furnaces and combustion chambers burning hydro- carbon fuels contain both gases at high concentratio
sufficient to demonstrate the basic principles involved.
Radiation Properties of a Participating Medium Consider a participating medium of thickn
radiation beam of intensity gates due to Iabsorption. l, 0 is incident The on decrease the medium, in the intensity which is of atte
as as it it propa- passes through a layer of thickness dx is proportional to the intensity itself and the thickness dx. This is know
and is expresse
21
dIl(x) 5 2klIl(x)dx (13–47) where of the medium the constant whose of proportionality unit is m (from kl the is the requirement spe
of dimensional coefficient homo- geneity). This is just like the amount of interest earned by a bank account during a tim
proportional to the amount of money in the account and the time interval, with the interest rate being the constant o
Separating the variables and integrating from x 5 0 to x 5 L gives
Il, L Il, 0 5 e2klL (13–48)
where we have assumed the absorptivity of the medium to be independent of x. Note that radiation intensity decays exponential
with Beer's law.
The spectral transmissivity of a medium can be defined as the ratio of the intensity of radiation leaving the medium to
medium. That
Iλ,L
0L
x
dx
FIGURE 13–35 The attenuation of a radiation beam while passing through an absorbing medium of thickness L.
L
5 e2klL (13–49) 0 Note remains that constant. tl 5 1 when Also, the no radiation spectral transmissivity is absorbed and of a thus m
represents intensity the fraction of radiation transmitted by the medium at a g
803 CHAPTER 13
Radiation passing through a nonscattering (and thus nonreflecting) medium is either absorbed or transmitted. Therefore absorpti
medium of thickness L is
al 1 tl 5 1, and the spectral
al 5 1 2 tl 5 1 2 e2klL (13–50) From Kirchoff's law, the spectral emissivity of the medium is
el 5 al 5 1 2 e2klL (13–51) Note that the spectral absorptivity, transmissivity, and emissivity of a medium are dimensionless quantities
than or equal to 1. The spectral absorption coefficient of with wavelength, temperature, a medium pressure, (and and thus compo
el, al, and tl), in general, vary
gives an For optically ean l optically ø athick l ø medium thick 1. For medium kemits lL 5 (a like 5, medium for a blackbody exam
elarge at l the 5 value agiven l 5 of 0.993. wavelength. klL), Therefore, Eq. 13–51
As a result, an optically thick absorbing-emitting medium with no significant scattering absorb at a essentially given te
radiation Tg can be passing viewed through as a “black it, and surface” it will at emit Tg since
mum possible radiation that can be emitted by a surface at Tg, which is Ebl(Tg). Emissivity and Absorptivity
and Gas Mixtures The wavelength. spectral The absorptivity various peaks of COand 2 is given in Figure 13–36 as a
in the figure together with discon- tinuities show clearly the band nature of absorption and the strong nongray characteristics. Th
width of these absorption bands vary with temperature and pressure, but the magnitude of absorptivity also varies with the thick
layer. Therefore, absorptivity values without specified thickness and pressure are meaningless.
The nongray nature of properties should be considered in radiation calculations for high accuracy. This can be done using a band
performing calculations for each absorption band. However, satisfactory results can be obtained by assuming the gas to be gr
effective total absorptivity and emissivity determined by some averaging process. Charts for
15
Band designation l, μm 1.0 4.3 2.7
10.4
0.8
9.4
0.6
4.8
2.0 0.4
0.2FIGURE 13–36
0 20
10 8 6 5 4 3 2.5 Spectral 2 1.67 and 10 atm absorptivity for a path length of COof 2 38.8 at 830 cm. K
Wavelength l, μm
From Siegel and Howell, 1992.
the total emissivities of gases are first presented by Hottel (1954), and they have been wide
calculations with reasonable accuracy. Alternative emissivity charts and calculation procedures h
more recently by Edwards and Matavosian (1984). Here we present the Hottel approach because of
Even with gray assumption, the total emissivity and absorptivity of a gas depends on the geomet
well as the temperature, pressure, and composition. Gases that participate in radiation exchange s
typically coexist with nonparticipating gases such as N2 and O2, and thus radiation properties
emitting gas are usually reported for a mixture of the gas with nonparticipating gases rather th
emissivity and absorptivity of a gas component in a mixture depends primarily on its density, w
temperature and partial pressure of the gas. The emissivity of H2O vapor in a mixture of nonpartic
ted in Figure 13–37a for a total pressure of P 5 1 atm as a function of gas temperature Tg for a rang
where Pw is the partial pressure of water vapor and L is the mean distance traveled by the radiation
a total pressure P other than P 5 1 atm is determined by multiplying the emissivity value at
correction factor Cw obtained from Figure 13–38a for water vapor. That is, ew 5 Cwew, 1 atm (13
for P 5 1 atm and thus (Pw 1 P)/2 ù 0.5 (a very low concentra- tion of water vapor is used in t
emissivity chart in Fig. 13–37a and thus Pw is very low). Emissivity values are presented in a
mixture of CO2 and nonparticipating gases in Figs. 13–37b and 13–38b. Now the question that co
will happen if the CO2 and H2O gases exist together in a mixture with nonparticipating gases. The
participating gas can still be determined as explained above using its partial pressure, but the effec
mixture cannot be determined by simply adding the emissivities of individual gases (although this
different gases emitted at different wavelengths). Instead, it should
eg 5 ec 1 ew 2 De
5 Ccec, 1 atm 1 Cwew, 1 atm 2 De (13–53) where De is the emissivity correction factor, which accounts for the
bands. For a gas mixture that contains both CO2 and H2O gases, De is plotted in Figure 13–39.
The emissivity of a gas also depends on the mean length an emitted radiation beam travels in the gas before reaching a bound
the shape and the size of the gas body involved. During their experiments in the 1930s, Hotte
considered the emission of radiation from a hemispherical gas body to a small surface element loc
the base of the hemisphere. Therefore, the given charts represent emissivity data for the emission
hemispherical gas body of radius L toward the center of the base of the hemisphere. It is certainly de
reported emissivity data to gas bodies of other geometries, and this is done by introducing the con
length L, which represents the radius of an equivalent hemisphere. The mean beam lengths for va
are listed in Table 13–4. More extensive lists are available
805 CHAPTER 13
0.8
0.008 0.006300 600

(a) H2O
0.3
PcL = 4.0 ft·atm
0.001300 600
(b) CO2
FIGURE 13–37 Emissivities of H2O and CO2 gases in a mixture of nonparticipating mean gases at a total beam length of L (1 pressur
1
From Hottel, 1954.
0.2
0.6
P = 1 atm
0.4
PwL = 20 ft·atm
0.2
10
2.0
1.0 0.8
0.3
0.2
35
20.1 0.08
1
0.2 0.06 0.60.40.2

0.4 0.1 0.04
0.007
0.001
0.002 0.0050.06 0.1 0.08
0.04
0.02 0.03
0.01 0.06
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.04
0.005 0.004 0.03 0.02
0.020.015
0.01
0.006
0.003 0.008
0.003
900 1200 1500 1800 2100
900 1200 1500 1800 2100 Gas temperature, Tg(K)
Gas temperature, Tg(K)
1.8
1.6 1.4
1.2
L 5 0 2 0.005 ft·atm
Pw
0.25
0.50 1.00 2.50 5.00 10.0
2.0
Cw
1.0
0.8
1.5
1.0 0.6
0.4
0.00.0 0.2
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
Cc
0.8
2.5 ft·atm
PcL 5
0.6 0.30.05 0.5 0.4

1.00.50.25 0.12
0.05 0–0.02 0.08
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.8 1.0 2.0 3.0 50 (Pw 1 P)/2 (atm)
Total pressure, P (atm)
(a) H2O
(b) CO2
FIGURE 13–38 Correction factors for the emissivities of H2O and CO2 ew gases 5 at pressures Cwew, 1 atm other and ec 5 Cthan cec
m.atm use 5 in the 3.28

From Hottel, 1954.
0.070.07
T = 400 K T = 800 K T = 1200 K and above 0.06
0.06
0.05
PcL + PwL = 5 ft·atm
0.01
00 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

. .
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0 FIGURE 13–39 Emissivity mixture (1 mcorrection atm 5 3.28 De for ft atm).
use in eg 5 ew + ec – De when both CO2 and H2O vapor are present in a gas
From Hottel, 1954.
TABLE 13–4
Mean beam length L for various gas volume shapes Gas Volume Geometry L
Hemisphere of radius R radiating to the center of its base R Sphere of diameter D radiating to its surface 0.65D Infinite circular cylinder o
radiating to curved surface 0.95D Semi-infinite circular cylinder of diameter D radiating to its base 0.65D Semi-infinite circular cylinder of
radiating to center of
its base 0.90D Infinite semicircular cylinder of radius R radiating to center of
its base 1.26R Circular cylinder of height equal to diameter D radiating to
entire surface 0.60D Circular cylinder of height equal to diameter D radiating to center
of its base 0.71D Infinite slab of thickness D radiating to either bounding plane 1.80D Cube of side length L radiating to any face 0.66L
volume V and surface area As radiating to surface 3.6V /As
in the literature [such as Hottel (1954), and Siegel and Howell, (1992)]. The emissivities associated with these geometries can be
Figures 13–37 through 13–39 by using the appropriate mean beam length.
Following a procedure recommended by Hottel, the absorptivity of a gas that ture PcL + PwL = 5 ft·atm 3.0
3.0 PcL + PwL = 5 ft·atm
3.0
1.5
0.04 Δe 1.0
Δe 0.03 2.0 0.02 1.5
1.5
2.0
1.0
0.75
0.03
0.5
0.02
1.0
0.75 0.75
0.3 0.5 0.5
0.2
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.01 0.2 Pw
Pw
Pw Pc + Pw
Pc + Pw
Pc + Pw
contains Ts can be COdetermined 2 and H2O similarly gases for from
radiation emitted by a source at tempera-
ag 5 ac 1 aw 2 Da (13–54)
807 CHAPTER 13
where Da 5 De and is determined from Figure 13–39 at the source temperature sivity Tscharts . The absorptivities (Figs. 13–37
38) 2 and as
H2O can be determined from the emis-
CO2: ac 5 Cc 3 (Tg /Ts)0.65 3 ec(Ts, Pc LTs / Tg) (13–55) and
H2O: aw 5 Cw 3 (Tg / Ts)0.45 3 ew(Ts, PwLTs / Tg) (13–56) The instead of perature expected. and sive When PPw power notation w L. L, of
The Ts of g as total in (both indicates the well pressure that emissivity emissivity gas in as the K (radiation the correction or absor
calculations.
R), of the temperature Pa cemitted LTgas emissivities factors s /Teof gg at instead the by temperature CTc the gas g. and sh
depends CPw per ca L, are be T5 and unit g evaluated is on evaluated e Pwhen known, surface the w LTsource s T/Tusing s t
. Then ·
instead Temis- tem- gP, can c as TL s be gas expressed to a bounding as Eg surface 5 egsTof 4g area Q g, A
e rate A sTof 4 radiation energy emitted by a (13–57)
g s g
If the bounding surface tion to the gas at a absorb this radiation gas. Then the net rate is black at temperature rate at of a of radia
without , reflecting any, and the gas will where a is the
a4s gAheat 4
ssTtransfer s Ts, the surface will emit radia- between g the
an
·
surface surrounding it becomes Black enclosure: Q
5 A s(e 4 2 agT4 ) (13–58)
net s gT g s If the surface is not black, the analysis becomes more complicated because of the radiation reflecte
But for surfaces that are nearly black with an emissivity es . 0.7, Hottel (1954), recommends this modification,
·
Q
5e 1 1
net, gray s 2
Q·
5e 1 1
net, black s 2
A s(e T4 2 a T4 ) (13–59)
s g g g s
The emissivity of wall surfaces of furnaces and combustion chambers are typically greater than 0.7, and thus the relation abov
conve- nience for preliminary radiation heat transfer calculations.
EXAMPLE 13–14 Effective Emissivity of Combustion Gases
A cylindrical furnace whose height and diameter are 5 m contains combustion gases at 1200 K and a total pressure of 2 atm. The c
combustion gases is determined by volumetric analysis to be 80 percent N 2, 8 percent H2O, 7 percent O2, and 5 percent CO2. Deter
emissivity of the combustion gases (Fig. 13–40).
SOLUTION The temperature, pressure, and composition of a gas mixture is given. The emissivity of the mixture is to be determined. A
the gases in the mixture are ideal gases. 2 The emissivity determined is the mean emissivity for radiation emitted to all surfaces of the cy
enclosure.
H55m
D55m
Tg 5 1200 K FIGURE 13–40 Schematic for Example 13–14.
Analysis The volumetric analysis of a gas mixture gives the mole fractions yi of the components, which are equivalent to pressure fraction
mixture. Therefore, the partial pressures of CO2 and H2O are
P 5 0.08(2 atm) 5 0.16 atm
Pc Pw 5 5 yyCOH2O2P 5 0.05(2 atm) 5 0.10 atm
The mean beam length for a cylinder of equal diameter and height for radiation emitted to all surfaces is, from Table 13–4,
L 5 0.60D 5 0.60(5 m) 5 3 m
Then,
Pc L 5 (0.10 atm)(3 m) 5 0.30 m·atm 5 0.98 ft·atm
Pw L 5 (0.16 atm)(3 m) 5 0.48 m·atm 5 1.57 ft·atm

The emissivities of CO2 and H2O corresponding to these values at the gas temperature of Tg 5 1200 K and 1 atm are, from Figure 13–3
ec, 1 atm 5 0.16 and ew, 1 atm 5 0.23
These are the base emissivity values at 1 atm, and they need to be corrected for the 2 atm total pressure. Noting that (Pw 1 P)/2 5 (0.16 1
the pressure correction factors are, from Figure 13–38,
Cc 5 1.1 and Cw 5 1.4
Both CO2 and H2O are present in the same mixture, and we need to correct for the overlap of emission bands. The emissivity correction
1200 K is, from Figure 13–39,
PcL 1 PwL 5 0.98 1 1.57 5 2.55
0.16
Pw Pw 1 Pc 5 0.16
5 0.615
1 0.10
∂ De 5 0.048
Then the effective emissivity of the combustion gases becomes
eg 5 Ccec, 1 atm 1 Cwew, 1 atm 2 De 5 1.1 3 0.16 1 1.4 3 0.23 2 0.048 5 0.45
Discussion This is the average emissivity for radiation emitted to all surfaces of the cylindrical enclosure. For radiation emitted towards
base, the mean beam length is 0.71D instead of 0.60D, and the emissivity
H55m
value would be different.
EXAMPLE 13–15 Radiation Heat Transfer in a Cylindrical Tg 5 1200 K
D55m
Furnace
Ts 5 600 K Reconsider the cylindrical furnace discussed in Example 13–14. For a wall temperature of 600 K, determine the absorptivity
gases and the rate of radiation heat transfer from the combustion gases to the furnace walls (Fig. 13–41).
Q·
net SOLUTION The temperatures for the wall surfaces and the combustion gases
are given for a cylindrical furnace. The absorptivity of the gas mixture and the rate of radiation heat transfer are to be determined.
809 CHAPTER 13
Assumptions 1 All the gases in the mixture are ideal gases. 2 All interior surfaces of furnace walls are black. 3 Scattering by soot and o
negligible. Analysis The average emissivity of the combustion gases at the gas temperature of Tg 5 1200 K was determined in the prec
be eg 5 0.45. For a source temperature of Ts 5 600 K, the absorptivity of the gas is again determined using the emissivity charts as
T 600 K
Pc L s g5
T (0.10 atm)(3 m)
5 0.15 m·atm 5 0.49 ft·atm
1200 K
T 600 K
Pw L s g5
T (0.16 atm)(3 m)
5 0.24 m·atm 5 0.79 ft·atm
1200 K
The emissivities of CO2 and H2O corresponding to these values at a temperature of Ts 5 600 K and 1 atm are, from Figure 13–37,
ec, 1 atm 5 0.11 and ew, 1 atm 5 0.25
The pressure correction factors were determined in the preceding example to be Cc 5 1.1 and Cw 5 1.4, and they do not change with sur
Then the absorptivities of CO2 and H2O become
ac 5 CcaTgTsb0.65 ec, 1 atm 5 (1.1)a1200 K

b0.65
600 K (0.11) 5 0.19
1200 K
aw 5 CwaTgTsb0.45 ew, 1 atm 5 (1.4)a
b0.45
600 K (0.25) 5 0.48
Also Da 5 De, but the emissivity correction factor is to be evaluated from Figure 13–39 at T 5 Ts 5 600 K instead of Tg 5 1200 K. There is
K in the figure, but we can read De values at 400 K and 800 K, and take their average. At Pw /(Pw 1 Pc) 5 0.615 and PcL 1 Pw L 5 2.55 we
Then the absorptivity of the combustion gases becomes
ag 5 ac 1 aw 2 Da 5 0.19 1 0.48 2 0.027 5 0.64
The surface area of the cylindrical surface is
pD2
As 5 pDH 1 2
5 p(5 m)(5 m) 1 2 p(5 m)2
4
5 118 m2
4
Then the net rate of radiation heat transfer from the combustion gases to the walls of the furnace becomes
·
Q
5 A s(e 4 2a 4 )
net s gT g gT s
5 (118 m2)(5.67 3 1028 W/m2·K4)[0.45(1200 K)4 2 0.64(600 K)4]

5 5.69 3 106 W
Discussion The heat transfer rate determined above is for the case of black wall surfaces. If the surfaces are not black but the surfa
greater than 0.7, the heat transfer rate can be determined by multiplying the rate of heat transfer already determined by (es 1 1)/2.
TOPIC OF SPECIAL INTEREST*
Evaporation
Heat Transfer from the Human Body Convection 27%
30% The metabolic heat generated in the body is dissipated to the environment through the skin and the lungs by convection and radiatio
heat and
Air motion
Radiation 40%
by evaporation as latent heat (Fig. 13–42). Latent heat represents the heat of vaporization of water as it evaporates in the lungs and on th
ing body heat, and latent heat is released as the moisture condenses on cold surfaces. The warming of the inhaled air represents sensib
the lungs and is proportional to the temperature rise of inhaled air. The total rate of heat loss from the body can be expressed as
Conduction 3%
·
Q
·
body, total 5 5 5 Q(Q(Q
·
· 1·
skin sensible convection 1 Q
1 Q·
lungs
Q ·
latent
) 1 1 (QQ·
radiation skin
· ) 1 1 Q·
latentsensible skin
(Q ·
latent
)
convection lungs
1 Q·
) (13–60)
latent lungs
Floor
Therefore, the determination of heat transfer from the body by analysis alone FIGURE 13–42 Mechanisms of heat loss from the huma
relative magnitudes for a resting person.
is difficult. Clothing further complicates the heat transfer from the body, and thus we must rely on experimental data. Under steady co
rate of heat transfer from the body is equal to the rate of metabolic heat generation in the body, which varies from about 100 W for lig
roughly 1000 W during heavy physical work.
Sensible heat loss from the skin depends on the temperatures of the skin, the environment, and the surrounding surfaces as well as th
latent heat loss, on the other hand, depends on the skin wettedness and the relative humidity of the environment as well. Clothing serves
reduces both the sensible and latent forms of heat loss. The heat transfer from the lungs through respiration obviously depends on
breathing and the volume of the lungs as well as the environmental factors that affect heat transfer from the skin.
Sensible heat from the clothed skin is first transferred to the clothing and then from the clothing to the environment. The convection a
losses from the outer surface of a clothed body can be expressed as
·
Q
·
Qconv
5 h A (T 2 T )
rad 5 hconv rad A clothing(Tclothing clothing clothing 2 T surr) ambient (W) (13–61) (13–62)
where hconv 5 convection heat transfer coefficient, as given in Table 13–5

hrad 5 radiation heat transfer coefficient, 4.7 W/m2·K for typical indoor conditions; the emissivity is assumed to be 0.95, which is typica
surface area of a clothed person Tclothing 5 average temperature of exposed skin and clothing Tambient 5 ambient air temperature
Tsurr 5 average temperature of the surrounding surfaces
*This section can be skipped without a loss of continuity.
811 CHAPTER 13
The convection heat transfer coefficients at 1 atm pressure are given in Table 13–5. Convection coefficients at pressures P other t
tained by multiplying the values at atmospheric pressure by P 0.55 where P is in atm. Also, it is recognized that the temperatures of
surrounding temperature, a person are which probably is the different, temperature and of Tsurr an represents imaginary the
isothermal enclosure in which radiation heat exchange with the human body equals the radiation heat exchange with the actual encl
most clothing and build- ing materials are very nearly black, the mean radiation temperature of an enclosure that consists of N su
temperatures can be d
Tsurr ù Fperson-1 T1 1 Fperson-2 T2 1· · · · 1 Fperson-N TN (13–63)
where Ti is the temperature of the surface i and Fperson-i is the view factor between the person and surface i.
Total sensible heat loss can also be expressed conveniently by combining the convection and radiation heat losses as
·
Q
5h A (T 2T ) (W) (13–64)
conv1rad combined clothing clothing operative 5 (hconv 1 hrad)Aclothing (Tclothing 2 Toperative) (13–65)
where the operative temperature Toperative is the average of the mean radiant and ambient temperatures weighed by their respective con
tion heat transfer coefficients and is expressed as (Fig. 13–43)
h T 1 h T
Toperative 5 conv hambient conv 1 hrad rad surr
T 1T
ù ambient 2 surr
(13–66)
Note that the operative temperature will be the arithmetic average of the ambient and surrounding surface temperatures when the conve
tion heat transfer coefficients are equal to each other. Another environmental index used in thermal comfort analysis is the effective te
which combines the effects of temperature and humidity. Two environments with the same effective temperature evokes the same therm
people even though they are at different temperatures and humidities. Heat transfer through the clothing can be expressed as
·
Q
5A (T 2T )
conv 1 rad clothing skin clothing
Rclothing
TABLE 13–5
Convection heat transfer coefficients for a clothed body at 1 atm (V is in m/s) (compiled from various sources) hconv,* Activity W/m2·K
Seated in air moving at
0 , V , 0.2 m/s 3.1 0.2 , V , 4 m/s 8.3V 0.6 Walking in still air at
0.5 , V , 2 m/s 8.6V 0.53 Walking on treadmill
in still air at 0.5 , V , 2 m/s 6.5V 0.39 Standing in moving air at
0 , V , 0.15 m/s 4.0 0.15 , V , 1.5 m/s 14.8V 0.69
*At pressures other than 1 atm, multiply by P 0.55, where P is in atm.Q·
conv+rad Tsurr Q· rad Q· conv Tambient
(a) Convection and radiation, separate
Toperative
(13–67)
where Rclothing is the unit thermal resistance of clothing in m2·K/W, which involves the combined effects of conduction, convect
between the skin and the outer surface of clothing. The thermal resistance of clothing is usually expressed in the unit clo where 1 clo 5
0.880 ft2·°F·h/Btu. The thermal resistance of trousers, long-sleeve shirt, long-sleeve sweater, and T-shirt is 1.0 clo, or 0.155 m2·K/W.
such as light slacks and
(b) Convection and radiation, combined short-sleeved shirt has an insulation value of 0.5 clo, whereas winter clothing such as heavy slacks, lon
and a sweater or jacket has an insulation value of 0.9 clo.
FIGURE 13–43 Heat loss by convection and radiation from the body can be combined into a single term by defining an equ

Then the total sensible heat loss can be expressed in terms of the skin temperature instead of the inconvenient clothing temperature as
Tskin
Tcloth
Rcombined
·
Q
5A (T 2T )
conv 1 rad clothing skin operative
Rclothing 1 hcombined
1
Rcloth
FIGURE 13–44 Simplified thermal resistance network for heat transfer from a clothed person. Water vapor
·
m vapor,max = 0.3 g/s = (0.3 g/s)(2430 kJ/kg) = 729 W
Toperative
(13–68)
At a state of thermal comfort, the average skin temperature of the body is observed to be 33°C (91.5°F). No discomfort is experienced
perature fluctuates by 61.5°C (2.5°F). This is the case whether the body is clothed or unclothed.
Evaporative or latent heat loss from the skin is proportional to the difference between the water vapor pressure at the skin and the
the skin wettedness, which is a measure of the amount of moisture on the skin. It is due to the combined effects of the evaporation
diffusion of water through the skin, and can be expressed as
·
Q
·
latent 5 m vapor hfg (13–69)
where m· vapor 5 the rate of evaporation from the body, kg/s

hfg 5 the enthalpy of vaporization of water 5 2430 kJ/kg at 30°C
Heat loss by evaporation is maximum when the skin is completely wetted. Also, clothing offers resistance to evaporation, and the rate
clothed bodies depends on the moisture permeability of the clothes. The maximum evaporation rate for an average man is about 1 L/
represents an upper limit of 730 W for the evaporative cooling rate. A person can lose as much as 2 kg of water per hour during a work
but any excess sweat slides off the skin surface without evaporating (Fig. 13–45).
During respiration, the inhaled air enters at ambient conditions and exhaled air leaves nearly saturated at a temperature close to the deep
(Fig. 13–46). Therefore, the body loses both sensible heat by convection and latent heat by evaporation from the lungs, and these can be
·
Q
5 m· c (T 2T ) (13–70)
conv, lungs air, lungs p, air exhale ambient
Q· latent,max = m·
·
latent,max hfg@30°C Q
5 m· h 5 m· (v 2v )h (13–71)
latent, lungs vapor, lungs fg air, lungs exhale ambient fg
where
· 5 rate of air intake to the lungs, kg/s
m air, lungs FIGURE 13–45 An average person can lose heat at a rate of up to 730 W by evaporati
cp, air 5 specific heat of air 5 1.0 kJ/kg·K Texhale 5 temperature of exhaled air
v 5 humidity ratio (the mass of moisture per unit mass of dry air)
·
The rate Qrate
. The rate of total heat loss from the lungs through respiration
met of air intake to the lungs is directly proportional to the metabolic
·
Q
5 0.0014Q·
conv 1 latent, lungs
(34 2 T ) 1 0.0173Q·
met ambient
(5.87 2 P )
met v, ambient
(13–72)
where Pv, ambient is the vapor pressure of ambient air in kPa.
The fraction of sensible heat varies from about 40 percent in the case of heavy work to about 70 percent during light work. The res
rejected from the body by perspiration in the form of latent heat.
EXAMPLE 13–16 Effect of Clothing on Thermal Comfort
It is well established that a clothed or unclothed person feels comfortable when the skin temperature is about 33°C. Consider an avera
summer clothes whose thermal resistance is 0.6 clo. The man feels very comfortable while standing in a room maintained at 22°C. The
room is negligible, and the interior surface temperature of the room is about the same as the air temperature. If this man were to s
unclothed, determine the temperature at which the room must be maintained for him to feel thermally comfortable.
SOLUTION A man wearing summer clothes feels comfortable in a room at 22°C. The room temperature at which this man would feel th
able when unclothed is to be determined. Assumptions 1 Steady conditions exist. 2 The latent heat loss from the person remains the sa
transfer coefficients remain the same. Analysis The body loses heat in sensible and latent forms, and the sensible heat consists of con
radiation heat transfer. At low air veloci- ties, the convection heat transfer coefficient for a standing man is given in Table 13–5 to be 4.0
radiation heat transfer coefficient at typical indoor conditions is 4.7 W/m 2·K. Therefore, the surface heat transfer coefficient for a standin
combined convection and radiation is
hcombined 5 hconv 1 hrad 5 4.0 1 4.7 5 8.7 W/m2·K
The thermal resistance of the clothing is given to be
Rclothing 5 0.6 clo 5 0.6 3 0.155 m2·K/W 5 0.093 m2·K/W
Noting that the surface area of an average man is 1.8 m 2, the sensible heat loss from this person when clothed is determined to be (Fig.
·
Q
5 A (T 2T
sensible, clothed s skin ambientRclothing 1 hcombined
1
(1.8 m2 1
5 )(33 2 22)8C 0.093 m2·8C/W 1
8.7 W/m2·K
5 95.2 W
From a heat transfer point of view, taking the clothes off is equivalent to removing the clothing insulation or setting Rclothing 5 0. The he
case can be expressed as
·
Q
5 A (T 2
sensible, unclothed s skin 1
T )
ambient
hcombined
(1.8 m2
5 )(33 2 Tambient)8C
1 8.7 W/m2·K
813 CHAPTER 13
Cool ambient air 20°C
Lungs Heat and moisture
Warm and moist exhaled air 35°C
37°C
FIGURE 13–46 P art of the metabolic heat generated in the body is rejected to the air from the lungs d
33°C
22°C
22°C
Troom = 22°C Troom = 27°C
To maintain thermal comfort after taking the clothes off, the skin temperature of the person and the rate of heat transfer from him must
Tskin = 33°C
Then setting the equation above equal to 95.2 W gives
Tambient 5 26.9°C
Therefore, the air temperature needs to be raised from 22 to 26.9°C to ensure
Clothed person
Unclothed person
that the person feels comfortable in the room after he takes his clothes off (Fig. 13–48). Discussion Note that the effect of clothing on la
assumed to be
FIGURE 13–48
negligible in the solution above. We also assumed the surface area of the clothed and unclothed person to be the same for simplic
Clothing se
effects should counteract each other. and the room temperature needs to be raised when a person is unclothed to maintain the same com
SUMMARY
Radiaton heat transfer between surfaces depends on the orienta- tion of the surfaces relative to each other. In a radiation analysis, this effect i
the geometric parameter view factor. The view factor from a surface i to a surface j is denoted by leaving Fi S surface j or Fij, i and that is strik
as the fraction of the radiation j directly. The view factors between differen
#
and finite dAQ
1dAS 1
dA2
surfaces are expressed as
The rate of net radiation heat transfer between two black surfaces is determined from
·
Q
)
1S25 A1F1 S 2s(T41 2 T42 The net radiation heat transfer from any surface i of a black enclosure is determined by adding up the net radiation h
surface i to each of the surfaces of the enclosure:
·
Q
i5 N
Q·
j51 a
iSj5 N
A 4)
j51 a iFi S j s(T4i 2 T j The total radiation energy leaving a surface per unit time and per unit area is called the radiosity and is denoted by J. Th
radiation is expressed as
·
heat transfer from a surface i of surface area Ai Q
5E 2 cos u cos 2 J
i bi Ri 5 pr1 i
where
12e
Ri 5 i
Ai ei is the surface resistance to radiation. The net rate of radiation heat transfer from surface i to surface j can be expressed as
·
Q
J 2J
iSj5 i j
RiSj where
Ri S j 5 1
Ai FiSj is the space resistance to radiation. The network method is applied to radiation enclosure problems by drawing a surface resistance as
surface of a
dA
2
FdA1 S A2 5 # A2
cos u1 cos pr2 u2

dA
2
Q#
F12 5 FA1 S A2 5
#
AQ1
S A2
A1
5A
1
1 # A2 cos u1 cos pr2 u2
dA
1 dA2
where r the angles is between the distance the normals between of dAthe 1 and surfaces dA2, and and uthe 1 and line u2 that are
connects The leaving view dA1 factor and surface i that dAFi 2S . strikes i represents or convex surfaces and view factors, the reciprocity Fi th
radiation itself S rule i Þ directly; 0 for concave Fi S i 5 0 for plane surfaces. For is expressed as
Ai Fi S j 5 Aj Fj S i The sum of the view factors from surface i of an enclosure to all surfaces of the enclosure, including to itself, must equal unity
the summation rule for an enclosure. The superposition rule is expressed as the view factor from a surface i to a surface j is equal to the sum o
from surface i to the parts of surface j. The symmetry rule is expressed as if the surfaces j and k are symmetric about the surface i then Fi S j 5 F
# A1
815
connecting them with space resistances. Then the problem is solved by treating it as an electrical network problem where the radiation heat tr
current and the radiosity replaces the potential. The direct method is based on the following two equations:
· 5A N
Surfaces net heat transfer with specified rate Q· i Q i i
F (J 2 J )
j51 a iSj i j
12 e
Surfaces temperature with Tspecified i sTi4 5 Ji 1 ei i
N F (J 2 J )
j51 a iSj i j
The first and the second groups of equations give N linear algebraic equations for the determination of the N unknown radiosities Jand 2, . .
for are an available, N-surface rates can the be enclosure. unknown determined Once surface from the radiosities the tempera
just shown.
The net rate of radiation transfer between any two gray, diffuse, opaque surfaces that form an enclosure is given by
·
Q
5
12 1 2 e1
s(T4 2 T4 ) 1
1 2 A1 e1 1
12e
A1 F12 1 2
A2 e2 Radiation heat transfer between two surfaces can be reduced greatly by inserting between the two surfaces thin, high-reflectivity (low-em
material called radiation shields. Radia- tion heat transfer between two large parallel plates separated by N radiation shields is
·
Q
5 1 As(T4 2 T4
12, N shields ae 1 1 2)
1 1 1
1 e2 2 1b 1 p 1 a e N,1 1 e N,2 2 1b
es(T4 2
The radiation effect in temperature measurements can be prop- erly accounted for byTf 5 Tth 1 th h
T4 )
w
CHAPTER 13
where value measured Tf is the actual fluid temperature, by the thermometer, of the surrounding walls, all in K.
and TTth w is is the the temperature temperature
Gases with asymmetric molecules SOcess 2, by and absorption hydrocarbons and emission. H nCm participate The such in spectral as the Hradi
CO,
transmissivity, absorptivity, and emissivity of a medium are expressed as
tl 5 e2klL, al 5 1 2 tl 5 1 2 e2klL, and el 5 al 5 1 2 e2klL
where The Figure kemissivities l is the spectral of 13–36 for a total absorption Hpressure 2O coefficient of the medium. and of COP 2
Em
at other pressures are determined from
ew 5 Cwew, 1 atm and ec 5 Ccec, 1 atm
where mixtures Cw that and contain Cc determined from
are the pressure correction factors. For gas both of H2O and CO2, the emissivity is
eg 5 ec 1 ew 2 De 5 Ccec, 1 atm 1 Cwew, 1 atm 2 De
where De is the emissivity correction factor, which accounts for the overlap of emission bands. The gas absorptivities for radiation emitted sim
by a source at temperature Ts are determined
ag 5 ac 1 aw 2 Da where Da 5 De at the source temperature Ts and
CO2: ac 5 Cc 3 (Tg /Ts)0.65 3 ec(Ts, Pc LTs / Tg) H2O: aw 5 Cw 3 (Tg / Ts)0.45 3 ew(Ts, Pw LTs / Tg)
·
The rate of radiation heat transfer between a gas and a surrounding surface is Black enclosure: Q
5 A s(e T4 2 a T4 )
net s g g g s
Q· e1
Gray enclosure, with es . 0.7: net, gray 5 s 2
1
Ass(egT4g 2 agT4s)
REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING
1. DK Edwards. Radiation Heat Transfer Notes. Washing-
ton, DC: Hemisphere, 1981. 2. DK Edwards and R. Matavosian. “Scaling Rules for
Total Absorptivity and Emissivity of Gases.” Journal of Heat Transfer 106 (1984), pp. 684–689. 3. DK Edwards and R. Matavosian. “Emissiv
for Gases.” Section 5.5.5, in Hemisphere Handbook of
Heat Exchanger Design, GF Hewitt, (Ed.) New York: Hemisphere, 1990. 4. DC Hamilton and WR Morgan. “Radiation
Interchange Configuration Factors.” National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, Technical Note 2836, 1952.

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TUJUAN Ketika Anda selesai

mempelajari bab ini, Anda harus

saya tampilan, dan menghitung faktor

13–1 FAKTOR PANDANGAN

Faktor tampilan diferensial yang menukar subskripsi 1 dFdan dA2 S 2.

cos u1 cos pr2 u2

tion) total dalam semua arah laju di mana

I1 cos u1 cos r2 u2 dA2

Faktor tampilan bscripts 1 dan FA2 S 2,

13–2 LIHAT HUBUNGAN FAKTOR

–––– ln (1 ——————— 1 + + X–– X––

rjRi = ri/L dan Rj = rj/L jri L

Untuk ri = rj = r dan R = r/L:

———————— (1 H+ 2(1 H+ 2) (HH2 2 + + WW22) ) i

[(W—————————————— i + Wj)2 + 4]1/2 - (Wj - Wi)2 + 4]1/2 2Wi

1-2 aa wi piring tegak lur

1+ (-ww ji) 2 1/2 wi

Fj S i tidak sama satu sama lain kecuali bidang

D 2 1/2+ -Ds tan–1 —— s2 D- 2

0,6 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,09 0,08 0,1

0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.

0.100.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.6 1.0 2 3 4 5 6 8 10

Aturan penjumlahan dapat diterapkan untuk masing-masing

adalah r2 5 5 cm dan r3 5 8 cm.

kedua dengan A2, dan yang ketiga dengan A3 menghasilkan

permukaan 1 dan 2. hal pertama (titik-titik A, B, C,dan D)dan

endpoints. L3 1 L4 Therefore, Hottel's crossed-strings method can be expressed verbally as

Radiation leaving the entire surface 2 that

5 (25 m )(0.2)(5.67 3 1028 W/m2·K4)[(800 K)4 2 (1500 K)4] 5 21319 kW

13–4 RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER: DIFFUSE, GRAY SURFACES

the entire surface j

i S j (W) (13–30) where

A2e2 R2 = 1 —–— A– 2ee2 2

s(T4 2 1 T4 ) (5.67 3 1028

Radiation Heat Transfer in Three-Surface Enclosures We now consider an enclosure co

R12 = —–— A1F12

A1F13 5 A3F31 S F31 5 F13(A1/A3) 5 (0.62)(0.314/0.628) 5 0.31

e2 [F21 (J2 2 J1) 1 F23 (J2 2 J3)]

Substituting the known quantities,

(5.67 3 1028 W/m2·K4)(400 K)4 5 J3

5 (3.14 m )[0.38(4562 2 11,418) 1 0.62(4562 2 1452)] W/m2 5 22.13 kW

792 RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER

5 (6.28 m )[0.31(1452 2 11,418) 1 0.31(1452 2 4562)] W/m2 5 225.5 kW

5 27.6 1 (22.13) 1 (225.5) ù 0

(JQ3 .3 = = E0 b3)FIGURE 13–28 The triangular furnace considered

where A1 5 A2 5 A3 5 wL 5 1 m 3 1 m 5 1 m2 (per unit length of the duct)

Eb2 5 sT 24 5 (5.67 3 1028 W/m2·K4)(1000 K)4 5 56,700 W/m2

5 30 Btu/h (per foot of tube)

The heat transfer surface area of the glass cover is

2 5 e0.6 1 0.387(2.053 [1 1 3 (0.559/0.7275)109/166)1/6

(122 2 78)°F 5 16.1 Btu/h

5 16.1 1 25.1 5 41.2 Btu/h

Radiation Effect on Temperature Measurements A temperature measuring device indicates th

12, one A shield

0.6 3 (5.67 3 1028

13–6 RADIATION AND ABSORBING EXCHANGE GASES WITH EMITT

0.008 0.006300 600

0.2 0.06 0.60.40.2

0.6 0.30.05 0.5 0.4

m.atm use 5 in the 3.28

00 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

3.0 PcL + PwL = 5 ft·atm