KALIMAT DAN UNSUR-UNSURNYA

1. Pola Kata Dasar

Suatu kalimat (dalam Bahasa Inggris) sekurang-kurangnya harus memiliki dua unsur dasar
yang membangun konsturksi kalimat tersebut, yaitu subyek dan predikat. Subyek
adalah sesuatu yang menjadi pokok persoalan di dalam suatu kalimat; dia adalah
yang melakukan suatu pejkerjaan, atau dikenai suatu pekerjaan, atau juga menjadi
topik suatu pembicaraan di dalam kalimat tersebut. Predikat adalah suatu kejadian
atau peristia atau pekerjaan yang dialami oleh subyeknya, baik dilakukan oleh
subyek tersebut atau menimpa subyek tersebut tergantung pada jenis hubungan
(misalnya, akti!-pasi!) antara subyek dengan predikatnya.
"i dalam suatu naskah pidato, karangan atau tulisan ilmiah, bisa kita temukan
beberapa jenis kalimat dengan berbagai #ariasi bentuknya. $amun demikian kalimat-
kalimat yang panjang atau kompleks sebenarnya hanyalah suatu perluasan dari kalimat-
kalimat sederhana, atau kalimat dasar. "i dalam Bahasa Inggris kita mengenal pola kalimat
dasar antara lain% (&) S P, (') S P (, ()) S P *, (+) S P I* "*, (,) S P "* prep I*, dan (-)
S P * (.
1. Subject + Predicate.
.he baby is sleeping.
.he #isitors le!t.
.he train has arri#ed.
.he plane is taking o!!.
.he con#ict collapsed.
. Subject + Predicate + !o"#le"e$t
.he ne car is e/pensi#e.
.he man is a political criminal.
.he people in the meeting are police o!!icers.
0onesty is the best policy.
$e theories o!ten sound promising.
1
%. Subject + Predicate + &bject
2#erybody is talking about the game.
.he students ha#e just !inished their assignments.
$ot many people master political sciences.
.he students did not understand the instructions.
Some people hate politics.
'. Subject + Predicate + I$direct &bject + Direct &bject.
3y !riend sent me some postcards.
4e borro him some books.
.hey bought us a ne computer.
.he boy thre the dog a stone.
3y !ather ga#e me some money.
,. Subject + Predicate + Direct &bject + Pre#ositio$ + I$direct &bject.
3y !riend sent some postcards to me.
4e borro some books !rom him.
.hey bought a ne computer !or us.
.he boy thre a stone at the dog.
3y !ather ga#e some money to me.
(. Subject + Predicate + &bject + !o"#le"e$t.
4e appointed him chairman.
She considered me brother.
0e called us traitors.
4e belie#e him true.
.hey thought me rong.
Lati)a$ *
.entukan pola dasar yang digunakan dalam kalimat-kalimat berikut ini%
&. 5as make e#eryone6s li!e sa!er and more pleasant.
'. .his belie! ga#e these rules a religious meaning.
7
). .he judge did not kno ho to condemn a thie!.
+. .he Babylonians produced the most !amous ancient ritten las.
,. .he 8BI ga#e us in#estigations to courts.
-. Special agents must be graduates o! la school.
1. .he right to a !ree press had success!ully passed us !irst test.
7. 8rederick the great granted toleration !or all religions.
9. Pri#ate ars among the knights made li!e di!!icult.
&:. .he #arious ethnic groups ha#e di!!erent cultural backgrounds.
Subject
Subject suatu kalimat mungkin terdiri dari $oun (phrase), Pronoun (phrase), in!initi#e
(phrase), atau $oun clause.
&. Laws are rules that de!ine people6s rights and responsibilities toards society.
'. Indonesia !aced educational problems at the time o! independence.
). Lawyers ha#e public duties beyond their indi#idual citi;enship.
+. The principal source of income of the federal government is a progressi#e income ta/
on persons and on corporations.
,. Political scientists remained !aith!ul to the constitution
-. We tend to !orget the in!ormal aspects o! political organi;ation and process.
1. He rote a handbook on politics.
7. Engaging in politics is not the same thing as studying politics in order to de#elop
principles o! general rele#ance.
9. Learning is a process o! ac<uiring cogniti#e, a!!ecti#e, or psychomotoric competence.
&:. To see is to belie#e.
&&. To answer the questions of what is politics is as di!!icult as =hat is li!e6.
&'. That frustration and aniety may !e the cause of some violent acts is the layer6s
de!ense !or his client.
&). Whether or not he could win the case is still up the air.
&+. Why he murdered his wife is still a big <uestion.
9
&,. Whether or not he will !ring the case to court depends on ho he percei#es the
incident.
Predi+at
"alam bahasa Inggris kita mengenal dua jenis kata kerja% (&) kata kerja biasa (ordinary
verb), yang sering juga disebut kata kerja penuh (full verb), dan (') kata kerja bantu
(auxiliary verb/helping verb). Sebagian besar kata kerja dalam bahasa Inggris tergolong
dalam kata kerja biasa, yang menurut in!leksinya dibedakan menjadi kata kerja yang
beraturan (regular #erb), dan kata kerja yang tidak beraturan (irregular #erb). kata kerja
bantu atau au/alaries juga dibedakan menjadi dua% (&) primary auxiliary (to be, to do, dan
to ha#e) dan (') modal auxiliary (can, may, must, shall, ill, ought to, used to, need, dan
dare). .o be, to do, dan to ha#e bisa ber!ungsi baik sebagai kata kerja penuh (Copula)
maupun sebagai kata kerja bantu.
Predikate suatu kalimat dalam Bahasa Inggris bisa terdiri hanya dari satu kata kerja
(terutama dalam Simple Present dan Simple Past .ense ), tetapi dalam banyak tense yang
lain, predicate dalam suatu kalimat diperlukan lebih dari satu kata kerja. Predicate yang
hanya terdiri dari satu kata kerja harus berupa kata kerja penuh, kecuali dalam susunan
eliptik. Predicate yang memiliki lebih dari satu kata kerja biasanya terdiri dari satu kata
kerja penuh dan satu atau lebih kata kerja bantu, tergantung pada jenis tense yang
digunakan dalam kalimat tersebut.
&. Some people loo" on las ith !ear, hatred, or annoyance.
'. .he layer is a person ith a #ery special knoledge o! la.
). 5as may prevent us !rom doing things e ish to do at the moment.
+. 3ost o! a layer6s ork is carried on outside the court room.
,. 5ayers have completed a course in a la school.
-. In la school, students are learning ho to analy;e and present problems !or decision.
1. 5ayers have !een ta"ing a special !ield o! interest a!ter a !e years in general
practice.
7. .he layer, like the doctor, has !een governed by a code o! ethics.
9. 5i!e, liberty, and property must !e protected by las.
&:
&:. .he man should have !een thought o! innocent be!ore he as pro#ed guilt.
Predikat suatu kalimat harus bisa dikategorikan ke dalam salah satu tense yang ada,
dengan kata lain predikat harus disusun berdasarkan kaidah-kaidah tense. Suatu kata kerja
bentuk ing, misalnya, tidak mungkin menduduki posisi sabagai predikat tanpa dibarengi
unsur yang lain, yaitu to be (be, is, am, are, was, were, been, being). Begitu pula kata kerja
bentuk ke tiga atau Past Participle hanya bisa menjadi predicate jika tampil besama dengan
to have (have, has had) atau to be. Suatu kata kerja bantu modal atau modal au/iliary tidak
berhak menduduki posisi predicate secara sendirian atau tanpa disertai suatu kata kerja
penuh, kacuali dalam susunan eliptik semacam short anser, agreements, disagreements,
addition to remarks dan sebagainya.
!o"#le"e$t
"alam Bahasa Indonesia, kalimat ="ia makan6 dan "ia sakit6 mempunyai pola sama, yaitu
S P. lain halnya dengan Bahasa Inggris menjadi =0e 2ats6 dan =0e is sick6. >alimat yang
pertama mempunyai pola S P ( ( Subject ? Predicate ? (omlement ). Perbedaan ini
disebabkan oleh karena jenis kata yang digunakan sebagai predicate dalam kedua kalimat
tersebut berlainan. >alimat yang pertama memakai kata kerja sedangkan kalimat kedua
menggunakan kata si!at. >alimat yang predicatenya tediri dari kata kerja dikenal dengan
kalimat #erbal, sedagkan kalimat yang predicatenya bukan kata kerja disebut kalimat
nominal. Semua kalimat nominal dalam Bahasa Inggris menggunakan pola SP(, yaitu
predicatenya berupa to be dilengkapi dengan complement.
(omplement mungkin terdiri dari $oun (phrase), pronoun, @djecti#e (phrase),
ad#erb, prepositional phrase, atau gerund phrase.
(ontoh %
&. .he people gathering in the room are ad#ocates.
'. .he men that I talked to this morning are layers.
). .he judge in charge !or the trial is here.
+. .he responsibility !or making sa!e and pleasant li!e is ours.
,. .he in!luence o! 2nglish la on the groth o! la in the Anited States as great.
-. .he uni#erse ould ha#e been totally chaotic ithout the e/istence o! las.
&&
1. .he juries are in the courtroom.
7. *ne o! the layer6s jobs is de!ending the rights o! claimed #iolations.
9. Something that most people, especially in the courtroom, do not like most is aiting.
&:. *ne o! the most important things !or the judge to consider be!ore announcing the
sentence is hy one does such and such.
&,-.!T
Sebagaimana halnya subject, object suatu kalimat bisa terdiri dari $oun (phrase), Poronun,
Berund (phrase), in!initi#e (phrases) atau (lause.
(ontoh %
&. the police arrested la-breaker.
'. In criminal cases layers either prosecute or de!end public rights against the
community.
). .he speech that he made concerning the needs o! society has bothered me.
+. "o you mind my inter!ering your a!!airsC
,. 0e told me much about hunting.
-. 4hate#er reason you are going to tell me, I ant you to lea#e.
1. .he police asked the man to tell the truth.
7. .he layer asked the man hy he committed the crime.
9. .he detecti#es ha#e not !ound ho had set the !ire to the building.
&:. .he poor boy did not understand that he as accused o! committing a murder.
Ad/erb
time hen (I get up at !. in the morning)
Place here (I go to campus e#ery day)
3anner ho (I alk slowly to the dean6s room)
!re<uency ho o!ten (I always read books to Impro#e my 2nglish)
&'
N&UN P0RAS. 1T&.2L Ps* (3-456
$oun phrase% suatu kelompok kata yang terdiri dari 0eadord (atau kata inti), dan kata-
kata lain yang mendahuli atau mengikutinya yang membentuk suatu kesatuan.
$oun Phrase terdiri dari ) (tiga) komponen, yaitu %
&. 0eadord% kata inti yang menjadi pusat dari kesatuan kata-kata yang
mengitarinya,
'. Premodi!ication, (biasanya terdiri dari kata si!at dan kata benda) yang
menerangkan headord, dan terletak sebelum headord tersebut,
). Postmodi!ication, yaitu kata (biasanya terdiri dari prepositional phrase, non-
!inite clause, dan relati#e clause) yang menerangkan headord, dan terletak
setelah headord tersebut.
(ontoh %
&. $oun ? 0ead ($oun)
4oman layer Bo#ernment employee
Population problem 3urder trial
.ra!!ic regulation
'. @djecti#e ? 0ead ($oun)
Beneral ? election Prosperous countries
treacherous king dangerous maniac
political science
). Present Participle ? $
- increasing population ruling class
- de#eloping countries amusing senators.
+. Past participle ? 0ead
- ritten la established ethnics
- standardi;ed measurement speciali;ed agents
- e/aggerated rumors
&)
,. 0ead ? Prepositional phrase
the nomination o7 presidential candidates
poer i$ political systems
the skill 7or agitating people
layer 8it) e/cellent reputation
people 7ro" hot climate countries
-. 0ead ? Participial phrase
- ars causing disasters
- rumors leading to a social con!usion
- social con!licts resulted by the campaign
- ne bills proposed by the president
- public <uestion embarrassing the candidate
1. 0ead ? In!initi#e phrase
- !irst social problems to !ight against
- institution to pro#ide jobs
- punishment to e#aluate
- president candidates to #ote
2/ercise%
&. .he !irst re<uirement o! good citi;enship and go#ernment
'. .he most terri!ying e/ile penalty
). .he societies o! the countries o! estern 2urope
+. @ special la go#erning nations and business abroad
,. @ bad character shon by pre#ious criminal and immoral acts
-. .he $ational (rime In!ormation (enter
1. .he !re<uently changing policy system
7. .he !urther complicated go#ernment corporation problem
9. .hese crude and unreliable procedures
&+
&:. @ #ery special knoledge o! la
&&. .he best ay o! testing the truth!ulness o! a itness
&'. @ branch o! the Anited States "epartment o! Dustice
&). Police statistics #oluntarily contributed by local la en!orcement agencies
&+. @ meeting place established by the go#ernment
&,. .he phenomena studied by modern political scientists.
0o"e 8or+*
&. .he !ashion label outside the top super-lu/ury brands
'. the mounting competition !rom retailers and discounters
). their steady loss o! market share
+. @ typical e/ample o! this approach
,. the problem ith the AS department stores
-. the right merchandise in the right <uantities at the right time
1. the latest components o! its rein#ent strategy
7. @n organi;ation6s capacity to identi!y
9. people ith apparently limitless energy and enthusiasm
&:. .he !inancial impact o! such people
&&. the agenda o! the ould be high per!ormers
&'. a particularly important moti#ating !orce !or ne talent
&). another essential moti#ator !or high per!ormers
&+. the time a#ailable !or creati#e thinking and mastering ne skills
&,. the pro#ision o! a coach or a mentor
&-. @ commitment to !ast tracking an indi#idual6s de#elopment
&1. tens o! thousands o! other banana groers in the 4inard Islands
&7. the most remarkable success stories o! the past decade
&9. a global leader in high-<uality domestic appliances such as ashing machines and
#acuum cleaners
':. a hiding place !or the irresponsible business
&,
9 . R ,:PR.DI!AT.
Bahasa Inggris kita mengenal beberapa bentuk kata kerja%
&. bentuk dasar (in!initi#e) (E:)% go Be
'. bentuk present (E&)% goFgoes is, am, are
). bentuk past (E')% ent as, ere
+. bentuk past participle (E))% gone Been
,. bentuk present participle (Eing)% going Being
9o 91 s:es 9 ed1 9%ed 9-i$;
In!initi#e Present Past Past Participle Present participl
(to) go go(es) ent gone going
(to) ha#e ha#eFhas had had ha#ing
(to) do do(es) did done doing
(to) be is, am, are as, ere been being
(to) buy buy(s) bought bought buying
(to) lie lie(s) lay lain lying
(to) lie lie(s) lied lied lying
(to) lay lay(s) laid laid laying
,e$tu+ dasar 1i$7i$iti/e:956 digunakan setelah kosa kata berikut%
Nou$s* ability, attempt, chance, desire, !ailure, inability, need, opportunity,
readiness, illingness, unillingness, ay, etc.
9erbs% a!!ord, agree, aim, appear, ask, attempt, dare, claim, choose, arrange,
decide, demand, deser#e, desire, endea#or, !ail, !ight, !orget, help,
hesitate, hope, intend, learn, manage, need, neglect, opt, plan,
prepare, pretend, promise, pro#e, reckon, re!use, resol#e, seek,
seem, sur#i#e, sear, tend, threaten, #olunteer, #ote, ant, ish.
,e$tu+ #rese$t #artici#le 19-i$;6 digunakan setelah kosa kata berikut%
&-
@dmit, appreciate, a#oid, celebrate, consider, deny, delay, discontinue, dislike, dread,
enjoy, e/plain, !inish, go, imagine, keep, keep on, mention, mind, miss, practice, recall,
report, resist, risk, stand, stop, suggest.
9 . R , P 0 R A S .
Predicate suatu kalima bisa terdiri dari hanya satu #erb, terutama kalimat-kalimat yang
menggunakan present dan past tense.
$amun demikian suatu kalimat yang mempunyai predicate yang terdiri lebih dari satu
unsur; dengan kata lain predicate-nya berupa suatu phrase, tergantung pada jenis tenses
yang digunakan dalam kalimat tersebut.
2mpat (+) >onstruksi sederhana dalam Eerb Phrase%
&. 3odal (can, may, must, shallF ill) ? Eo
'. .o ha#e (ha#e, has, had) ? E) G sudah, belum
). .o be (am, is, are, as, ere) ? E-ing --sedang
+. .o be (am, is, are, as, ere) ? E) Gdi, ter (passi#e)
Present tense E&FsFes kebiasaan, !akta, dilakukan berulang-ulang
Pat .ense E' dilakukanFterjadi di aktu laluFtelah leat
>onstruksi yang pertama (modal ? Eo) digunakan untuk menyatakan kemungkinan,
keharusan, nasihat, larangan, spekulasi, aktu yang akan datang, dan lain-lainnya.
>onstruksi ke tiga (to be ? E-ing) digunakan untuk menyatakan baha suatu kejadian
tengah berkangsung. >onstruksi ke dua ( to ha#e ? E) ) digunakan untuk menyatakan
baha suatu kejadian telah selesai. Sedangkan konstruksi keempat (to be ? E)) digunakan
untuk menyatakan pengertian passi#e.
2/amples%
&. .he layer ill take the case to court.
'. @s good citi;en e should obey the las.
). .he judge has sentenced the criminal to death.
&1
+. .he trial had !inished be!ore the .E reporter arri#ed.
,. .he con#ict as listening to the prosecutionH..
-. .he #isitors stood up hen the Dudge as 2ntering the (ourtroom.
1. .he criminal as taken back to the prison.
7. .he suspect as pro#ed innocent.
>onstruksi-konstruksi tersebut bisa dikembangkan dengan cara menggabungkan dua
atau tiga konstruksi menjadi satu. Proses penggabungan tersebut bisa digambarkan sebagai
berikut%
&. She ? to ha#e ? E-) ?
.o be ? E-ing I
She ? has ? been ? riting
'. 4e ? to be ? E-ing ?
.o be ? E-) I
4e ? are ? being ? !olloed
). She ? ill ? Eo
to ha#e ? E-) ?
to be ? E-ing I
She ? ill ? ha#e ? been ? li#ing
2/ercise % Anderline the predicate o! the sentence
&. .he hole body o! Joman la as not organi;ed until about @" ,):.
'. 5i!e, liberty, and property must be protected.
). .oday la en!orcement has reached a crisis all o#er the orld.
+. (ertain !ederal las ha#e been discarded.
,. .he 8BI $ational @cademy as !ounded in &9),.
-. Increase in the number o! automobiles and better highays ha#e resulted in tra!!ic
problems.
&7
1. @ trial is !re<uently called a search !or truth.
7. @ itness !or the de!ense might say the man as ith him at the time and could not
ha#e stolen the money.
9. I! he had been pro#ed guilty, he ould ha#e been sent to prison.
&:. @!ter the accusation is !iled ith the court, the de!endant is called in ith his layer to
anser it.
Deri/atio$al Mor#)e"e 1Pre7i<es a$d Su77i<es6
In morpheme-based morphology, a "or#)e"e is the smallest linguistic unit that
has semantic meaning. @ morpheme is composed by phoneme(s) (the smallest
linguistically distincti#e units o! sound) in spoken language, and by grapheme(s) (the
smallest units o! ritten language) in ritten language.
.he concept o! word and morpheme are di!!erent, a morpheme may or may not
stand alone. *ne or se#eral morphemes compose a ord. @ morpheme is free i! it can stand
alone (e/% "one", "possible"), or bound i! it is used e/clusi#ely alongside a !ree morpheme
(e/% "im" in impossible). Its actual phonetic representation is the "or#), ith the di!!erent
morphs ("in#", "im#") representing the same morpheme being grouped as its allo"or#)s.
2nglish e/ample%
.he ord KunbreakableK has three morphemes% Kun-K, a bound morpheme; KbreakK, a !ree
morpheme; and K-ableK, a !ree morpheme. Kun-K is also a pre!i/, K-ableK is a su!!i/. Both
Kun-K and K-ableK are a!!i/es. .he morpheme plural-s has the morph K-sK, FsF, in cats
(FkLtsF), but K-esK, F;F, in dishes (Fd ;F), and e#en the #oiced K-sK, F;F, in dogs (Fd;F). K-
sK. .hese are allomorphs.
1. To 7or" Nou$
-cy, -ation, -erF-or, -ess, -ity, -ment, -ness, -ship
"emocracy autocracy monocracy diplomacy
$ationali;ation appreciation e/planation moderni;ation
&9
Painter teacher cooker dryer
@ctor corruptor detonator generator
3istress steardess goddess aitress
Solemnity di!!iculty reality possibility
Bo#ernment management acknoledgement commitment
4eakness happiness drosiness la;iness
Scholarship hardship leadership membership
. To 7or" /erb
-i=e> -7?> -e$> e$-> de->
*ptimi;e analy;e summari;e hypothesi;e
2nlarge enrich entrust ensure
Jedden blacken iden lengthen
3odi!y glori!y identi!y beauti!y
"elimit demysti!y demorali;e deconstruct
%. To 7or" Adjecti/es
-able, ed, -!ul, -ical, -al, -i#e, -less, -ous, -y, ic
2njoyable readable understandable !orgettable
@mused polished anted e/ited
Beauti!ul onder!ul use!ul thank!ul
(omical biblical spiritual usual
.alkati#e acti#e attracti#e communicati#e
Backless useless hopeless meaningless
Industrious !amous generous dangerous
Sketchy yummy chubby !labby
'. To 7or" Ad/erb -l?
Sloly <uickly rapidly amusingly
':
But% lo#ely, !riendly, deadly, hea#enly, lonely, are adjecti#es
hardly, scarcely, usually, !re<uently, are ad#erb o! !re<uency.
.<ercise* Pro/ide t)e /erb $ou$> adjecti/es> ad/erb
Eerb $oun @djecti#e @d#erb
-
Ase
-
-
-
contain
-
-
-
-
e/amine
-
-
-
open
-
-
-
communicate
-
-
-
di#ide
-
-
protection
-
-
-
e/pression
ser#ice
-
-
-
-
termination
-
-
-
nationality
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Jegular
-
-
!unctional
-
-
-
-
strong
-
-
deadly
-
-
-
interpretable
-
-
-
selecti#e
dangerous
-
-
hard
-
-
-
-
idely
-
-
-
-
indi#idually
-
-
-
collecti#ely
-
-
-
clearly
-
-
-
illegally
-
-
!LAUS.S* 1T&.2L Ps* 55-%%6
'&
Suatu kalimat, bila ditinjau dari jumlah clause yang digunakan, bisa dibedakan menjadi
empat, yaitu % &. Simple sentence,
'. (ompound sentence,
). (omple/ sentence,
+. (ompound comple/ sentence.
1. Si"#le se$te$ce (kalimat tunggal) adalah suatu kalimat yang terdiri dari satu
Independenrt (lause (klausa bebas ).
2/amples%
- 0e may be !olloing us. Mou must not say bad ords.
. !o"#ou$d se$te$ce (kalimat majemuk) adalah suatu kalimat yang terdiri dari
dua independent clause.
2/amples%
- 0e ran out and he !ell o#er the suitcase.
- She arri#ed at nine, ent up to her room and did not come don until noon.
%. !o"#le< se$te$ce (kalimat komple/) adalah suatu kalimat yang terdiri dari satu
independent clause dan satu atau lebih dependent clause (klausa terikat).
2/amples%
- 4hen he as in#ited to gi#e a lecture, he as told that all reasonable e/penses
ould be re!unded.
- 0e le!t the ton because he did not like crods.
'. !o"#ou$d co"#le< sentence adalah suatu kalimat yang terdiri dari dua
independent clause dan atau satu atau lebih dependent clause.
2/amples%
- I sa him hen he arri#ed the !irst time but I did not see him hen he came
again.
- I as so young and had no e/perience ith men; there!ore, I didn6t kno
that he as actually just a good looking bastard ho liked playing ith girls.
''
!lause*
(lause adalah suatu konstruksi yang mengandung subject dan #redicate.
- I$de#e$de$t clause adalah clause yang bisa berdiri sendiri sebagai suatu kalimat, tanpa
menggantungkan diri pada clause lain (simple sentence).
- De#e$de$t clause adalah klausa yang tidak bisa berdiri sendiri sebagai suatu kalimat).
"ia mempunyai arti hanya bila dihubungkan dengan independent clause.
% -e$is De#e$de$t !lause* $ou$ clause> adjecti/e clause> ad/erbial clause.
- $oun clause% klausa yang menduduki posisi dan ber!ungsi sama dengan noun
- @djecti#e clause% klausa yang mempunyai !ungsi sama seperti adjecti#e (menerangkan
noun atau pronoun)
- @d#erbial clause% clause yang mempunyai !ungsi sama dengan ad#erb. @d#erbial clause
digolongkan sesuai dengan makna kata sambung yang digunakannya%
clause o! time, clause o! place, clause o! contras,
clause o! purpose, clause o! cause, dan clause o! result.
N&UN !LAUS.
$oun clause bisa dikategorikan sesuai dengan jenis kalimat yang membentuknya%
statement, $uestion, re$uest, dan exclamation (kalimat seru).
&. $oun clause yang dibentuk dari sebuah statement menggunakan i$troductor? 8ord
@t)at 6 dapat ber!ungsi baik sebagai% subject, complement, object kalimat.
2/amples% clause ---the itness denied his testimony---
&. .hat the itness denied his testimony is strange.
'. .he problem is that the itness denied his testimony.
). People do not belie#e that the itness denied his testimony.
'. $oun clause yang dibentuk dari sebuah %uestion yang mengharapkan jaaban ya atau
tidak (yesFno <uestion) menggunakan introductory word whether #or not$ atau if. $oun
clause ini juga bisa ber!ungsi subject, complement, maupun object kalimat
2/ample% clause --- Is the de!endant pro#ed guiltyC---
')
&. 4hether or not the de!endant is pro#ed guilty is all the judge6s concern.
'. .he <uestion is hether or not the de!endant is pro#ed guilty.
). 4e don6t kno i! the de!endant is pro#ed guilty.
). $oun clause yang dibentuk dari sebuah %uestion yang menggunakan kata tanya 1A)
Buestio$6 tidak memerlukan tambahan introductory ord kecuali kata tanya yang
digunakan dalam kalimat itu sendiri, yaitu 8)o> 8)at> 8)ic)> 8)e$> 8)ere> 8)?> atau
)o8 (sesuai dengan masalah yang ditanyakan).
2/ample% &. A)? did the itness deny his testimonyC
'. 0o did the prisoner escape !rom the jailC
&. A)? the itness denied his testimony is not knon.
'. 0o the prisoner escaped !rom the jail is still a mystery.
). .he problem is hy the itness denied his testimony.
+. .he <uestion is ho the prisoner escaped !rom the jail.
,. $obody knos hy the itness denied his testimony.
-. .he guard cannot e/plain ho the prisoner escaped !rom the jail.
$ote %
- $oun clause yang dibentuk dari <uestion, baik yesFno <uestion, maupun
4h- <uestion mengalami perubahan urutan kata menjadi pola statement (subject-
predicate).
+. $oun clause yang dibentuk dari re$uest juga menggunakan introductory ord =that6
seperti statement. $oun clause ini biasanya menduduki posisi ob&ect.
2/ample% Be <uietN .he judge anted that the #isitors to be <uiet.
$oun clause yang dibentuk dari e/clamation menggunakan introductory ord hat atau
ho. $oun clause ini biasanya menduduki posisi object.
2/ample% 4hat a terrible maniac the man isN
4e cannot imagine hat a terrible maniac the man is.
'+
AD-.!TI9. !LAUS. 1Relati/e !lause6
@djecti#e clause adalah suatu klausa yang menerangkan noun atau pronoun yang
mendahuluinya. $oun atau pronoun yang diterangkan tersebut disebut antecedent. Suatu
adjecti#e clause digolongkan sesuai dengan antecedent yang diterangkan oleh introductory
ord-nya.
Jelati#e pronoun% who, whom, dan whose untuk menerangkan manusia
(ho menerangkan subject, hom menerangan object, hose menyatakan milik).
Jelati#e pronoun which digunakan untuk menerangkan benda. Sedangkan relati#e pronoun
t)at bisa digunakan untuk menerangkan manusia maupun benda.
@djecti#e clause dengan thatFhichFhom yang diikuti oleh sebuah subject, maka
introductory ord nya dapat dihilangkan. Jelati#e pronoun which bisa diganti dengan that
atau di)ila$;+a$ sa"a se+ali. (see Jeduced clause .*285 P. ''1-')))
.he book (that) Dohn bought is missing. .he book Dohn bought is missing.
.he man (hom) e met as my uncle. .he man e met as my uncle.
.he coat (hich) she ore is red. .he coat she ore is red.
Jelati#e pronoun when untuk menyatakan aktu, dan where untuk tempat, yang masing-
masing bisa diganti dengan which setelah terlebih diberi preposisi yang menyatakan tempat
(in, on, dll.).
2/ample%
&. 5ayers ho practice ta/ la usually ha#e some training e/perience in accountancy.
'. @ layer is an agent hom person employs.
). .he layer could not !ind the kni!e hich as supposed to be the e#idence o! the
murder attempt.
+. .he #an hich the man used to rob the bank is no in the police station.
,. .he police tried to !ind the person hose #an had been used to rob the bank.
-. .he man as taken to the place here his #an had been !ound.
',
1. .he reason hy he attempted to kill the old man is that he anted to take the
insurance.
7. .he day hen he can ha#e his !reedom again has arri#ed.
9. .he man that hired the #an as the one he had ne#er met be!ore.
AD9.R,IAL !LAUS.
@d#erbial clause% clause yang mempunyai !ungsi sama dengan ad#erb. @d#erbial clause
digolongkan sesuai dengan makna kata sambung yang digunakannya%
clause o! time, clause o! place, clause o! contras,
clause o! purpose, clause o! cause, dan clause o! result.
Sebagian besar ad#erbial clause ini dianggap menerangkan predicate pada main clause-nya;
sedangkan yang lainnya dianggap menerangkan keseluruhan kalimat. Suatu ad#erbial
clause bisa berada di aal, tengah, atau akhir sebuah main clause.
0al yang perlu diperhatikan dalam menempatkan sebuah ad#erbial clause adalah%
&. @d#erbial clause yang (jauh) lebih panjang daripada main clause-nya, sebaiknya
diletakkan di akhir kalimat,
'. Sebuah ad#erbial clause perlu dipisahkan dari main clause-nya dengan koma, apabila
ad#erbial clause tersebut diletakkan di tengah (antara subject dan pedicate).
2/ample%
1. Ad/erbial !lause o7 ti"e *
.he case starts hene#er the complaint is !iled ith the court.
.he man sa the accident hile he as alking home.
.he #ictim had been taken to hospital be!ore the ambulance arri#ed.
.he con#ict collapsed a!ter he had heard the punishment.
4e had ne#er seen @nisa until she as promoted doctor o! international la.
@s soon as the judge had announced the sentence, the #isitors le!t the courtroom.
*nce she makes up her mind, she ne#er changes it.
$o cases start as long as people keep their promises.
'-
@s the judge as entering the courtroom, e#erybody rose !rom their seats.
. Ad/erbial clause o7 #lace*
4here there is po#erty, there e !ind discontent and unrest.
4here there is trouble, there he as sure to be.
0e belie#es that here#er there is trouble, a oman is in#ol#ed.
%. Ad/erbial clause o7 !ause*
.hey had to cancel the trial because the con#ict as too eak to sit in dock.
Since the man as pro#ed guilty, the judge sentenced him a '-year imprisonment.
@s he had a per!ect alibi, the judge set him !ree.
.he case as closed on the ground that no reliable e#idence as obtained.
4hereas a number o! the conditions in the contract ha#e not been met, the company has
decided to cancel the contact.
'. Ad/erbial clause o7 result * soCt)at - adj:ad/ 1Sede"i+ia$ ru#a se)i$;;a6
suc) Ct)at - $ou$
She is so emotional that e#ery little thing upsets her.
She beha#ed so emotionally that e kne something terrible had upsets her.
0e as such a dangerous maniac that he should ha#e been locked up.
.he layer paid such great attention to the case that people belie#ed he ould in it.
D. Ad/erbial clause o7 #ur#ose* so t)at 1A;ar Su#a?a6
- 0e tried e#ery possible ay to get the e#idence in order that he could put the man to
court.
- .he police had the picture o! the criminal printed in nespapers so that people ould
recogni;e him.
- .hey are orking night and day in the hope that they can !inish the case as soon as
possible.
- .o the end that justice may be ser#ed, the de!endant ill be o!!ered e#ery opportunity to
establish his innocence.
'1
(. Ad/erbial clause o7 co$ditio$ *
I! you broke las, the police ould arrest you.
0e ould not ha#e been arrested unless he had been against the las.
.he layer ill do any thing to de!end the right e#en i! he has to risk his li!e.
.he company ill agree to gi#e a raise pro#ided that the strike is called o!! at once.
0e ould ha#e !orgi#en her, i! only she had apologi;ed.
Suppose (that) your house burns don, do you ha#e enough insurance to co#er such a lossC
E. Ad/erbial clause o7 co$trast *
- 4e couldn6t meet the deadline, although e orked day and night.
- .hough he had recei#ed less money than it should, he accepted the cut in salary
ithout complaints.
- 2#en though she as pro#ed guilty, many people belie#ed her to be innocent.
- 0e claimed to be the successor hen in !act he as an outsider.
- .hey made all attempts to de!end the man, though they reali;ed that they ould !ail.
Reduced !lause
,.NTUK- SINFKAT AD9.R,IAL !LAUS.
Ad/erbial clause o7 ti"e*
- 4hen alking home, the man sa the accident.
(hen the man as alking home).
- .he con#ict collapsed a!ter hearing the punishment.
(a!ter he had heard the punishment).
- 5ea#ing the courtrooms, he as trembling.
(hen he as lea#ing the courtroom)
Ad/erbial clause o7 cause*
- 0a#ing a per!ect alibi, the man as set !ree.
(since he had a per!ect alibi)
- $ot knoing hat he said, she kept silent.
'7
(because he did not kno hat to say)
- Being scared, she began to cry.
(as she as scared).
Ad/erbial clause o7 #ur#ose*
- 0e tried e#ery possible ay to get the e#idence in order to put the man to court.
- .hey are orking night and day so as to !inish the case as soon as possible.
- .he layer had to ork hard to get the e#idence.
Ad/erbial clause o7 co$ditio$*
- I ill !ind some eye-itnesses i! possible.
(i! it is possible)
- 0e ill get there on time i! dri#ing on top speed.
(i! he dri#es on top speed)
- She ill come i! in#ited.
(i! she is in#ited).
Ad/erbial clause o7 co$trast*
- .hough orking day and night, e couldn6t meet the deadline.
(though e orked day and night)
- .hough dangerous, di#ing is a !a#orite to some people.
(thought it is dangerous)
- .hough sentenced to death, he remained calm.
(though he as sentenced to death)
!o$ju$ctio$ or !o$$ectors used i$ !o"#ou$d Se$te$ces
and, but, so, either. . . . or, neither. . . . nor, or, etc.%
0e ran out and (he) !ell o#er don the stairs.
Dakarta is so beauti!ul but it is croded and polluted.
'9
I am too tired to go out so I pre!er to ha#e dinner at home.
*n Sundays I usually either stay at home or go out ith !riends.
Smoking neither gi#es you good nutrition nor impro#es your per!ormance
Mou pay the money no or I call a police.
!o$ju$ctio$ or !o$$ectors used i$ !o"#le< Se$te$ces
@!ter% She ashed the dishes a!ter she had cooked the meal
@!ter she had cooked the meal, she ashed the dishes
@lthoughFthough% @lthough they ere poor, they ere honest.
@s% @s Dohn says, it6s time to go home.
It6s time to go home, as Dohn says.
@s the eather is nice, it seems a good time !or me to go out
@s . . . as% 0e is as tall as his !ather as.
Because% 0e le!t the ton because he did not like the crods.
Because he did not like the crods, he le!t the ton.
Be!ore% 0e had le!t the ton be!ore the police came to his house.
Be!ore the police came to his house, he had le!t the ton.
I!% I! you try hard you ill certainly succeed.
Mou ill certainly succeed, i! you try hard.
Since% I ha#e not seen him since the day e le!t school.
AntilFtill% 0e orried about e#erything until his daughter arri#ed.
Antil his daughter arri#ed, he orried about e#erything.
4hen% .ime seems to pass <uickly hen e are happy.
4hen e are happy, time seems to pass <uickly.
4here% 0e built his home here is ancestors had li#ed.
4hetherHor not% Dohn is the best runner hether he knos it or not.
4hichFthat% .his is the house hichFthat Dack built.
4hile% "o not cross the tracks hile the lights are red
4hile the lights are red, do not cross the tracks
So . . . that% She is so smart that all her !riends adore her
):
So that% I ha#e to lea#e no so that I can catch the !irst train to Dogja.
So as% I ha#e to lea#e no so as to catch the !irst train to Dogja.
.<ercise*
U$derli$e t)e de#e$de$t clause a$d deter"i$e its t?#e*
&. 4hen people rote don their las, they began to reali;e that rules ere made by men
as ell as re#ealed by gods.
'. 3ost people do not get into the courts, because they obey the las o! society.
). @ criminal case starts hen a policeman arrests someone ho breaks la.
+. @ trial is a search !or hat it should be.
,. .he judge e/plains the la that applies in the case.
-. @!ter judgment is pronounced, the trial court6s ork is o#er.
1. Since the British system o! justice pre#ailed in @merican chores !or &,: years; there is
a strong !amily resemblance beteen @merican courts and the courts o! the Anited
>ingdom.
7. @ di!!icult case may last !or se#eral eeks, but usually trials are shorter in British.
9. .he trial ill decide hether the accused person is guilty or not.
&:. 3ost layers today are generally college-trained-men ho ha#e completes a course in a
la school.
&&. .his method as more pre#alent many years ago hen educational !acilities ere !e
and the body o! la as small.
&'. @!ter a person has completed !ormal la-school training he must take an e/amination
to enable the state to check hether he has learned the !undamentals o! the la.
&). .his e/amination, hich is called the bar e/amination, is di!!icult.
&+. I! a man ants to practice patent la, he must kno something about engineering,
chemistry, physics, and similar subjects.
&,. .he training o! a layer is so board and so #aried that many men use their legal
education !or entering other careers.
&-. .he la recogni;es the close, intimate relationship and protects the client so that hat a
client tells a layer is considered just as con!idential and secret as hat is told to a
priest or doctor.
)&
&1. .he la permits e#ery man to be his on layer in a lasuit, i! he ishes, but this is
not ise.
PARAFRAP0
,asic Para;ra#) Structure
@ paragraph is a unit o! riting that consists o! one or more sentences !ocusing on a
single idea or topic. In many languages, the !undamental unit o! composition is the
paragraph. @ paragraph consists o! se#eral sentences that are grouped together. .his group
o! sentences together discuss one main subject. In A.S. !ormal academic 2nglish,
paragraphs ha#e three principal parts. @ ell-ritten paragraph o!ten has the !olloing
structure%
&. To#ic Se$te$ce% .his sentence outlines the main idea that ill be presented in the paragraph.
'. Su##ort Details or .<a"#les% .his is the part o! the paragraph that presents details, !acts,
e/amples, <uotes and arguments that support the main idea.
). !o$clusio$ Se$te$ce% .his sentence summari;es the main idea o! the paragraph. It may also lead
the reader to the topic o! the ne/t paragraph.
.here are many di!!erent types o! paragraphs, depending on hat you are riting%
Descri#ti/e Para;ra#)% .his paragraph describes something or someone. 8or e/ample, you can
rite a descripti#e paragraph describing your best !riend, including hat she likes and dislikes,
here she li#es, hat she ants !or her birthday, and her !a#orite !ood.
.<#ositor? Para;ra#)% .his paragraph e/plains an idea; it is also called an in!ormation paragraph.
8or e/ample, you can rite as e/pository paragraph e/plaining ho to make chocolate chip cookies.
Persuasi/e Para;ra#)% .his paragraph tries to con#ince the reader o! something. .his type o!
paragraph may start ith a phrase like% KI think that...K .he support section may include sentences
that start ith, K*ne reason is...,K or K8or e/ample...K It may end ith something like, K.his is hy I
think that...K 8or e/ample, you can rite a persuasi#e paragraph telling hy people should #ote !or
you !or class president.
Narrati/e Para;ra#)% .his paragraph describes an e#ent or tells a story, usually in chronological
order. 8or e/ample, you can rite a narrati#e paragraph detailng hat you did on your !irst day o!
school.
)'

T)e To#ic Se$te$ce
@ topic sentence usually comes at the beginning o! a paragraph; that is, it is usually
the !irst sentence in a !ormal academic paragraph. (Sometimes this is not true, but as you
practice riting ith this online lesson site, please keep to this rule unless you are
instructed otherise.) $ot only is a topic sentence the !irst sentence o! a paragraph, but,
more importantly, it is the most general sentence in a paragraph. 4hat does Kmost generalK
meanC It means that there are not many details in the sentence, but that the sentence
introduces an o#erall idea that you ant to discuss later in the paragraph.
8or e/ample, suppose that you ant to rite a paragraph about the natural
landmarks o! your hometon. .he !irst part o! your paragraph might look like this%
3y hometon is !amous !or se#eral ama;ing natural !eatures. 8irst, it is noted !or the
4heaton Ji#er, hich is #ery ide and beauti!ul. @lso, on the other side o! the ton is
4heaton 0ill, hich is unusual because it is #ery steep.
($otice ho the !irst sentence begins ith K3y hometon...K a !e spaces to the right o!
the paragraph edge. .his is an i$de$tatio$. @ll paragraphs in 2nglish 3AS. begin ith
an indentation.)
$ote ho the !irst sentence, 'y hometown, (heaton, is famous for several ama)ing
geographical features,is the "ost ;e$eral statement. .his sentence is di!!erent !rom the
to sentences that !ollo it, since the second and third sentences mention speci!ic details
about the tonOs geography, and are not general statements.
0ere are some e/amples o! sentences that cannot be used as topic sentences. (an you !igure
out hy they are inappropriateC
&. 3y hometon is !amous because it is located by 4heaton Ji#er, hich is #ery
ide, and because it is built near an unusually steep hill called 4heaton 0ill.
'. .here are to reasons hy some people like to buy cars ith automatic
transmission and to reasons hy others like cars ith manual transmission.
))
). (louds are hite.
.he problem ith sentence P& is that it contains too many details. .opic sentences
are general, and details should appear later in the paragraph. @ better topic sentence ould
be like the one mentioned abo#e, 'y hometown is famous for several ama)ing
geographical features.
Sentence P' is not appropriate as a topic sentence because it mentions to topics,
not just one. Paragraphs are usually about one main thing and so their topic sentences
should also be about only one main thing.
.he problem ith sentence P) is that it is toogeneral. It is also #ery boringN 4ould
you like to read a paragraph ith this topic sentenceC 3ost people ould not.
4e can rerite sentences P' and P) in the !olloing ays to make it better%
.here are to reasons hy some people like to buy cars ith automatic transmission. *+
(in a different paragraph),
.here are to reasons hy some people like cars ith manual transmission.
.he shapes o! clouds are determined by #arious !actors.
Su##orti$; Se$te$ces
(onsider again the abo#e-mentioned, short paragraph%
3y hometon, 4heaton, is !amous !or se#eral ama;ing natural !eatures. 8irst,
it is noted !or the 4heaton Ji#er, hich is #ery ide and beauti!ul. @lso, on the
other side o! the ton is 4heaton 0ill, hich is unusual because it is #ery steep.
)+
(@gain, note ho this paragraph is indented on the !irst line, about !i#e or se#en spaces in
!rom the le!t-hand edge o! the paragraph. @lays remember to i$de$t your paragraphsN)
4hen a reader reads a topic sentence, such as 'y hometown, (heaton, is famous
for several ama)ing natural features,a Buestio$ should usually appear in the readerOs mind.
In this case, the <uestion should be like, K4hat are the natural !eatures that make 4heaton
!amousCK .he reader should then e/pect that the rest o! the paragraph ill gi#e an anser
to this <uestion.
$o look at the sentences a!ter the topic sentence. 4e can see that the second
sentence in the paragraph, -irst, it is noted for the (heaton +iver, which is very wide and
beautiful,indeed gi#es an anser to this <uestion. .hat is, the second sentence gi#es some
e/planation !or the !act that 4heaton is a !amous ton. Similarly, e can see that the third
sentence also gi#es some e/planation !or the !act that 4heaton is !amous by gi#ing another
e/ample o! an Kama;ing natural !eature,K in this case, 4heaton 0ill.
.he second and third sentences are called su##orti$; se$te$ces. .hey are called
KsupportingK because they Ksupport,K or e/plain, the idea e/pressed in the topic sentence.
*! course, paragraphs in 2nglish o!ten ha#e more than to supporting ideas. .he
paragraph abo#e is actually a #ery short paragraph. At "i$i"u"> ?ou s)ould )a/e at
least 7i/e to se/e$ se$te$ces i$ ?our #ara;ra#). 0ere e can see our paragraph about
4heaton ith a !e more supporting sentences in bold !ont%
3y hometon is !amous !or se#eral ama;ing natural !eatures. 8irst, it is noted !or the
4heaton Ji#er, hich is #ery ide and beauti!ul. @lso, on the other side o! the ton is
4heaton 0ill, hich is unusual because it is #ery steep. T)e t)ird a"a=i$; 7eature is t)e ,i;
&ld Tree. T)is tree sta$ds t8o )u$dred 7eet tall a$d is #robabl? about si< )u$dred ?ears
old.
),
In this lesson, e ill talk about supporting sentences again in the section, K"etails in
Paragraphs,K belo.

T)e !o$cludi$; Se$te$ce
In !ormal paragraphs you ill sometimes see a sentence at the end o! the paragraph hich
summari;es the in!ormation that has been presented. .his is the concluding sentence. Mou
can think o! a concluding sentence as a sort o! topic sentence in re#erse.
Mou can understand concluding sentences ith this e/ample. (onsider a hamburger that
you can buy at a !ast-!ood restaurant.Q @ hamburger has a top bun (a kind o! bread), meat,
cheese, lettuce, and other elements in the middle o! the hamburger, and a bottom bun. $ote
ho the top bun and the bottom bun are #ery similar. .he top bun, in a ay, is like a topic
sentence, and the bottom bun is like the concluding sentence. Both buns KholdK the meat,
onions, and so on. Similarly, the topic sentence and concluding sentence KholdK the
supporting sentences in the paragraph. 5etOs see ho a concluding sentence (in bold !ont)
might look in our sample paragraph about 4heaton%

3y hometon is !amous !or se#eral ama;ing natural !eatures. 8irst, it is
noted !or the 4heaton Ji#er, hich is #ery ide and beauti!ul. @lso, on the other
side o! the ton is 4heaton 0ill, hich is unusual because it is #ery steep. .he
third ama;ing !eature is the Big *ld .ree. .his tree stands to hundred !eet tall
and is probably about si/ hundred years old. T)ese t)ree la$d"ar+s are trul?
a"a=i$; a$d "a+e "? )o"eto8$ a 7a"ous #lace.
$otice ho the concluding sentence, .hese three landmarks are truly ama)ing and
make my hometown a famous place,summari;es the in!ormation in the paragraph. $otice
also ho the concluding sentence is similar to, but not e/actly the same as, the topic
sentence.
$ot all academic paragraphs contain concluding sentences, especially i! the paragraph is
#ery short. 0oe#er, i! your paragraph is #ery long, it is a good idea to use a concluding
)-
sentence.

Details i$ Para;ra#)s
.he short paragraph in this lesson is a !airly complete paragraph, but it lacks
details. 4hene#er possible, you should include enough details in your paragraphs to help
your reader understand e/actly hat you are riting about. In the paragraph about
4heaton, three natural landmarks are mentioned, but e do not kno #ery much about
them. 8or e/ample, e could add a sentence or to about 4heaton ri#er concerning 0*4
ide it is or 40M it is beauti!ul. (onsider this re#ision (and note the additional details in
bold)%

3y hometon is !amous !or se#eral ama;ing natural !eatures. 8irst, it is noted !or the
4heaton Ji#er, hich is #ery ide and beauti!ul. &$ eit)er side o7 t)is ri/er> 8)ic) is 1ED
7eet 8ide> are "a$? 8illo8 trees 8)ic) )a/e lo$; bra$c)es t)at ca$ "o/e ;race7ull? i$
t)e 8i$d. I$ autu"$ t)e lea/es o7 t)ese trees 7all a$d co/er t)e ri/erba$+s li+e ;olde$
s$o8. @lso, on the other side o! the ton is 4heaton 0ill, hich is unusual because it is #ery
steep. ./e$ t)ou;) it is stee#> cli"bi$; t)is )ill is $ot da$;erous> because t)ere are so"e
7ir" roc+s alo$; t)e sides t)at ca$ be used as stairs. T)ere are $o trees arou$d t)is )ill>
so it sta$ds clearl? a;ai$st t)e s+? a$d ca$ be see$ 7ro" "a$? "iles a8a?. .he third
ama;ing !eature is the Big *ld .ree. .his tree stands to hundred !eet tall and is probably
about si/ hundred years old. .hese three landmarks are truly ama;ing and make my
hometon a !amous place.
I! e ished, e could also add more details to the paragraph to describe the third natural
!eature o! the area, the Big *ld .ree.
A)? are details i"#orta$tG (onsider the e/ample o! the hamburger, mentioned abo#e.Q
I! the hamburger buns are the topic and concluding sentences, then the meat, the cheese, the
lettuce, and so on are the supporting details. 4ithout the !ood beteen the hamburger
buns, your hamburger ould not be #ery deliciousN Similarly, ithout supporting details,
your paragraph ould not be #ery interesting.

)1
A Note o$ 2or"alit?. In addition to ha#ing a particular kind o! structure, academic
paragraphs (and multi-paragraph essays, hich ill be topic o! another lesson) are di!!erent
!rom Kordinary ritingK (such as letter riting) in that certain kinds o! e/pressions are not
alloed. 8or e/ample, in !ormal essays, you should not use contractions such as don/t or
aren/t. Instead, you should rite out the ords in !ull, !or e/ample, do not and are not.
@lso, in !ormal essays you should a#oid the !irst and second person. .hat is, do $ot use the
pronouns 0 or you. .he pronouns we and us are sometimes used in !ormal essays in some
major !ields, but in general you should not use these unless you are certain that they are
customary in your !ield andFor your pro!essor allos them. It is sa!er simply to use the
third person.
T&& IN2&RMAL
1Do $ot use6
A!!.PTA,L.
donOt do not
doesnOt does not
arenOt are not
erenOt ere not
canOt cannot
couldnOt could not
onOt ill not
0ere is a look at the completed KmodelK paragraph%
Sla#e spirituals o!ten had hidden double meanings. *n one le#el, spirituals
re!erenced hea#en, Desus, and the soul, but on another le#el, the songs spoke about sla#e
resistance. 8or e/ample, according to 8rederick "ouglass, the song K* (anaan, Seet
(anaanK spoke o! sla#esO longing !or hea#en, but it also e/pressed their desire to escape to
the $orth. (are!ul listeners heard this second meaning in the !olloing lyrics% KI donOt
e/pect to stay F 3uch longer here. F Jun to Desus, shun the danger. F I donOt e/pect to stay.K
4hen sla#es sang this song, they could ha#e been speaking o! their departure !rom this li!e
and their arri#al in hea#en; hoe#er, they also could ha#e been describing their plans to
lea#e the South and run, not to Desus, but to the $orth. Sla#es e#en used songs like KSteal
)7
@ay to Desus (at midnight)K to announce to other sla#es the time and place o! secret,
!orbidden meetings. 4hat hites heard as merely spiritual songs, sla#es discerned as
detailed messages. .he hidden meanings in spirituals alloed sla#es to sing hat they
could not say.
.he e/ample o! @rgumentati#e Paragraph
"uring the economy global crisis, Bo#ernment should increase the salary o!
Indonesian 0ouse o! Jepresentati#e members. People ho disagree ith that proposal
belie#e that it is not ise to increase the salary o! them because there are a lot o! poor
people in this country. It is undeniable !act that is really happening, but there are also some
reasons to impro#e the prosperity o! Indonesian Jepresentati#es. 5ogically, hen the
prosperity and salary are enough, the tendency o! being a corruptor ould be loer. @s e
kno, the sallary is already much enough, but there are so many things that can tempt them
to abuse their authority. 3oreo#er, they need an appreciation !or the big responsibility as
representati#es. 0ard ork and !ull dedication are highly demanded !rom them. 5ast, to
accommodate public6s aspiration in rural area, it needs e/tra money. Indonesia6s area is
#ery large and consist o! many islands. .hey need to going by plane and hotel
accommodation hen meet people in remote places. 8or those reasons, go#ernment needs
to increase the salary o! representati#es in order to impro#e their ork.
.<a"#le o7 Descri#ti/e Para;ra#)
A 2rie$dl? !lo8$
*n one corner o! my dresser sits a smiling toy clon on a tiny unicycle--a gi!t I
recei#ed last (hristmas !rom a close !riend. .he clonOs short yello hair, made o! yarn,
co#ers its ears but is parted abo#e the eyes. .he blue eyes are outlined in black ith thin,
dark lashes !loing !rom the bros. It has cherry-red cheeks, nose, and lips, and its broad
grin disappears into the ide, hite ru!!le around its neck. .he clon ears a !lu!!y, to-
tone nylon costume. .he le!t side o! the out!it is light blue, and the right side is red. .he
to colors merge in a dark line that runs don the center o! the small out!it. Surrounding
its ankles and disguising its long black shoes are big pink bos. .he hite spokes on the
)9
heels o! the unicycle gather in the center and e/pand to the black tire so that the heel
somehat resembles the inner hal! o! a grape!ruit. .he clon and unicycle together stand
about a !oot high. @s a cherished gi!t !rom my ;ood !riend .ran, this color!ul !igure greets
me ith a smile e#ery time I enter my room.
2SS@M
.he 2lements and Structure o! a 8ormal 2ssay
In this class, e ill be asking you to use the riting process to rite !ormal, college le#el essays. 8ormal
essays must ha#e !i#e basic elements i! they are to be success!ul%
&. @ strong thesis statement ith logical supporting points.
'. Body paragraphs that discuss the supporting points in the order they are
mentioned in the thesis statement.
). Bood transitions beteen paragraphs.
+. @ conclusion hich summari;es hat has been said in the body o! the paper.
,. @ppropriate diction and tone.
T)ese 7i/e ele"e$ts are absolutel? esse$tial. 4e ill be grading your papers on hether
or not the !i#e elements are present. 2ach o! these elements is discussed belo. @t the end
o! this document is an outline and brie! description o! standard essay structure.
&. .he .hesis Statement
@s you learned !rom the RJeader as 4riterS reading, a thesis is a statement o! !act
or opinion that you ill de!end in the course o! your paper. .he thesis statement includes
the reasons or points you ill be making to support your initial statement. @ thesis
statement does to #itally important things. &) it establishes the subject and purpose o!
your paper, ') it gi#es your readers a road"a# o! the points that ill be discussed in the
paper.
+:
0ere is an e/ample o! an e77ecti/e thesis statement%
*#erall, online learning o!!ers many ad#antages to a di#erse array o! students.
"isabled students, adults returning to school and rural students all bene!it greatly
!rom online learning. *nline learning does not come ithout problems though.
(omputers can crash and ser#ers can go don. "ealing ith these problems can
be time consuming and !rustrating.
(indy6s paragraph is e!!ecti#e because it states the riter6s opinion (online learning
o!!ers many ad#antages to a di#erse array o! students, but online learning does not come
ithout problems) and her reasons !or this opinion. In the body o! her essay, the author
ent on to discuss in detail &) ad#antages to disabled students; ') ad#antages to returning
adult students; )) ad#antages to rural students; +) disad#antages to all students. .hus, her
thesis ser#ed as a #ery e!!ecti#e roadmap !or hat as to come in the essay.
0ere is an e/ample o! an i$e77ecti/e thesis statement%
I enrolled in my !irst online computer class this summer. So !ar I learned that there
are de!initely some disad#antages and ad#antages o! an online class. I !eel that I need the
interaction that you get ith a usual classroom en#ironment. I like to kno ho IOm doing
in the class, being able to ha#e <uestions ansered right aay, and meeting my !ello
students. I guess that I am a people person and like the interaction that a classroom has to
o!!er.
Dohn6s paragraph is ine!!ecti#e because the reader has no idea hat the author is
going to discuss in the paper. 2ach sentence is a possible topic, but there is nothing to
indicate ho the ideas connect to one another, hich ideas are important, or hat points the
author is going to use to support his ideas.
'. Body Paragraphs
@s noted abo#e, your body paragraphs need to directly and speci!ically discuss the points
mentioned in your thesis statement i$ t)e order t)e? are "e$tio$ed i$ ?our t)esis
state"e$t. I! you don6t do this, your roadmap isn6t just in#alid, it6s misleading, and your
readers ill become con!used.
+&
4hen you rite the body o! your paper, you should alays be looking back at your thesis
to see that you6re !olloing the roadmap. I!, as you6re riting, you think o! another point
it6s important and logical to make, you need to re#ise your thesis so that the roadmap is still
#alid.
@ body paragraph takes a point G!or e/ample, ad#antages o! online learning !or disabled
studentsTand discuss it in detail, gi#ing e/amples and e#idence to support that point.
0ere6s (indy6s body paragraph on ad#antages o! online learning !or disabled students%
"isabled students are one group o! people ho bene!it greatly !rom online learning.
3any disabled students !ace great obstacles hen trying to recei#e a college
education. Dust getting to school can be di!!icult and e/pensi#e. 3any schools do
not ha#e speciali;ed computer programs that can help blind or dea! students.
.hough schools are no re<uired to pro#ide sign language interpreters !or dea!
students, many still miss things that are discussed in class. Schools are o!ten large,
making it hard !or some students to e#en get to the classrooms. 4ith online
learning, disabled students no longer ha#e to orry about these things. .hey are
no on the same le#el as e#eryone else.
Mou see ho (indy has gi#en us e/amples and reasons hy online learning is
ad#antageous !or the disabled. $otice ho in her thesis she simply lists the disabled as one
o! the groups that bene!it !rom online learning. She uses the body paragraph to discuss this
point in depth and pro#ide e#idence to support it.
). .ransitions
Pro#iding logical connections beteen ideas is one o! the most important keys to good
riting. I! you and I are talking about ho uncom!ortable the hot eather has been, and all
o! a sudden I say R5obo, my pet slug died,S you6re going to be completely con!used. Mou
on6t kno ho I got !rom the eather to the tragic death o! 5obo. 4hat6s missing is the
transition, the thought that links one idea to the ne/t.
+'
5et6s say, on the other hand, that e6re talking about the hot eather, and I remark R.he
hot eather isn6t just uncom!ortable; it6s dangerous too. In !act, 5obo my pet slug, insisted
on going outside !or his daily alk and he died o! heat prostration in to minutes !lat.S
I6#e built a bridge beteen the to ideas ith one simple sentence that connects the old
idea (hot eather is uncom!ortable) ith the ne idea (hot eather is dangerous).
.he good nes about transitions is that they don6t ha#e to be complicated. .hey can be as
simple as one ord or a single sentence. Mou just need to be sure that as you read o#er
your paper you ask yoursel! hat the connection beteen each o! your ideas is. 8or a list
o! good transition ords, see the RParagraphsS document in the RBrammarS !older under
(ourse "ocuments.
+. .he (onclusion
It is said that R@ conclusion is the place here you got tired o! thinking.S 0oe#er, this is
$ot supposed to be the case in your essays. Mour conclusion ser#es to speci!ic !unctions%
&) it summari;es hat has been said in the body o! the paper 8it)out re#eati$; it, and ') it
pro#ides the reader ith a rele#ant !inal thought on hat you ant them to do, think,
belie#e, or understand, no that theyO#e read your essay. $ote that a conclusion is
de!initely $ot the place to introduce ne ideas.
0ere6s a case study o! a good conclusion. 3aureen as riting about the positi#e and
negati#e aspects o! online communities. 0er thesis statement as%
0a#ing a #irtual classroom as the sole source o! instruction is a groing
trend ith se#eral onder!ul ad#antages. 4e can ha#e discussion here
each person6s contribution is uninterrupted, here gender is not necessarily
a !actor, here appearances does not distract us and here many disabilities
are no longer a barrier. .here is potential !or misunderstanding, !alse
identities, magni!ied emotions, and in!ormation o#erload, but the ad#antages
balance the negati#es to make #irtual classrooms a elcome addition to our
educational system.
+)
In the body o! her paper, 3o discussed the points she raised, setting an optimistic tone both
about the ad#antages and about the !act that problems ith online classes ere resol#able.
0er conclusion ties these ideas together, reminds the reader o! thesis ithout repeating it,
and lea#es the reader ith a rele#ant !inal thought.
@s #irtual classrooms and our educational systems e#ol#e into the mainstream, e
ill need to !ind the balance beteen the ad#antages and challenges o! this ne
!orum !or education. .he di!!iculties the online en#ironment poses do not
outeigh its ad#antages, particularly since there are solutions to many o! these
problems. Altimately, the !act that education is groing to include the internet as
a standard learning option means e ill ha#e another !orum !or people to !lourish
and de#elop in their intellect and ability. .his is a onder!ul opportunity that ill
bene!it us all.
$otice that 3o hasn6t added any ne ideas or arguments in her conclusion. I! you get to
the end o! your paper and say R*hN I just thought o! another thing,S do $ot tack it on to the
conclusion. @s stated abo#e, R4hen you rite the body o! your paper, you should alays
be looking back at your thesis to see that you6re !olloing the roadmap. I!, as you6re
riting, you think o! another point it6s important and logical to make, you need to re#ise
your thesis so that the roadmap is still #alid.S
@nna6s pet pee#e% do not cheat by using the ords Rin conclusionS to announce the arri#al
o! your conclusion. .he content o! your concluding paragraph should make clear that it is
in !act the conclusion ithout you ha#ing to say it.
,. @ppropriate "iction and .one
.he purpose o! this class is to teach you ho to rite !ormal, college le#el essays. Part o!
riting these essays is learning the diction (ord choice) and tone customary in this kind o!
riting. 0ere are some guidelines !or the appropriate diction and tone o! your essays. $ote
that these guidelines do not apply to the other kinds o! riting you do in this class.
U Mou are riting !or an audience o! classmates and teachers.
++
U Mou are speaking to these people in a pro!essional or !ormal capacity, as opposed
to a casual and !riendly capacity (such as e use in our chat room or email
e/changes). Imagine you are dressed in your nicest clothes and speaking to an
audience that has come to hear you and learn something !rom you.
U Mour audience has a basic understanding o! your topic and does not need common
or simple terms e/plained to them.
U Mou should not use slang or in!ormal language in them. *ne o! the problems ith
Dohn6s thesis statement in the .hesis section abo#e is that tone is much to in!ormal.
U Mour !ocus should be on !acts and ideas rather than rumor and conjecture.
U Mou s)ould $ot include RI belie#e,S RI think,S RI !eel,S RIn my opinion,S etc. in
your essay. It is assumed that an essay represents your ideas and opinions. .hese
are useless !illers. "on6t belie#e meC .ry crossing those phrases out, and you6ll !ind
your sentence orks just as ell ithout them. $ote% it6s per!ectly !ine !or you to
discuss your on speci!ic e/periences (R*nce hen I as in a chat room, I had a
!i#e hour con#ersation ith someone about snails.S)
U Do $ot use any #ersion o! the phrase RIt goes ithout saying.S I! something goes
ithout saying, your reader ill onder hy you are bothering to say it. Mou
should onder too. .he same goes !or Rnot to mention.S
U A/oid rhetorical <uestions like R0o ould you like to . . .S or R4hat do you
think o! thatCS .hese direct addresses to an audience set an in!ormal, Rtalky,S tone
and don6t actually accomplish anything but taking up space (since, o! course) your
audience cannot anser you.
Standard 2ssay Structure
0ere6s an o#er#ie o! ho a standard essay is structured. Dust something to keep in mind
as you ork on !ormulating your thesis and start thinking about riting your rough dra!t.
+,
I. T)esis (@ statement o! opinion that you ill discuss and de!end in your essay)
2/ample% @s more and more people integrate the internet into their ork and pri#ate li#es,
e ill see a dramatic increase in both ritten and #erbal communication skills.
A. Sub Poi$t H1 (Sub points break the thesis don into parts hich you ill then
discuss at greater length in the body o! the paper. Sub points ser#e the reader as a road map
to the organi;ation o! your paper.)
1xample, (riting skills naturally improve with internet use, since almost all online
communication is conducted through the written word.
,. Sub Poi$t H
1xample, 0n addition, while internet users become more proficient at writing, their spoken
communication skills will also improve, because writing will give them practice organi)ing
and expressing their ideas.
($ote% you may ha#e more than to sub points)
II. ,od?
A. Discussio$ o7 Sub Poi$t H1
2/plain this idea in more detail.
Jaise possible objections, problems ith this idea.
@nser these objects and de!end this idea.
,. Discussio$ o7 Sub Poi$t H
2/plain this idea in more detail.
Jaise possible objections, problems ith this idea.
+-
@nser these objectionss and de!end this idea.
Discussio$ o7 7urt)er Sub Poi$ts i7 ?ou )a/e listed t)e" i$ ?our t)esis.
III. (onclusion
Mour conclusion restates your thesis (puts it in di!!erent ords), and lea#es the reader ith
a rele#ant !inal thought on hat you ant the reader to do, think, belie#e, or understand,
no that theyO#e read your essay.
2/ample
.he .hree @!ricas
4hen many people hear the ord @!rica, they picture steaming jungles and gorillas.
0ollyood !ilms ha#e shrunk the public image o! this immense, #aried continent into a
small segment o! its actual di#ersity. .o ha#e a more accurate picture o! the hole
continent, hoe#er, one should remember that there are, roughly, three @!ricas, each ith
its distinct climate and terrain and ith a style o! li!e suited to the en#ironment. .he
continent can be di#ided into the northern desert areas, the southeastern grasslands, and the
tropical jungles to the southest.
.he northern regions ha#e the en#ironment and li#ing patterns o! the desert. 2gypt,
5ibya, @lgeria, and 3orocco ha#e hot, dry climates ith #ery little land suited to !arming.
.here!ore, the population tends to be clustered into cities along ri#ers or the seacoast or into
smaller settlements near oases. 8or thousands o! years, people ha#e li#ed in this #ast
region, subsisting partly on hat crops and animals they could raise and partly on trade
ith 2urope.
.he southeastern grasslands pro#ide a better en#ironment !or animal li!e and !or some
kinds o! crops. 3any ild animals inhabit the plains in this region--elephants, gira!!es,
rhinoceros, antelopes, ;ebras, and lions. .he people in this area ha#e long been e/pert cattle
raisers and hunters. .ea, co!!ee, cotton, cashe nuts, and tobacco are some o! the main
products gron in this region. 8ishing also pro#ides some !ood and income !or people
along the coast. .he population here is less concentrated in cities and tons than in the
+1
north, but tends to be denser in areas here ade<uate rain!all and !ertile soil make !arming
possible.
4est @!rica is the region closest to the 0ollyood image o! mysterious jungles. @s in
the other to regions, the ay people subsist depends upon their en#ironment. .his does
not mean that most o! the people li#e in grass huts in the jungle. Such nations as $igeria
ha#e become highly moderni;ed by income !rom oil, timber, and minerals. 3ost o! the
estern countries ha#e some !arming that pro#ides !ood and income; sugar cane, co!!ee,
and tobacco are the important cash crops, hile bananas, rice, and corn are raised !or !ood.
8ishing in the ri#ers and along the coast also accounts !or !ood and income, and precious
stones, especially diamonds, enhance the economy o! @ngola and the I#ory (oast.
2#en a super!icial look at the major regions o! @!rica shos that it is a #aried
continent ith se#eral en#ironments. @lthough most o! the continent is tropical in its range
o! temperature, the climate ranges !rom deserts to rain !orests. Similarly, human li!e-styles
#ary !rom the simplest rural #illages to industrial cities, both ne and ancient. (ontrary to
the myth, hoe#er, jungle li!e makes up only a #ery small portion o! the hole o! @!rica.
R.ADINF AND UND.RSTANDINF
Le/el o7 .ducatio$ u$it curriculu" 1Kuri+ulu" Ti$;+at Satua$ Pe$didi+a$6
@ccording to $asution (&999), the curriculum is a set o! plans and arrangements on
the objecti#es, content and teaching materials and methods used to guide the
implementation o! instructional acti#ities to achie#e certain educational goals. *bjecti#es
include the national education goals as ell as con!ormance to speci!ication, state and
regional potential, education unit and learners. .here!ore, the curriculum prepared by the
educational unit to allo adjustment o! educational programs to the needs and potential in
the region.
.here are !e curricula ha#e been de#eloped today, such as%
&. (urriculum &99+
+7
'. (urriculum '::+
). (ompetency-Based (urriculum ((B()
+. 5e#el o! 2ducation unit curriculum (>.SP)
In the de#elopment 2ducation Anit 5e#el (urriculum (>.SP), hich #ary based on
$ational 2ducation Standards (S$P) to ensure the achie#ement o! national education goals.
$ational Standards o! 2ducation (ontent Standard, Standard Process, (ompetency
standards Passed, 2ducation 4ork!orce Standards, Standards !or In!rastructure, Standards
3anagement, 8inancing Standards, @ssessment Standards. .o o! the eight standards,
hich are nsional education and (ompetency Standards (ontent Standard Passed is the
main re!erence !or the education unit in de#eloping curriculum.
5a o! the Jepublic o! Indonesia $umber ': Mear '::) (AA ':F'::)) about the System o!
$ational 2ducation and the Indonesian Bo#ernment Jegulation $umber &9 Mear '::, (PP
&9F'::,) about the $ational Standards o! 2ducation has mandated curriculum unit le#el
education o! primary and secondary le#els o! education ha#e been prepared by educational
unit based on the content standards and pass the competency standards and is guided by the
guidelines established by the BS$P.
>.SP is an operational curriculum de#eloped and implemented by each educational unit in
this case re!ers to the la school is the educational unit (Sutrisno, '::7). In de#eloping the
SB( is done by each group or the education unit and school committee F madrasa under the
coordination and super#ision o! "epartment o! 2ducation F 3inistry o! Jeligious @!!airs
o!!ice o! district F city !or Secondary 2ducation and Special 2ducation.
>.SP 2mphasis is on de#eloping the ability to do (competence) and tasks ith speci!ic
per!ormance standards so the results can be !elt by students in the !orm o! mastery o! a set
o! speci!ic competencies. .his educational program standard de#ice should be able to
deli#er students to ha#e a competency o! knoledge, and #alues used in #arious !ields o!
li!e.
Indeed, >.SP is a curriculum that re!lects the knoledge, skills and attitudes hich re!ers
+9
to the concept o! education as suggested by Bloom, hich in turn can impro#e studentsO
potentials optimally. @ccordingly, the curriculum is prepared to !oster the learning process
in schools oriented mastery competencies that ha#e been determined by integrati#e. *0
de#eloped is able to adapt to #arious changes (containing the basic principles, are !le/ible
in accordance ith the times) and its de#elopment through the accreditation process that
allos the subjects can be modi!ied ithin their groing demands. .hus, this curriculum is
the de#elopment o! knoledge, understanding, abilities, #alues, attitudes and interests, to
per!orm a skill or task in the !orm o! skills and sense o! responsibility. 8urthermore, this
curriculum is a curriculum design that as de#eloped based on a number o! speci!ic
competencies, so that a!ter completing a certain educational le#el, students are e/pected to
master a series o! competencies and apply them in later li!e.
>.SP implementation in Indonesian education system does not just change the curriculum,
but it in#ol#es !undamental changes in the education system. @pplication o! >.SP re<uires
a paradigm shi!t in teaching and schooling, because the application o! >.SP not only
caused changes in concepts, methods and strategies o! teachers in teaching, but also
concerning the pattern o! thought to carry aay, philosophically, the commitment o!
teachers, schools and education stakeholders.
In >.SP placed teachers as !acilitators and mediators ho help keep studentsO learning
process goes ell. .he main attention on students learning, not on discipline or the teacher.
.he !unction o! a !acilitator or mediator that means, namely% (&) to pro#ide learning
e/periences that enable students are responsible to make design and process; (') pro#ide or
pro#ide acti#ities that stimulate studentsO curiosity and help them to e/press ideas, pro#ide
the means that stimulating students to think producti#ely, pro#ide opportunities and
e/periences o! con!lict, ()) monitor, e#aluate, and indicates hether the student thought the
road or not. .eacher shos and <uestioned hether students apply knoledge to deal ith
ne problems. .eachers help students e#aluate hypotheses and conclusions.
KTSP D.9.L&PM.NT PRIN!IPL.S*
&. (entered on the potential, progress, needs and interests o! learners and their en#ironment
.he curriculum as de#eloped based on the principle that learners has a central position to
,:
de#elop their competence in order a human being !aith!ul and obedient to BodOs
compassion 2sa, morality, healthy, knoledgeable, capable, creati#e, independent and
becomes citi;ens o! a democratic and accountable. 8or support the achie#ement o! these
goals competence de#elopment adjusted !or potential learners, progress, needs, and
interests o! learners as ell as en#ironmental demands.
'. "i#erse and integrated
.he curriculum as de#eloped ith attention to di#ersity learner characteristics, local
conditions, and le#els and types o! education, ithout distinction o! religion, ethnicity,
culture and customs, as ell as socioeconomic status and gender. .he curriculum includes
substance mandatory component o! curriculum content, local content, and de#elopment
an integrated sel!, and ha#e been prepared in the rele#ance and sustainability
antarsubstansi meaning!ul and appropriate.
). Jesponse to the de#elopment o! science and art
.he curriculum as de#eloped on the basis o! the aareness that science knoledge,
technology and art o! groing dynamically, and by .here!ore the spirit and content o! the
curriculum encourages students to !olloed and properly utili;e the de#elopment o! science
knoledge, technology and art.
+. Be rele#ant to the needs o! li!e
(urriculum de#elopment conducted by in#ol#ing stakeholders interests (stakeholders) to
ensure the rele#ance o! education ith needs o! li!e, including li!e community, business
orld and the orld o! ork. .here!ore, de#elopment o! personal skills, thinking skills,
social skills, academic skills, and skills is a #ocational necessity.
,. (omprehensi#e and continuous
.he substance o! the curriculum co#ers all dimensions o! competency, !ield scholarly study
and subjects ho planned and presented !or all sustainable le#els o! education.
,&
-. 5ong 5i!e 5earning
.he curriculum is directed to the de#elopment process, acculturation and empoerment o!
learners that lasted a li!etime. .he curriculum re!lects the linkages beteen the elements o!
education !ormal, non!ormal and in!ormal, to conditions and demands an en#ironment that
is alays e#ol#ing and the de#elopment direction human beings.
1. Balance beteen national interests and regional interest
.he curriculum as de#eloped by taking into account the national interests and local
interests to build a social li!e, state and nation. $ational interests and the interests o!
area must complement and empoer in line ith the motto Anity in "i#ersity ithin the
!rameork o! the Anitary Jepublic o! Indonesia.
Sc)ool-based !urriculu" De/elo#"e$t i$ t)e Pri"ar? Sc)ools
School-based curriculum is the general policy ordained by the (urriculum
"e#elopment (ouncil !or schoolsO consideration in the design o! a <uality curriculum
conduci#e to e!!ecti#e pupil learning. Schools are encouraged to adapt the (entral
(urriculum to suit their uni<ue conte/ts. 4hen designing the school-based curriculum,
schools are ad#ised to obser#e closely the directions and re<uirements stipulated by the
(urriculum "e#elopment (ouncil in the o!!icial curriculum documents. Based on care!ul
analysis o! pupilsOneeds, abilities and interests, schoolsO ecological conte/ts, leadership style
o! the principals and middle management, as ell as the readiness o! teachers, schools need
to employ the most appropriate teaching, learning and assessment strategies and use
di#ersi!ied learning materials to integrate the teaching-learning-assessment cycle in their
school-based curriculum. It is important to ensure that all pupils ha#e e<ual opportunities
participating in rich learning e/periences that aim at promoting hole person de#elopment
and li!e long learning.
Sc)ool-based !urriculu" i$ t)e Pri"ar? Sc)ools
In order to !urther impro#e teaching and learning in primary schools, the School-
based (urriculum "e#elopment (Primary) Section has started orking ith primary school
,'
teachers since &997. 4e ork together ith teachers in designing school-based curriculum
in #arious >ey 5earning @reas. .his partnership ith !rontline teachers has culti#ated a
collaborati#e lesson planning ((5P) culture and has promoted educational action research
that aims to help teachers make in!ormed decisions in teaching and learning.
4hen re!lecting on the process o! de#eloping a school-based curriculum ith ser#ing
teachers, e !ind that an understanding o! the school ecological conte/ts and pupilsO
learning processes is essential.
Ae are 8or+i$; to8ards t)e 7ollo8i$; ;oals 8)e$ su##orti$; sc)ools*
3erging curriculum knoledge and teachersO tacit knoledge through collaborati#e
lesson planning and action research such that ne understanding can be constructed on ho
pupils learn, hat learning and teaching strategies ork, and ho to !acilitate assessment
!or learning.
2mpoering teachers and other school stakeholders to make their on decisions in
the curriculum de#elopment process is crucial. .his is done through training a group o!
curriculum leaders ho ha#e hands-on pragmatic e/perience gained inside and outside the
school and ould continuously de#elop and adapt the curriculum based on pupil learning
and pupil !eedback.
Promoting a mutual learning culture among schools through di!!erent channels. .his
sharing and e/change beteen schools can enrich principalsO knoledge o! school
management and teachersO repertoire in di!!erent >ey 5earning @reas (>5@s). Building
learning communities o! re!lecti#e educators ho ad#ocate e#idence-based practice and
research on di!!erent teaching and learning issues. 4hile the de#elopment o! the school-
based curriculum hinges on the in#ol#ement o! school communities, e/pertise and
pro!essional judgments o! teachers and their onership toards the curriculum is a
prere<uisite. @ success!ul curriculum conduci#e to student learning relies on teachersO and
curriculum leadersO enthusiastic participation and school administratorsO aareness and
!le/ibility in coordinating and !acilitating e!!orts o! #arious stakeholders ithin and ithout
the schools. .eachers ha#e to engage in continuous pro!essional de#elopment acti#ities and
,)
see the close relation beteen research and curriculum de#elopment. .hey ha#e to become
independent pro!essionals ho can make in!ormed and practical decisions.
@iming at strengthening and sustaining the groth o! school-based curricula, the
School-based (urriculum "e#elopment (Primary) Section ill continue to pro#ide schools
ith regular and !le/ible pro!essional ser#ices, de#elop school-based curricula in di!!erent
>ey 5earning @reas, and implement action research.
.he de#elopment o! the School-Based (urriculum "e#elopment (Primary) Section
Since September &997, the School-based (urriculum "e#elopment (Primary) Section
has been rendering on-site pro!essional support ser#ices to primary schools to help them
de#elop <uality school-based curriculum. (urriculum de#elopment o!!icers ork closely
ith #arious stakeholders !rom the local primary education sector in the de#elopment
process. .hese stakeholders include%
&. teachers participating in collaborati#e lesson planning or action research,
'. curriculum leaders in primary schools, and
teachers ho ould like to share their #aluable e/periences ith other schools. &ur
.<#erie$ce
.hrough co-operating ith primary schools in the past && years, e ha#e captured #aluable
e/periences and generated knoledge in de#eloping the school-based curriculum in #arious
>ey 5earning @reas and subjects.
&. .he prime aim o! the school-based curriculum is to enhance studentsO learning,
particularly in the areas o! learning-to-learn skills and open-minded attitudes. 4hen
e<uipped ith these skills and attitude, students are better able to !ace the
challenges o! an e#er-changing society.
'. School principalsO and teachersO understanding o! learning is o! pi#otal importance
toards the success o! the school-based curriculum. .his knoledge cannot be
gained solely !rom academic studies at tertiary institutions. Principals and teachers
ha#e to embrace an open attitude to e/plore knoledge and discuss curriculum
,+
goals ith re!erence to subject knoledge organi;ation, pedagogy, and assessments.
.hey ha#e to put this knoledge into practice in the conte/ts o! their schools.
"raing e#idence !rom studentsO !eedback elicited !rom #arious means, principals
and teachers need to re!lect on their on practices and adopt impro#ement measures
here necessary.
). (hanges in organi;ational practices are deemed necessary. .he mode o!
collaboration beteen schools and the Section emphasi;es re!lections and
in#ol#ements o! the participating teachers and principals. @rrangements that
!acilitate school-based curriculum de#elopment include organi;ation structure,
timetabling, assessment systems, and teaching and learning resources. Principals
and sta!! members at managerial le#el need to negotiate !or compromises regarding
the school policy and administration measures, and incorporate into the school-
based curriculum learning e/periences that bene!it students.
&ur !)a$;es
%& 'rom (ervice Provider to Partner
4e understand that many schools still see us as e/perts, e/pecting us to support
schools and resol#e their problems. 4hile e are stri#ing to meet these e/pectations, e
hope that schools could de#elop a better understanding and interpretation o! KknoledgeK
in contemporary orld conte/ts here in!ormation technology and knoledge gros
rapidly. In (hapter &: o! the Basic 2ducation (urriculum Buide ('::'), the (urriculum
"e#elopment (ouncil de!ines three kinds o! knoledge% K>noledge !or PracticeK,
K>noledge in PracticeK and K>noledge o! practiceK. Based on this concept o! knoledge
and the mutual trust beteen schools and the team o! curriculum de#elopment o!!icers, e
ha#e de#eloped <uality school-based curricula in #arious >ey 5earning @reas. 4e hope
that this idea o! constructing practical knoledge in schools ill continue to gro. .he
,,
SB("P Section has transcended !rom being a ser#ice pro#ider to becoming a partner o!
schools. 4e strongly belie#e that this partnership ill bene!it schools in the long run.
)& 'rom Individual (cheme Participants to *em!ers of a Learning +ommunity
.o implement the de#elopment o! the school-based curriculum in #arious schools,
e ha#e !ocused on teaching and learning, using #arious >5@s and school subjects as
plat!orm !or de#elopment. .ogether ith ser#ing teachers, e ha#e !ormed Kcurriculum
de#elopment groupsK orking on lesson planning hile e/amining teaching and learning
problems in pragmatic ays. Anderstanding the need !or disseminating the knoledge
!rom the participating groups to the hole school, e engage in constant pro!essional
dialogues ith school principals and teachers. Jegular in-house and inter-schools sharing
sessions are use!ul plat!orms to spread our knoledge. *#er the years, the tie beteen local
primary schools and the SB("P Section has gron much stronger and e all are members
o! a learning community emphasi;ing continuous learning. 4e still keep constant contact
iths chools pre#iously recei#ing our ser#ice. 4e see the groth o! a sprouting learning
community attracting generous contributions !rom teachers and principals ho are illing
to share their curriculum de#elopment e/perience and knoledge.
,& 'rom -pplying .nowledge for Practice to Initiating Evidence/!ased 0esearch
4ith a #ie to generating a more thorough understanding o! teaching and learning
problems, e are not content ith applying only knoledge !or practice that may not be
conte/t-speci!ic. @!ter conducting thorough literature re#ie, seeking ad#ice !rom
international curriculum e/perts and con!erring ith schools, e ha#e conducted o#er +:
collaborati#e action research projects ith schools since ':::. 4hile conducting the
research ith teachers !rom di!!erent schools, curriculum de#elopment o!!icers identi!ied
curriculum-related teaching and learning issues, de#ised corresponding practical remedies
and inter#ention strategies, captured e/periences, and generated knoledge. .eacher
committed enthusiastically to discussion and re!lections, to major !eatures o! action
research. @ ide range o! data collection methods, such as lesson obser#ation, inter#ies,
,-
and <uestionnaires ha#e been deployed to collect e#idences in the schools. 4hen analy;ing
and interpreting the data, e ha#e adopted an open and critical attitude to gauge the
teaching and learning e!!ecti#eness, e ha#e been skeptical about our assumptions and
re!lecti#e throughout the hole process. .he most rearding moments came hen e
disco#ered ho students learned better. .his could inspire teachers to impro#e teaching and
learning. In some schools, e noticed that the research e/perience has signi!icantly !ostered
teachersO pro!essionalism, and this has boosted their con!idence in culti#ating an Ke#idence-
basedK research culture in the schools.
5essons learnt by the School-based (urriculum "e#elopment (Primary) Section
Lesso$ 1* Fetti$; a Food Start
&. $egotiate ith teacher participants on mutual goals, e/pectations V commitments,
supporting modes
'. Beare o! the school ecology% planning at the school le#el !or the ne school year
starts in 3ay-Dune hile planning at >5@ le#el starts in @ugust, not in September.
). Bet the right participants% strategic allocation o! teaching sta!!
+. @llo time !or (5PFmeeting% help teachers to prioriti;e their ork gi#en teachersO
limited time
Lesso$ * Treasure I)al7-ba+edI ideas as 8ell as re7i$ed #ro;ra""es:#ac+a;es
&. @llo the !le/ibility !or adaptation and modi!ication
'. Be alert to participantsO readiness, e/perience, problem-sol#ing skills and
understanding o! teaching and learning. 2!!ecti#e strategies in one conte/t may
become ine!!ecti#e in another
). "e#elop learning communities in schools instead o! implement one-o!! programmes
Lesso$ %* Do$It lose si;)t o7 t)e co$te$t-+$o8led;e:KLA +$o8led;e
&. Strike the balance beteen generic curriculum strategies and content knoledge
'. .reat Ohat to teachO (e.g. e/perimental in<uiry in science, hermeneutic
interpretation in humanities, logical thinking in mathematics, communication in
,1
languages etc.) as important as Oho to teachO (e.g. co-operati#e learning, hole
class teaching, independent learning etc.)
). Be able to articulate !le/ibly beteen generali;ation and speci!ic conte/t in
curriculum practices
Lesso$ '* ,e se$siti/e to adultsI lear$i$; i$ t)e sc)ool co$te<t
&. 0andle poer relationship and micro-politics ith care
'. Ealue empathy, people skills as ell as instrumental and technical knoledge and
skills
). Be alert to the dynamic and intricate relationship beteen teacher participants% as
supporters, change agents, !acilitators, collaborators, critical !riends
Lesso$ D* !o$$ecti$; curriculu" strate;ies 8it) e/ide$ce-based #ractices> critical
i$Buiries a$d collecti/e re7lectio$
&. 8acilitate the Oplan-act-obser#e-re!lectO cycle
'. @pply di!!erent methods o! in<uiry and appropriate tools% classroom obser#ation,
analy;ing pupilsO ork, being sensiti#e to pupilsO con#ersation inside and outside
classrooms
). "e#elop second-loop learning among teachers - challenging teachersO assumptions
!or !urther understanding and continuous impro#ement
Lesso$ (* Strate;ic disse"i$atio$ o7 e/ide$ce-based #eda;o;ical #ractices i$side a$d
outside sc)ools
&. 8acilitate hole school curriculum de#elopment% #ertical continuity and hori;ontal
coherence o! the school curriculum
'. Pro#ide opportunities !or teachersO knoledge to go public% an important plat!orm
!or empoering teachers and !ostering their onership.
). Beare o! both the OcontentO and O!ormO o! e/perience sharing% OthickO description,
triangulated data, critical in<uiries and re!lection that help the e/periential
understanding o! teaching and learning should be encouraged
Strike the balance beteen the tension o! Osharing success !or positi#e rein!orcementO and
Olabeling e!!ect to become e/clusi#eO
,7
Lesso$ E* !a#abilit? buildi$; o7 curriculu" de/elo#ers as a "ea$s 7or +$o8led;e
co$structio$
&. >noledge !or practice% @c<uisition o! rele#ant and appropriate knoledge through
reading literature or seeking ad#ice !rom consultants.
'. >noledge in practice% 8acilitating teachers to share their e/perience and
knoledge in plat!orm such as sharing sessions is use!ul in e/ternali;ing the tacit
knoledge embedded in their practice. 0oe#er, e should a#oid sharing
ignorance or just sharing grie#ances in sharing sessions.
). >noledge o! practice% In the process o! generating ne knoledge in conte/t,
indi#idual teachersO competence, con!idence and risk-taking attitude, courage to
problemati;e the unproblematic are #ital
+. Integrating personal and organi;ational knoledge !or documentation and
dissemination.
,9