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BALAITEKNOLOGIPERKAKAS,PRODUKSIDANOTOMASI
DEPUTIBI
DANGTEKNOLOGII NDUSTRIRANCANGBANGUNDANPEREKAYASA
BADANPENGKAJIANDANPENERAPANTEKNOLOGI
2020

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Pemakaian Persamaan Bernoulli
 Statika Fluida
Persamaan dalam statika fluida merupakan hal khusus dari persamaan Bernoulli,
dimana kecepatan fluida = nol.

2
p1 + ρ gz1 = p 2 + ρ gz 2 → p1 = p 2
p1 = p0 + ρ g ( z 2 − z1 )
p1 = p0 + ρ gh
1

 Menghitung kecepatan aliran pada lubang di bagian bawah bejana

ρ v1 2 ρ v2 2
1 p 0 + ρ gz1 + = p 0 + ρ gz 2 +
2 2
z2 = 0 ; jika A1 〉〉 A2 ; dan v1 ≈ 0

2 ρ v2 2
p0 + ρ gz = p 0 +
2

v 2 = 2 gh

 Alat ukur venturi

Alat ini dipergunakan untuk mengukur besarnya kecepatan aliran fluida dalam suatu
pipa.
Titik 1 dan 2 mempunyai ketinggian sama (satu garis aliran).

ρ v12 ρ v2 2
p1 + = p2 +
h 2 2
ρ v1 2
ρ v2 2
A2 ( p1 − p 2 ) + =
A1 V2 2 2
V1
ρ v1 2
ρ v2 2
ρ gh + =
2 2
A1V1
Persamaan kontinuitas A1 V1 = A2 V2 → V2 =
A2
 2
ρ v1 2 ρ  A1V1 
ρ gh + =  
2 2  A2 
2
 AV 
2 gh + V1 =  1 1 
2

 A2 

 A 
2

2 gh =  1  − 1V12
 A2  
2
2 2 gh 2 gh A2
V1 = 2 = 2
A1 − A2 A1 − A2
2 2

2
A2
2 gh
V1 = A2
A1 − A2
2 2

 Tabung Pitot
Alat ini dipergunakan untuk mengukur kecepatan angin atau aliran gas, atau juga
aliran cairan. Misalnya gas mengalir dengan kecepatan V, rapat massa gas ρ. V1
mendekati sama dengan V, dan V2 = 0

Udara
1 2

p2 = p1 + ρ gh → ρ 0 = rapat massa zat cair

1
p1 + ρ v1 2 = p 2
2
1
p1 + ρ v1 = p1 + ρ 0 gh
2

2
2 ρ 0 gh
v1 =
2

ρ
2 ρ 0 gh
v1 =
ρ
Tentang Persamaan Bernoulli
Dalam persamaan Bernoulli dinyatakan bahwa energi aliran terdiri dari :
 energi tekanan (P)
 energi kecepatan/kinetik (V)
 energi potensial (Z)
Hukum kekekalan energi tetap berlaku dalam persamaan Bernoulli tersebut.
1

E1 = E2 ; besarnya masing-masing komponen

berbeda, dititik 1 energi potensial lebih
z
dominan. Di titik 2 energi kecepatan lebih
Air terjun dominan, dst.
2

Seperti yang sudah ditunjukkan sebelumnya, anda mungkin menemukan ekspresi persamaan
Bernoulli yang berbeda seperti diatas di beberapa buku yang berbeda. Persamaan persamaan
tersebut hanya berbeda cara menyatakannya saja.
Persamaan Bernoulli dengan input energi, output dan losses energi :
P1 v1 2 P2 v 2 2
+ + Z1 + Ein = + + Z 2 + Eout + Eloss
ρ1g 2g ρ 2 g 2g
Ein = misal input energi dari pompa
Eout = misal energi output karena pemasangan turbin

Persamaan Energi
Aplikasi persamaan energi untuk volume kontrol dilakukan dengan mensubstuitusikan N =
E dan η = e ; maka persamaan
menjadi :
dE ∂
dt ∂t va∫
= ρ e d∀ + ∫ ρ eV dA
pa
• • dE ∂
dt ∂t va∫
Q− W = = ρ ed∀ + ∫ ρ eV dA
pa

V2
Dimana e = u + +gz
2
Kerja yang dilakukan oleh volume kontrol dikelompo
dikelompokkan dalam 4 klasifikasi:
• • • • •
W = W s + W normal + W shear + W other
→ Kerja poros
Ws adalah kerja poros yang ditransfer melalui permukaan atur dari putaran poros
dalam sistem.
→ Kerja oleh tegangan normal pada permukaan
permukaan atur
 Kerja membutuhkan gaya yang digerakkan dalam jarak tertentu. Kerja yang dilakukan
r r
dinyatakan: δW = F ⋅ ds
Untuk mendapatkan laju kerja yang dilakukan oleh gaya:
r r
• δW F ⋅ ds • r r
W = lim = lim atau W = F ⋅ V
∆t → 0 ∆t ∆t
∆t → 0

Laju kerja yang dilakukan terhadap luasan dA permukaan volume kontrol oleh
r r r r
tegangan normal: dF ⋅ V = σ nn dA ⋅ V

Karena kerja melintasi batas volume kontrol adalah negatif (kerja dilakukan terhadap
volume kontrol) :
• r r r r
W normal = − ∫ σ nn dA ⋅ V = ∫ σ nnV ⋅ dA
va va

→ Kerja oleh tegangan geser pada volume kontrol

Gaya geser yang bekerja pada elemen area permukaan atur dinyatakan sebagai:
r r r
F = τ ⋅ dA dimana τ adalah tegangan geser pda bidang dA. Selanjutnya:
• r r r r r r
W shear = ∫ τ dA ⋅ V = ∫ τ ⋅ V dA = − ∫ τ ⋅ V dA
pa pa pa

Tanda negatif harus diberikan karena kerja ini dilakukan terhadap volume kontrol.
Integral ini secara lebih lengkap dinyatakan dalam 3 suku:
• r r r r r r r r
W shear = − ∫ τ ⋅ V dA = − ∫ τ ⋅ V dA − ∫ τ ⋅ V dA − ∫ τ ⋅ V dA
pa A ( shaft ) A ( solidsurface ) A( ports )

Suku pertama sudah diperhitungkan pada bagian sebelumnya (Wshaft). Pada permukaan
r
padat, V = 0, sehingga suku kedua bernilai nol (untuk volume kontrol yang tetap).
Sehingga:
• r r
W shear = − ∫τ ⋅ V dA
A ( ports )

Suku yang terakhir ini dapat dibuat nol dengan memilih permukaan atur yang tepat.
Jika kita memilih sebuah permukaan atur yang memotong melintang sisi tegak lurus
r r r
terhadap aliran, sehinggga dA paralel terhadap V . Karena τ berada dalam bidang dA,
 r r
τ tegak lurus terhadap V . Dengan demikian untuk permukaan atur yang tegak lurus
r
V berlaku:
r r •
τ ⋅V = 0 dan W shear = 0
→ Kerja lain-
lain-lain
Energi listrik dapat ditambahkan pada volume kontrol, juga energi elektromagnetik,
misalnya dalam radar atau sinar laser, dapat diserap. Dalam kebanyakan situasi
kontribusi energi ini tidak terjadi, tapi kita bisa mencatatnya dalam formulasi umum.
Dengan seluruh kerja yang telah dievaluasi diperoleh:
• • r r • •
W = W s − ∫ σ nnV ⋅ dA + W shear + W other
pa

Selanjutnya persamaan volume kontrol untuk energi menjadi;

• • r r • • ∂
Q − W s + ∫ σ nnV ⋅ dA − W shear − W other = ∫ ρ e d∀ + ∫ ρ eV dA
pa
∂t va pa

• • • • ∂ r r r r
Q − W s − W shear − W other = ∫
∂t pa
e ρ d∀ + ∫ e ρ V ⋅ dA − ∫ σ nn V ⋅ dA
pa pa

Karena ρ = 1/υ dimana υ = volume spesifik, persamaan di atas dapat ditulis:

• • • • ∂ r r r r
Q − W s − W shear − W other = ∫
∂t pa
e ρ d∀ + ∫
pa
e ρ V ⋅ dA − ∫ nn
pa
σ υ ρ V ⋅ dA

• • • • ∂ r r
Q − W s − W shear − W other = ∫
∂t pa
e ρ d∀ + ∫
pa
( e − σ nn υ ) ρ V ⋅ dA

Efek viskos dapat membuat tegangan normal σ nn berbeda dari nilai negatif tekanan

termodinamik, - p. Akan tetapi dalam kebanyakan kasus engineering, σ nn ≅ − p ; sehingga:

• • • • ∂ r r
Q − W s − W shear − W other = ∫
∂t pa
e ρ d∀ + ∫
pa
( e + pυ ) ρ V ⋅ dA

V2
Akhirnya dengan mensubstitusikan e = u + + g z ; kita memperoleh persamaan hukum
2
termodinamika pertama untuk volume kontrol:
• • • • ∂ V2 r r
Q − W s − W shear − W other = ∫
∂t pa
e ρ d ∀ + ∫
pa
( u + p υ +
2
+ gz ) ρ V ⋅ dA
Soal. Udara pada 101 kPa (abs), 21oC, memasuki kompresor dengan kecepatan yang dapat
diabaikan, kemudian dibuang pada tekanan 350 kPa (abs), 38oC, melalui pipa dengan luas
penampang 0.09m2. Laju alir massanya 10 kg/s. Daya input kompresor 450 kW. Tentukan
laju perpindahan panas yang terjadi.

Solusi. p1=101 kPa (abs) p2 = 101 kPa (abs)

V1 = 0 0 .09 m2
A2 = 0.09
T1=21oC T1 = 38oC
≈ 0, steady state
CV
∂
0 = ∫ ρ d∀ + ∫ ρ V dA
∂t va pa
≈ 0, steady state
≈ 0• ≈0
• • • ∂ V2 r r
Q − W s − W shear − W other = ∫
∂t pa
e ρ d ∀ + ∫
pa
( u + p υ +
2
+ gz ) ρ V ⋅ dA

Asumsi-asumsi: 1. Steady flow

2. Aliran dan sifat-sifat seragam
3. Udara sebagai gas ideal
4. Tegangan geser tegak lurus terhadap kecepatan
5. z1 = z2
6. Energi kinetik sisi masuk diabaikan.
• • V2 r r
Q − W s = ∫ ( u + pυ + + gz ) ρ V ⋅ dA → h ≡ u + pυ
pa
2

• • V2 r r
Q = W s + ∫ (h + + gz ) ρ V ⋅ dA , selanjutnya
pa
2
≈0
• • V12   V22 

Q = W s +  h1 + + gz1 {- ρ1V1 A1 } +  h 2 +
  + gz 2 {ρ 2V2 A2 }
 2   2 
Dari persamaan kontinuitas diperoleh:
•
{- ρ V A } + {ρ V
1 1 1 2 2 A2 } = 0 atau ρ 1V1 A1 = ρ 2V2 A2 = m selanjutnya
• •  • V22 ≈0

Q = W s + m (h2 − h1 ) + + g ( z 2 − z1 ) 
 2 
Kemudian dengan asumsi bahwa udara bertindak sebagai gas ideal, maka h2 – h1 = Cp (T2-
T1) →
• • • V2 
Q = W s + m Cp (T2 − T1 ) + 2 
 2 
•

Dari persamaan kontinuitas: V2 = m

ρ 2 A2 dan p 2 = ρ 2 RT2 →
 •
m RT2 kg 1 J m2
V2 = = 10 x x 287 x 311K x = 28.3 m/s
A2 p 2 s 0.09m 2 kg ⋅ K 350kN
Diketahui daya input terhadap CV 450 kW; nilai ini harus bertanda negatif karena berupa
kerja terhadap volume kontrol.
• • • V2 
Q = W s + m Cp (T2 − T1 ) + 2 
 2 
kg J kg 28.3 2 m 2 J ⋅ s2
= 450kW + 10 x 1000 x 17 K + 10 x x
s kg ⋅ K s 2 s 2 kg ⋅ m 2
= -276 kJ/s
Jadi laju perpindahan panas yang terjadi adalah pembuangan panas ke lingkungan sebesar
276 kJ/s atau 276 kW.

Contoh-
Contoh-Contoh Soal.

Sebuah tangki 0.5 m3 berisi udara bertekanan. Sebuah katup digunakan untuk
mengeluarkan udara tersebut dengan kecepatan 300 m/s melalui suatu saluran output
dengan luas area 130 mm2. Temperatur udara yang melalui katup tersebut -150C, tekanan
350 kPa(abs). Hitung perubahan densitas udara dalam tangki tersebut.
Data: υ = 0.5 m3
V = 300 m/s
Aout = 130 mm2 = 130x10-6 m2
T = -150 C = 258 K
P = 350 kPa
p
ρ= p = 350x103 Pa
RT
T = 258 K
R = 287 N.m/Kg.K
(Hati hati dalam memilih R, sesuaikan dengan sistem satuan yang
dipergunakan.)
ρ = 4.73 kg/m3
∂ Dalam kasus ini yang ditanyakan adalah
∫ ρ .dv + pA∫ ρ.VdA = 0
∂t VA perubahan densitas terhadap waktu, jadi, ini
adalah persoalan unsteady sehingga suku
∂   pertama persamaan dasar tidak bisa
bisa
 ρ ∫ dv  + ∫ ρ .VdA = 0 dihilangkan.
∂t  VA  pA
∂ρ
∀ + ρ 1 A1V1 = 0 → aliran keluar ber tan da +
∂t
∂ρ ρ1V1 A1 4.73 ⋅ 300 ⋅ 130 ⋅ 10 −6
=− =−
∂t ∀ 0.5
Kg
= −0.369 m3
s
Jadi setiap detik pelepasan udara mengakibatkan pengurangan jumlah udara dalam tangki
sehingga menyebabkan terjadinya penurunan densitas sebesar 0.369 kg/m3.

Dalam gambar di bawah ini, sebuah beban 700 N secara sempurna diimbangi oleh jet air
secara steady. Berapa kecepatan jet yang diperlukan untuk mengimbangi beban tersebut?

Data-
Data-data:
W = 700 N W = 700 N
Djet = 5 cm

Ditanya: Vjet = ?

Djet = 5 cm

= 0 (steady)
∂
∑ Fy =
∂t ∫ ρ.V.∂ϑ + ∫ ρ.V.V.∂A
VA PA

∑ F = ∫ ρ.V.V.∂A →
y W = ρ.Vj.Vj.Aj (jet ke arah kiri dan kanan saling meniadakan)
PA
W = ρ.(Vj)2.Aj
W 700
Vj = = = 18.9 m/s
ρ.A j 1000. π4 .0.05 2
Vj = 18.9 m/s
3.6. Soal-Soal
Salah satu bagian dari suatu sistem perpipaan seperti gambar di bawah ini. Luas sisi inlet
dan outlet masing-masing 1 m2, sedangkan luas permukaan bebas yang terbuka terhadap
atmosfer 2 m2. pada suatu saat tertentu V1 = 3 m/s, dan air mengalir keluar 4 m3/s. Hitung
laju perubahan ketinggian air pada permukaan bebas.

1 2

Sebuah bidang pengarah membelokkan jet air seperti tampak pada gambar di bawah ini.
Jika Djet = 10 cm dan Vjet = 8 m/s, hitunglah gaya F yang dibutuhkan untuk menahan
dorongan akibat jet tersebut!

F
Djet , Vjet

Udara pada kondisi standar memasuki kompresor dengan kecepatan 75 m/s dan
meninggalkan sisi buang pada kecepatan 125 m/s, 200 kPa (abs) dan 345 K. Laju alir massa
udara 1 kg/s. Air pendingin di selubung kompresor membuang panas sebesar 18 kJ/s.
Hitung daya yang dibutuhkan oleh kompresor.

Sebuah pompa horisontal memompa air dengan kapasitas 57 m3/jam. Abaikan losses energi,
berapa daya yang dibutuhkan pompa (kW) untuk mengalirkan air tersebut ? (Petunjuk:
hitung Vin dan Vout dalam m/s; hitung hpompa; Daya pompa P = γ Q hpompa)

Pin = 120 kPa

Pout = 400 kPa

Din = 9 cm Pompa Dout = 3 cm

 @g 
 RANCANG BANGUN PROTOTIPE SISTEM KONTROL BALLAST OTOMATIS
PADA KAPAL

Yulius Prayitno¹, Rozeff Pramana, ST., MT.², Eko Prayetno, ST., M.Eng.³
Jurusan Teknik Elektro
Fakultas Teknik, Universitas Maritim Raja Ali Haji
Email: yuliusprayitno@gmail.com¹, rozeff@umrah.ac.id², ekoprayetno@umrah.ac.id³

ABSTRAK
Sistem ballast merupakan sistem yang digunakan untuk mengendalikan pompa ballast
dan bebarapa komponen lainnya untuk mengisi dan membuang air pada tangki ballast.
Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk membuat sistem kontrol ballast pada kapal kontainer dengan
teknologi yang sederhana dan ekonomis tetapi mampu menyeimbangkan kapal seperti
teknologi canggih yang sudah ada sebelumnya. Untuk mencapai tujuan tersebut membutuhkan
perhitungan khusus pada kapal yang akan dipasang sistem kontrol ini. Sistem ini akan
diaplikasikan pada kapal prototipe terlebih dahulu, namun dengan perhitungan lebih lanjut
akan mampu diaplikasikan ke kapal sebenarnya. Penelitian ini menggunakan Arduino
Mega2560 sebagai mikrokontrolernya dan gyroscope GY-521 MPU-6050 sebagai sensor
utama untuk mendeteksi sudut kemiringan kapal yang akan digunakan sebagai acuan untuk
menghidupkan pompa ballast dan solenoid valve.
Berdasarkan hasil perhitungan sistem ballast yang telah dilakukan oleh penulis maka
dapat diketahui kapasitas tangki ballast, head dan kapasistas pompa ballast, dan diameter pipa
ballast yang akan digunakan pada kapal prototipe. Sistem ini mampu mengendalikan pompa
ballast dan solenoid valve dengan baik sesuai dengan besar sudut yang sudah ditentukan dalam
program, yaitu pada kemiringan melebihi 5° untuk memulai proses ballasting dan pada
kemiringan dibawah 5° untuk menghentikan proses ballasting. Sistem ini juga mampu
memberikan peringatan jika kemiringan kapal melebihi 20° yang diakibatkan oleh kelebihan
muatan atau bocor.

Kata kunci: Kapal Kontainer, Sistem ballast, GY-521 MPU-6050

1. Latar Belakang Banyaknya jumlah kontainer yang

Transportasi merupakan salah satu
sarana yang sangat penting bagi manusia
baik dari segi ekonomi ataupun sosial.
Salah satu moda transportasi yang berperan
penting dalam memperluas cakupan
distribusi barang atau jasa adalah
transportasi laut, kapal kontainer adalah
salah satunya. Kapal kontainer merupakan
kapal kargo yang khusus digunakan untuk
mengangkut kontainer berukuran standar.
Seiring berjalannya waktu kapal kontainer
semakin banyak dijadikan pilihan sebagai
sarana angkutan barang, baik antar pulau di
suatu negara atau pun dalam jangkauan
internasional karena alasan ekonomis,
aman dan kecepatan bongkar muat lebih
cepat.
dipindahkan saat bongkar muat akan
membuat banyak pergerakan diatas kapal
sehingga menyebabkan perpindahan titik
beban yang tidak seimbang dan
menyebabkan kapal tersebut mengalami
kemiringan perlahan yang mengakibatkan
kapal tenggelam sehingga mengganggu
proses bongkar muat. Seiring
berkembangnya zaman, teknologi-
teknologi canggih banyak diciptakan dan
dikembangkan oleh beberapa perusahaan
untuk mengatasi masalah tersebut, terutama
pada sistem kontrol ballast-nya.
Berdasarkan latar belakang tersebut
penulis akan merancang sebuah prototipe
sistem kontrol ballast otomatis untuk kapal
kontainer yang sederhana dan mampu

Teknik Elektro UMRAH - 2017 | 1

meningkatkan kesetabilan kapal atau
mencegah terjadinya kemiringan kapal
yang mengakibatkan kapal tenggelam.
Penelitian yang sudah dilakukan
terkait dengan perangkat yang dirancang
penulis dilakukan oleh Dzulkarnain dan
Rozeff Pramana (2015) dengan judul
penelitian Rancang Bangun Sistem
Monitoring Kecepatan Angin dan Arah
Angin Untuk Sistem Kepelabuhan dengan
menggunakan sistem kontrol Arduino
Mega2560.
Penelitian terkait selanjutnya
dilakukan oleh Aprizal dan Rozeff Pramana
(2015) dengan judul penelitian Rancang
Bangun Sistem Monitoring Kecepatan Arus
dan Arah Arus Untuk Sistem Kepelabuhan
dengan menggunakan sistem kontrol
Arduino Mega2560.
2. Landasan Teori
a. Sistem Ballast
Sistem ballast merupakan sistem
untuk dapat memposisikan kapal dalam
keadaan seimbang, baik dalam keadaan
trim depan maupun belakang atau dalam
keadaan oleng. Dalam perencanaannya
adalah dengan memasukkan air sebagai
bahan ballast agar posisi kapal dapat
kembali pada posisi yang sempurna.
Gambar 1. Cara kerja sistem ballast
Cara kerja sistem ballast secara
umum adalah untuk mengisi tangki ballast
yang berada di double bottom dengan air
laut yang diambil dari seachest melalui
pompa ballast dan saluran pipa utama dan
pipa cabang. Adapun komponen-komponen
sistem ballast meliputi, sea chest, jalur pipa
ballast, pipa yang melalui tangki, sistem
perpipaan, pompa ballast, tangki ballast,
jumlah dan jenis katup serta fitting, dan
outboard (Mohammad S.A., dkk, 2016).
b. Mikrokontroler Arduino Mega2560
Arduino Mega2560 adalah papan
pengembangan mikrokontroler OSH (Open
Source Hardware) berbasis Arduino
dengan menggunakan chip ATmega2560.
Modul ini memiliki 54 pin digital I/O
dimana 14 digunakan untuk PWM output
dan 16 digunakan sebagai analog input.
Arduino Mega2560 memiliki flash memory
sebesar 256KB sehingga cukup untuk
menampung jumlah program yang banyak
(Arduino.org).
Gambar 2. Arduino Mega2560
c. GY-521 MPU-6050 3 Axis
Accelerometer Gyroscope Sensor
GY-521 MPU-6050 Module adalah
sebuah sensor yang berfungsi untuk
mendeteksi perubahan dan percepatan
sudut. Modul ini berinti MPU-6050 yang
merupakan 6 axis Motion Processing Unit
dengan penambahan regulator tegangan
dan beberapa komponen pelengkap lainnya
yang membuat modul ini siap dipakai
dengan tegangan supply sebesar 3-5VDC.
Gambar 3. Sensor Gyroscope MPU-6050
Modul ini memiliki interface I²C
yang dapat disambungkan langsung ke
MCU yang memiliki fasilitas I²C. Sensor
MPU-6050 berisi sebuah MEMS
Accelerometer dan sebuah MEMS Gyro
yang saling terintegrasi. Sensor ini sangat
akurat dengan fasilitas hardware internal
16 bit ADC untuk setiap kanalnya. Sensor
ini akan menangkap nilai kanal axis X, Y
dan Z bersamaan dalam satu waktu.
Teknik Elektro UMRAH - 2017 | 2
d. Relay
Relay adalah saklar yang
dikendalikan secara elektro-mekanik
(electromechanical switch). Arus listrik
yang mengalir pada kumparan relay akan
menciptakan medan magnet yang
kemudian akan menarik lengan relay dan
mengubah posisi saklar yang sebelumnya
terbuka menjadi terhubung (Christopher
T.K, 1996).
Gambar 4. Relay
Relay memiliki tiga jenis kutub
yaitu common berati kutub acuan, NC
(Normally Close) adalah kutub yang dalam
keadaan awal terhubung pada common, dan
NO (Normally Open) adalah kutub yang
pada awalnya terbuka akan terhubung
dengan common saat kumparan relay diberi
arus listrik (Christopher T.K, 1996).
e. Solenoid Valve
Solenoid valve merupakan katup
yang dikendalikan dengan arus listrik baik
AC maupun DC melalui
kumparan/selenoida. Solenoid valve ini
merupakan elemen kontrol yang paling
sering digunakan dalam sistem fluida.
Seperti pada sistem pneumatik, sistem
hidrolik ataupun pada sistem kontrol mesin
yang membutuhkan elemen kontrol
otomatis (Asco, Enginering Information).
Gambar 5. Solenoid Valve
f. Water Pump
Water pump atau pompa adalah alat
yang digunakan untuk memindahkan cairan
(fluida) dari suatu tempat ke tempat yang
lain melalui media pipa (saluran) dengan
cara menambahkan energi pada cairan yang
dipindahkan dan berlangsung terus
menerus (Prihadi, N.T.B.S dan Irfan, S.A,
2015).
Gambar 6. Water Pump
g. LCD (Liquid Cristal Display)
LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)
adalah suatu jenis media tampil yang
menggunakan kristal cair sebagai penampil
utama. LCD dapat berfungsi untuk
menampilkan suatu nilai hasil sensor,
menampilkan teks, atau menampilkan
menu pada aplikasi mikrokontroler (Irwan,
D. dan Wahri, S., 2015).
Gambar 7. LCD 16x2
3. Perancangan dan Cara Kerja Sistem
a. Perancangan Sistem
Perancangan prototipe sistem
kontrol ballast otomatis pada kapal
kontainer ini terdiri dari 3 bagian utama,
yaitu input yang terdiri dari sensor
gyroscope GY-521 MPU-6050 sebagai
sensor perubahan sudut kapal dan fault
simulator untuk mensimulasikan kerusakan
pompa ballast, bagian proses yang terdiri
dari Arduino Mega2560 yang berfungsi
untuk mengolah data hasil dari bagian
input, dan bagian output yang terdiri dari
modul relay sebagai pengendali pompa
ballast, solenoid valve dan mesin pada
kapal, LCD sebagai penampil besaran sudut
dan buzzer sebagai alarm saat kondisi kapal
dalam bahaya. Perancangan sistem kontrol
ballast otomatis pada kapal kontainer dapat
digambarkan dalam diagram blog seperti
pada gambar 8.
Teknik Elektro UMRAH - 2017 | 3
 fault simulator yang berfungsi untuk
membuat kondisi dimana sistem
mengalami kerusakan sehingga kapal tidak
dapat menyeimbangkan posisinya. Apabila
kapal mengalami kemiringan yang
melewati batas toleransi maka buzzer akan
menyala sebagai peringatan bahwa kapal
dalam kondisi berbahaya dan mesin kapal
otomatis tidak akan bisa dinyalakan.
Berdasarkan cara kerja sistem tersebut
Gambar 8. Perancangan Sistem Secara Umum
maka penulis menggambarkan sistem kerja
b. Perancangan sistem Ballast perangkat dalam bentuk flowchart seperti
Dalam perancangan sebuah sistem yang ditunjukkan pada gambar 9.
ballast pada kapal diperlukan perhitungan-
perhitungan khusus agar mendapatkan hasil
yang maksimal. Adapun hal-hal yang harus
diperhitungkan yaitu:
1) Perhitungan Volume Displacement
2) Perhitungan Displacement
3) Perhitungan Berat Air Ballast
4) Perhitungan Volume Air Ballast
5) Perhitungan Kapasitas Tangki
Ballast
6) Perhitungan Kapasitas Pompa
Ballast
7) Perhitungan Diameter Pipa Utama
Ballast
8) Perhitungan Head Pompa Ballast
dan Bilga
c. Cara Kerja Sistem Gambar 9. Flowchart Cara Kerja Sistem
Sistem kontrol ballast otomatis 4. Pengujian Sistem, dan Analisis
pada kapal kontaier bekerja dimulai dari
a. Pengujian Sensor Gyroscope
pembacaan sensor gyroscope GY-521
MPU6050 yang merupakan sumber input Sensor yang digunakan dalam
data pertama kali dan kemudian hasil penelitian ini adalah GY-521 MPU6050
sensor tersebut diolah oleh mikrokontroler yang berfungsi untuk mengukur
Arduino Mega2560 yang akan digunakan kemiringan kapal. Pengujian pertama
sebagai referensi untuk mengendalikan adalah membuat program untuk
keseluruhan sistem. Data yang telah diolah menampilkan nilai sensor yang terbaca.
oleh mikrokontroler akan menghasilkan Hasil pembacaan akan ditampilkan pada
sebuah output sudut kemiringan kapal yang serial monitor dan dicatat dalam program
akan digunakan sebagai perintah untuk utama untuk menghasilkan output besaran
menggerakkan relay pada kondisi open atau sudut. Hasil pembacaan sensor berupa nilai
close yang terhubung dengan water pump, dari percepatan (ax, ay, az) dan gyro (gx,
solenoid valve dan mesin kapal, selain itu gy, gz) seperti pada gambar 10.
hasil pembacaan sensor juga akan
ditampilkan pada LCD yang berguna untuk
mengetahui posisi sudut kemiringan kapal.
Pada perancangan alat ini ditambahkan

Teknik Elektro UMRAH - 2017 | 4

 Tabel 1. Hasil Pengujian Sensor
Sudut Busur Sensor Error
0° 0° 0° 0%
10° 10° 13,4° 34%
20° 20° 24,3° 21.5%
30° 30° 35,3° 17,66%
40° 40° 44,9° 12,25%
50° 50° 54,2° 8,4%
60° 60° 63,3° 5,5%
70° 70° 75,2° 7,43%
Gambar 10. Hasil Pembacaan Sensor
80° 80° 84,3° 5,3%
Pada umumnya nilai maksimum 90° 90° 90,5° 0,56%
yang dihasilkan dari pembacaan sensor
tersebut adalah -17000 sampai +17000 dan Berdasarkan hasil pengujian
pada setiap produk akan berbeda – beda tersebut dapat diketahui error rata – rata
hasil pembacaannya. Adapun nilai hasil sebesar 11,26% dan tingkat ketelitiannya
pembacaan sensor yang digunakan penulis sebesar 88,74%. Sensor tersebut memiliki
adalah -16720 sampai +16100 dalam error pembacaan lebih dari 3° pada sudut
kalibrasi 90º. Hasil tersebut dimasukkan ke 10° - 80° dikarenakan titik kalibrasi adalah
dalam program utama untuk dirubah ke pada sudut 0° dan 90° sehingga pembacaan
dalam besaran sudut seperti yang pada sudut 0° dan 90° sangat akurat.
ditunjukkan pada gambar 11.
b. Pengujian Fault Simulator
Fault simulator berfungsi untuk
mensimulasikan kerusakan pada pompa
ballast yang membuat pompa tidak dapat
bekerja secara normal. Fault simulator ini
dipasang pada kabel sumber 12V yang
tersambung ke common relay yang
Gambar 11. Hasil Sensor pada Program Utama terhubung dengan pompa ballast.
Pengujian dilakukan dengan cara menekan
Pengujian kedua adalah tombol fault dan menekan tombol reset
membandingkan hasil sensor dengan busur untuk mengembalikan kondisi normal.
derajat seperti pada gambar 12.

Indikator Fault
Gambar 13. Pengujian Fault Simulator
Gambar 12. Membandingkan Sensor

Adapun hasil pengujian ditunjukkan pada Pada gambar 13 menunjukkan

tabel 1. ketika tombol fault ditekan maka fault relay
akan aktif dan memutus sambungan kabel
yang menuju ke relay pompa ballast dan
ketika tombol reset ditekan fault relay akan
kembali seperti semula. Adapun hasil
pengujian ditunjukkan pada tabel 2.

Teknik Elektro UMRAH - 2017 | 5

 Tabel 2. Pengujian Fault Simulator maka sistem kontrol akan mengaktifkan
Kondisi Pompa komponen-komponen yang digunakan.
Normal Fault
Tersambung Terputus 1). Saat Miring Kekanan (Roll)
(12 V) (0V) Tabel 4. Saat Miring ke kanan
Tega-
c.Pengujian Tombol Starter Arus
No Nama Komponen Status ngan
(A)
(V)
Tombol starter pada penelitian ini
Solenoid Tangki 1
merupakan sistem keamanan yang 1 Close 0V 0,44
(buang)
dirancang untuk mencegah tindakan dari 2 Solenoid Tangki 1 (isi) Close 0V 0
awak-awak kapal yang tidak Solenoid Tangki 2
3 Close 0V 0
bertanggungjawab dalam melaksanakan (buang)
tugasnya, sebagai contoh memaksa kapal 4 Solenoid Tangki 2 (isi) Open 12V 0,44
Solenoid Tangki 3 dan
untuk berlayar dalam keadaan miring atau 5 Close 0V 0
4 (buang)
bermasalah pada kestabilannya. Pengujian Solenoid Tangki 3 dan
dilakukan dengan cara menekan tombol 6 Open 12V 0,44
4(isi)
starter pada saat posisi kapal dalam 7
Solenoid Tangki 5
Open 12V 0,44
keadaan seimbang (<5º) dan tidak (buang)
seimbang (>5º) seperti pada gambar 14. 8 Solenoid Tangki 5 (isi) Close 0V 0
Solenoid Tangki 6 dan
9 Open 12V 0,44
7 (buang)
Solenoid Tangki 6 dan
10 Close 0V 0
7 (isi)
11 Solenoid OUT Close 0V 0
12 Solenoid Sv_Out Open 12V 0,44
13 Sea Chest Open 12V 0,44
Gambar 14. Pengujian Tombol Starter 14 Pompa Ballast Hidup 12V 0,89

Adapun hasil pengujian ditunjukkan pada 2). Saat Miring ke Kiri (Roll)
tabel 3.
Tabel 5. Saat Miring ke Kiri
Tabel 3. Hasil Pengujian Tombol Starter Nama Tegang- Arus
No Status
Komponen an (V) (A)
Status Starter Mesin Kapal Solenoid Tangki
1 Close 0V 0
Posisi Kapal Tidak 1 (buang)
Mati Solenoid Tangki
>5º Berfungsi 2 Close 0V 0
1 (isi)
Posisi Kapal
Berfungsi Hidup
<5º 3 Solenoid Tangki Open 12V 0,44
2 (buang)
Hasil pada tabel 3 menunjukkan 4
Solenoid Tangki
Close 0V 0, 0
bahwa ketika posisi kapal dalam keadaan 2 (isi)
Solenoid Tangki
seimbang (<5º) maka tombol starter dapat 5 Open 12V 0,44
3 dan 4 (buang)
berfungsi dengan baik, tetap jika posisi Solenoid Tangki
kapal dalam keadaan miring (>5º) maka 6 Close 0V 0
3 dan 4(isi)
tombol starter tidak dapat berfungsi 7
Solenoid Tangki
Close 0V 0
sehingga mesin kapal tidak dapat 5 (buang)
dihidupkan. Solenoid Tangki
8 Open 12V 0,44
5 (isi)
d. Pengujian Saat Sudut kemiringan >5º Solenoid Tangki
9 Close 0V 0
6 dan 7 (buang)
Pengujian dilakukan dengan Solenoid Tangki
menambahkan beban diatas kapal untuk 10 Open 12V 0,44
6 dan 7 (isi)
mencapai kemiringan lebih dari 5º. Ketika 11 Solenoid OUT Close 0V 0
kapal mencapai kemiringan lebih dari 5º

Teknik Elektro UMRAH - 2017 | 6

 Lanjutan Tabel 5.
Tega-
Arus
No Nama Komponen Status ngan
(A)
(V)
Gambar 15. Pengosongan dan pengisian
12 Solenoid Sv_Out Open 12V 0,44 tangki ballast
13 Sea Chest Open 12V 0,44
Ketika sistem berada dalam mode
14 Pompa Ballast Hidup 12V 0,89 pengisian atau pengosongan seluruh tangki
ballast, maka seluruh solenoid valve yang
3). Saat Miring Kedepan (Pitch) berfungsi untuk mengisi atau
mengosongkan tangki akan aktif seperti
Tabel 6. Saat Miring Ke Depan yang ditunjukkan pada LED sebagai
Nama Tegangan Arus
No
Komponen
Status
(V) (A)
indikator. Waktu yang dibutuhkan untuk
Solenoid Tangki mengisi seluruh tangki ballast adalah 1,37
1 Open 12V 0,44 detik yang ditandai keluarnya air dari
1 (buang)
2
Solenoid Tangki
Close 0V 0 lubang udara tiap tangki ballast pada kapal
1 (isi) seperti yang ditunjukkan pada gambar 16.
Solenoid Tangki
3 Open 12V 0,44
2 (buang)
Solenoid Tangki
4 Close 0V 0
2 (isi)
Solenoid Tangki
5 Close 0V 0
3 dan 4 (buang)
Solenoid Tangki
6 Close 0V 0
3 dan 4(isi) Gambar 16. Pengisian seluruh tangki ballast
Solenoid Tangki
7 Open 12V 0,44
5 (buang) Berbeda dari pengisian,
Solenoid Tangki
8 Close 0V 0 pengosongan seluruh tangki ballast
5 (isi)
Solenoid Tangki membutuhkan waktu lebih sedikit yaitu
9 Close 0V 0 sekitar 1,11 detik, namun masih ada tersisa
6 dan 7 (buang)
10
Solenoid Tangki
Close 0V 0 sedikit air pada tangki ballast. Gambar 17
6 dan 7 (isi) menunjukkan ketika pengosongan tangkki
11 Solenoid OUT Open 12V 0,44
ballast.
12 Solenoid Sv_Out Open 12V 0,44
13 Sea Chest Close 0V 0
14 Pompa Ballast Hidup 12V 0,89

e. Pengujian Pengisian dan Pengosongan

Seluruh Tangki Ballast
Pengujian dengan cara mengisi dan
menguras seluruh tangki ballast bertujuan
untuk membandingkan hasil pengujian
dengan hasil perhitungan, dimana pada
perhitungan dibutuhkan waktu 1 menit
untuk mengisi dan mengosongkan seluruh
tangki ballast dengan volume 1451 cm³.
Pengujian ini dilakukan dengan cara
manual yaitu dengan menekan tombol
pengisian dan pengosongan yang terdapat
pada kapal seperti yang ditunjukkan pada
gambar 15.
Gambar 17. Pengosongan seluruh tangki
ballast
5. Penutup
a. Kesimpulan
Hasil penelitian yang telah dilakukan
dapat disimpulkan sebagai berikut:
1. Sistem mampu mengukur kemiringan
kapal dan menyeimbangkannya ketika
terjadi penambahan beban diatas kapal.
2. Sistem ballast pada kapal kontainer
dapat dirancang berdasarkan regulasi
dari badan klasifikasi yang akan

Teknik Elektro UMRAH - 2017 | 7

 digunakan dan beberapa rumus dasar
yang berkaitan dengan sistem
perkapalan. Berdasarkan hasil
perhitungan sistem ballast pada kapal
prototipe dapat diketahui kapasitas
tangki ballast sebesar 1450,86 cm³,
kapasitas pompa ballast sebesar 1450,86
cm³/menit, head pompa ballast minimal
sebesar 113,342 cm, dan diameter pipa
ballast ±3 mm.. Dalam penelitian ini
juga dilakukan beberapa contoh
perhitungan sistem ballast pada kapal
sebenarnya untuk menunjang sistem
ballast pada kapal prototipe dapat
diaplikasikan pada kapal sebenarnya.
3. Sistem keamanan pada kapal kontainer
dapat dirancang dengan memanfaatkan
sensor gyroscope untuk mengendalikan
tombol starter mesin yang mampu
mencegah mesin menyala dalam kondisi
kapal miring.
4. Sistem kontrol ballast pada kapal dapat
bekerja dengan baik ketika tidak diberi
beban.
5. Besar sudut kemiringan yang digunakan
sebagai acuan untuk menyeimbangkan
kapal (5º) dapat berubah sesuai dengan
karakteristik kapal masing-masing.
b. Saran
1. Untuk membuat sistem bekerja lebih
baik dari hasil yang diperoleh penulis
dibutuhkannya ukuran prototipe kapal
yang lebih besar dan jarak sistem kontrol
dengan komponen-komponen yang
digunakan tidak terlalu dekat untuk
menghindari pengaruh medan
elektromagnetik yang dihasilkan oleh
kumparan solenoid valve dan water
pump.
2. Dibutuhkan penelitian tambahan
mengenai filter yang efisien untuk
mengatasi noise yang dihasilkan oleh
komponen yang digunakan terhadap
sistem kontrol.
3. Dibutuhkan perhitungan lebih lanjut
yang berkaitan dengan sistem ballast
agar dapat diaplikasikan pada kapal
sebenarnya.
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Bureau of Shipping,
Houston, Texas, U.S.
Aditya, F., Gunawan, A.I., Alasiry, A.H.,
Widodo, R.T., 2011, Prototipe
Pengukur dan Pendeteksi
Keseimbangan Berat Muatan Kapal
Sebagai Antisipasi Kecelakaan, The
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Indonesia, 26 Oktober 2011.
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Bangun Sistem Monitoring
Kecepatan Arus dan Arah Arus
Untuk Sistem Kepelabuhan, Skripsi,
Universitas Maritim Raja Ali Haji,
Tanjungpinang.
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ce/LiquidCrystal, 20 Juli 2017.
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/MPU-6050, 20 Juli 2017.
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Retrieved from
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oards/arduino-mega-2560, 20 Juli
2017.
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M.N., 2016. Analisa Teknis dan
Ekonomis Pemilihan Manajemen
Air Ballas Pada Kapal (Ship Ballast
Water Management) di Indonesia,
Kapal, Vol.13 No.3.
Asco, (2017). Engineering Information.
Retrieved from
http://www.asco.com/en-us/
Pages/solenoid-valves.aspx, 20 Juli
2017.
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1281/V-2560/V-2561/V, Atmel
Corporation, U.S.A.
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ATTC, (2017). Solenoid Valve. Retrieved Roy L Harrington, 1989. Marine
from http://www.aqua-- Engineering, Third Printing, The
tech.com/index.php/archives/categ Society of Naval Architects and
ory/products/solenoid-valve, 20 Juli Marine Engineers, United States
2017. America.
Dinariyana, A.A.B., 2011. Topway, 2007. LCD Module User Manual,
Koefisien Bentuk dan Shenzhen TOPWAY Technology
Perbandingan Ukuran Co., Ltd., China.
Kapal, Teknik Bangunan Wilmax, 2014. Ballast System, Wilmax
dan Konstruksi Kapal I, Control Systems Pte Ltd,
Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Singapore.
Nopember, ME 091301. Windyandari, A., Janah, J.I., 2013.
Dzulkarnain dan Pramana, R., 2015, Perancangan Sistem Perpipaan KM.
Rancang Bangun Sistem Nusantara (Piping System), Kapal,
Monitoring Kecepatan Angin dan Vol.10 No.3.
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Kepelabuhan, Skripsi, Universitas
Maritim Raja Ali Haji,
Tanjungpinang.
Eekels, 2009. Ballast Control System,
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dan Pergeseran Muatan di Atas
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Teknik Elektro UMRAH - 2017 | 9

 PAPER
Electrochemical Cell Applications
for Ballast Water Treatment
AUTHORS
Ceren Bilgin Güney
Fatma Yonsel
Faculty of Naval Architecture and
Ocean Engineering, Department of
Shipbuilding and Ocean Engineering,
Istanbul Technical University
Introduction
B allast water is vital for the ship
safety for reasons such as increasing
the draft, changing the trim, regulat-
ing the stability, or maintaining stress
loads within an acceptable limit. Ships
with maximum cargo and minimum
ballast are preferred for commercial
reasons. However, as a result of the
great variety in world trade, ships per-
form most of their cruises in ballast
condition. This fact leads to the translo-
cation of billions of tons of ballast water
annually, and at any given moment,
thousands of various species are also
translocated between biogeograph-
ical regions via ballast tanks (Medcof,
1975; Carlton, 1979; Lavoie et al.,
1999; Olenin et al., 2000; Gollasch,
2006).
The threats posed by invasive ma-
rine species extend from environmental
and public health concerns to eco-
nomic impacts, because of the
variety of organisms that can pass
through ballast intake and ballast
pumps (Hallegraeff, 1998; van den
Berghl, 2002; Occhipinti-Ambrogi
& Savini, 2003; Joachimsthal, 2004;
Knowler, 2005; Ma et al., 2009).
The main concern about ballast water
organisms is that the effects and haz-
134 Marine Technology Society Journal
ABSTRACT
The transportation of exotic species in ballast tanks is one of the most important
global environmental problems facing the shipping industry. Electrochemical tech-
niques offer one of the most viable solutions for ballast water problems. This work
reports laboratory experiments conducted by Istanbul Technical University (ITU) for
the best and optimal electrochemical cell design for EU Project BaWaPla (Contract
031529), in which a new hybrid ballast water treatment system has been developed.
The capability of an electrochemical system to effectively eliminate these organisms
depends on various internal and external parameters. Five different electrochemical
cells were assessed for the BaWaPla system. The variable parameters of the cell
design were the geometry and dimensions of the electrodes. In additional to cell
design, the effects of Ca2+ and Mg2+ concentrations, along with ammonia, were
also investigated as external parameters for system capability. The results show
that the enlargement of electrode surfaces result in increased chlorine concentra-
tions in the disinfectant. On the other hand, suitable electrode and coating materials
are essential for “reverse polarity” operation in order to avoid scaling of Ca2+ and
Mg2+ ions on electrodes and clogging the membrane. Ammonia, if present in ballast
water, has a negative effect on disinfection quality. Experiments show that presence
of 7.8 mg/L ammonia in electrolyte may cause up to 73% loss of free available chlo-
rine and 38% loss of total available chlorine concentrations. Measures should be
considered, both in the design stage and during the disinfection process, to reduce
the negative effect of ammonia.
Keywords: electrochemical cell, chlorine generation, ballast water treatment
Abbreviations
ASW: NaCl solution with tap water (Artificial seawater)
FAC: free available chlorine
SW: seawater
TRC: total residual chlorine
ards of these species may increase over ratification of the convention, all ships
time to irreversible levels, even more will be required to manage their ballast
than other pollutants. water within a designated timetable
In February 2004, the Interna- in compliance with the convention’s
tional Maritime Organization (IMO) standards (IMO, 2004).
adopted the International Convention There are a number of techniques
for the Control and Management of taken into consideration for ballast
Ships’ Ballast Water and Sediment. water treatment (Tsolaki & Evan
The convention is now open to signa- Diamadopoulos, 2009; Gonçalves
tures of the member states. After the & Gagnon 2012). However, it is
generally agreed that a single treat-
ment method would not be sufficient
to achieve IMO standards for all types
of seawater and ships. Consequently,
various projects focused on hybrid
systems and some of them are already
on the market with IMO approval
(Kim & Lee, 2009). These systems
generally include one primary treatment
and one or more secondary treatment
techniques.
Primary treatment is achieved by
mechanical methods, such as filters
and hydrocyclonic treatment for the
removal of particles, sediment and larger
size organisms (Mackey et al., 2000;
Cangelosi et al., 2003; Matheickal
et al., 2003; Abu-Khader, 2011). Sec-
ondary treatment is used to eradicate
smaller organisms and bacteria that re-
main after the primary treatment. Sec-
ondary treatment may consist of
physical, chemical, and some other
techniques. Physical options may
employ heat treatment, UV, and
ultrasound (Mackey & Wright,
2002; Sassi et al., 2002; Waite
et al., 2003; Zhou et al., 2005; Holm
et al., 2008). Chemical options may
employ oxidizing biocides and non-
oxidizing biocides (Stocks, 2004;
Zhang et al., 2004; Oemcke &
van Leeuwen, 2005; Raikow et al.,
2006; Gregg & Hallegraeff, 2007;
de Lafontaine et al., 2008). Other
techniques include many options such
as deoxygenation, pulsed discharge,
and electrochemical methods (Aliotta
et al., 2003; Dang et al., 2004; Husain
et al., 2004; Lefler et al., 2004;
Tamburri et al., 2004; Matousek
et al., 2006; McCollin et al., 2007;
Kim et al., 2006; Sun et al., 2009).
Chlorine is a well known and
widely used disinfectant around the
world. It is also proven to be effective
for the disinfection of many ballast
water organisms at different concen-
trations (Stocks, 2004; Zhang et al.,
2004; Derek et al., 2006). Safety
risks during handling and onboard
storage of chlorine gas or HOCl solu-
tions are raising concerns about the
employment of chlorine disinfection
methods for ballast water organisms.
Electrochemical techniques offer a
viable option to eliminate this prob-
lem. Also, lower energy consumption
(Kim et al., 2010) and smaller foot-
prints possess considerable advantages
in electrochemical techniques com-
pared to other disinfection technolo-
gies. There are a number of studies
highlighting the use of electrochemi-
cal systems for ballast water treatment.
Some of these studies are focused on
the direct electrolytic disinfection of
ballast water (Dang et al., 2004; Kim
et al., 2006; Tsolaki et al., 2010),
while the others rely on the produc-
tion of a concentrated chlorine solu-
tion by electrolyzing a side stream of
seawater or brackish water and inject-
ing it into a main stream (Aliotta et al.,
2003; Lefler et al., 2004; Matousek
et al., 2006). On the other hand, chlo-
rine disinfection may also be one of
the important mechanisms for direct
electrolysis of seawater (Kim et al.,
2006; Nanayakkara et al., 2012).
The efficiency of an electrochemi-
cal system depends on various inter-
nal parameters (e.g., cell design) and
external parameters (e.g., characteris-
tics of seawater or operating condi-
tions such as flow rate and electrical
current applied to the electrodes).
This paper reports on laboratory ex-
periments conducted by Istanbul
Technical University (ITU) to achieve
the best and optimal electrochemical
cell design for BaWaPla—the Sustain-
able Ballast Water Management Plant
project, in which a new hybrid ballast
water treatment system has been devel-
oped. The electrochemical component
January/February 2013
of BaWaPla produces a chlorine-rich
disinfection solution through electro-
lyzing the side stream of ballast water.
This study emphasizes certain points
that should be taken into consideration
for electrochemical applications of a
ballast water treatment process.
Background
The electrolysis of sodium chloride
is also referred as the chlor-alkali pro-
cess. As a result of this process, chlorine,
sodium hydroxide, and hydrogen are
formed simultaneously (Rajeshwar &
Ibanez, 1997; Srinivasan, 2006).
ElectricEnergy
2NaCl þ H2 O →2NaOH
þ H2 þ Cl2 ð1Þ
Within the chlor-alkali process, brine
passes through the first chamber of
the electrochemical cell and chloride
ion (Cl−) is oxidized at anode:
2Cl
→ Cl2 þ 2e
ð2Þ
o
In the membrane cell, the anode and
cathode are separated by an ion-permeable
membrane, and this membrane in the
center of the cell only allows the liberated
sodium ions (Na+) to pass through the
second chamber. The unreacted sodium
chloride (NaCl) and the other ions are not
allowed to pass through the membrane.
At the cathode, hydrogen in water
is reduced to hydrogen gas, releasing
hydroxide ions into the solution (Eq. 3).
Simultaneously, the chlorine gas (which
is formed by oxidation of Cl−) reacts
with water in the first chamber. Hypo-
chlorous acid (HOCl) and hydrochloric
acid are thus formed (Eq. 4) [Abdul-
Wahab & Al-Wesbahi, 2009]
2H2 O þ 2e

o → H2 þ 2OH


ð3Þ
Volume 47 Number 1 135
Cl2 þ H2 O → HOCl þ HCl ð4Þ
The proteolysis of HOCl yields to hypo-
chlorite ion (OCl−) depending upon pH
and temperature:
HOCl þ H2 O ↔ H3 Oþ þ OCl
ð5Þ
½H3 Oþ ½OCl

Ka ¼
½HOCl
¼ 2; 5 × 10
8 at 20°C ð6Þ
100
%½HOCl ¼ ð7Þ
Ka
þ1
½H3 Oþ
½H3 Oþ  ¼ 10
pH ð8Þ
The product at the first compartment
[such as elemental chlorine (Cl2), hypo-
chlorous acid (HOCl), and hypochlorite
ion] constitutes “free available chlorine
(FAC),” which is the first concept of
chlorine disinfection. If ammonia is in
water, chlorine reacts with the ammonia
and forms chloramines (Hammer &
Hammer, 2004; Vijayaraghavan et al.,
1999; Weber, 1972). The chloramines
are referred to as “combined available
chlorine,” which is the second concept
of chlorine disinfection. Finally, the
sum of free available chlorine with
the combined available chlorine consti-
tutes the “total residual chlorine (TRC)”
in the chlorine disinfection process.
The disinfection effect of the com-
bined available chlorine is dramatically
less than the free available chlorine. For
the disinfection of cysts of E. hisytolica,
dichloramines (NHCl2) were found
60% as efficient as HOCl and mono-
chloramines (NH2Cl) were found 22%
as efficient as HOCl under comparable
conditions (Weber, 1972). Consider-
ing the contact time for bactericidal
effect, 100 times more contact time is
136 Marine Technology Society Journal
needed for combined available chlorine
compared to the same amount needed
for free available chlorine (Oğur et al.,
2004).
Materials and Methods
Experimental Design
and Test System
A laboratory system was provided
to ITU by one of its BaWaPla project
partners, LVPG GmbH (Germany).
This system was used for various test
assumptions and proposals for the best
and optimal cell design.
Saline water/seawater was intro-
duced into the electrochemical cell in
the heart of the test system and electric
voltage was applied at the electrodes.
The system was able to run both stan-
dard and reverse current directions.
While the system was running, chlo-
rine was generated under the force of
an electric current at the anode. Oxygen
was also cogenerated by the decompo-
sition of water, a process that results
in hydronium ions being produced.
A couple of secondary reactions took
place and were responsible for the
formation of a highly effective “hypo-
chlorous acid-rich” disinfectant, which
was produced as a result.
Water for the Experiments
Different types of electrolytes were
used, depending on the experiments:
■ NaCl (Norm: EN 973) solution with
deionized water was used to produce
disinfectant for the preliminary ex-
periments with the Standard Cell.
■ Artificial seawater (ASW) was used
for the preliminary investigations of
all cell types before natural seawater
was investigated. ASW was prepared
with tap water and NaCl. This elec-
trolyte was used as test media and
preferred to avoid any uncontrolled
effects of natural seawater.
■ Natural seawater (SW) with ∼18 Psu
is used as the electrolyte for further
experiments. Seawater was collected
from the Yeniköy at Bosporus
(Istanbul, Turkey).
Electrochemical Cells
Five different electrochemical cells
were employed for the experiments. The
cells are referred to as “standard cell,
FTEC 100, FTEC 500, EC 100 Nr.
201, EC 100 Nr. 240” and were
supplied from Fuma Tech GmbH
(Germany). The variable parameters
of the cell design were the geometry
and dimensions of the electrodes and
the materials that were used for the
electrodes and their coatings.1
The standard cell had already been
used for chlorine production for dis-
infection at land-based plants. DSA
mixed metal oxides were used as ma-
terial for the anode and stainless steel
was used for the cathode within the
standard cell. The dimensions of the
electrodes were 88 × 42 mm.
The properties of the FTEC 100
were similar to the properties of the stan-
dard cell. Improved DSA mixed metal
oxides were used as anode, and stainless
steel was used as cathode material. The
dimensions of electrodes were the same
as standard cell (88 × 42 mm). The main
exception concerns the geometry of the
anode. The standard cell had an expanded
grid anode and cathode while the FTEC
100 had a compact planar anode and
an expanded grid cathode.
FTEC 500 had the same properties
and geometry of anodes and cathodes
as the FTEC 100. However, the dimen-
sions of electrodes (175 mm × 175 mm)
were larger than other cells.
1
Construction and technical details about the
cells come from personal communications and
correspondences and from unpublished docu-
ments created during the BaWaPla Project.
 The electrodes of EC 100 Nr. 201
and EC 100 Nr. 240 had the same
electrode dimensions as the FTEC 100.
The major difference in the design of
EC 100 Nr. 201 and EC 100 Nr. 240
was the coating of the electrodes. The
electrodes were designed to be resistant
to seawater content, and stability was
achieved by optimizing the mixture of
ruthenium and iridium as well as of
the tempering process. Both anode
types were equipped with a polarity re-
versal finish and an additional protective
layer between the coating and metal
electrode surfaces. This protective layer
allowed for working with a reverse cur-
rent direction so that self-cleaning of
the cell can be maintained as disinfec-
tant was simultaneously produced.
Measured Parameters
and Instruments
Total residual chlorine (TRC) and
free available chlorine (FAC) concen-
trations were the main parameters to
investigate the effectiveness of the dis-
infectant. They were measured by
Hach DR 2000 Spectrophotometer
using the DPD method. Redox po-
tential, pH, temperature and salinity
were also measured as control param-
eters. Redox potential was measured
with a Hach Sension1 pH/mV meter,
while temperature and pH was simul-
taneously measured with a WTW
720 InoLab series-pH meter. The
WTW LF 196-Microprocessor Con-
ductivity meter was used for salinity
measurements.
Results and Discussion
Cell Performances
Performance experiment proce-
dures varied for each electrochemical
cell due to different design parameters
of the cell and the phase reached with
the previous cell.
Standard cell experiments were
carried out with three different electro-
lyte salinities (9 Psu, 20 Psu, 35 Psu)
under three different current stresses
(8 A, 12 A, 16 A). Disinfectant was pro-
duced with 100 L/h flow rate and the
samples were taken at the 10th minute
of the production.
The results with this cell have
shown that the chlorine concentrations
rise with the salinity and the current
(Figure 1), also expected due to princi-
ples of the electrochemical cells. The
temperature of the produced disinfec-
tant was between 22.5°C and 23°C
and pH between 3 and 3.5. The initial
pH values of electrolytes were between
6.15 and 6.35 at 22–23°C. The calcu-
lations reveal that more than 99.99%
of FAC is in the form of hypochlorous
acid (HOCl).
Several sets of tests are carried out
to develop specifications for regular
operation of FTEC 100. The system
was found to be stable at currents
above 10 A (Yonsel & Bilgin Güney,
2010), and investigations were carried
out with two maximal current settings
(10 A and 16 A). It was also observed
that the maximum current stress can-
not go beyond 10 A when salinity is
at 10 Psu and 20 Psu, whereas current
FIGURE 1
Disinfectant produced under different conditions.
January/February 2013
values may go up to 16 A with a 30 Psu
salinity rate. Higher conductivity of
30 Psu electrolytes provides relatively
lower solution resistance between elec-
trodes compared to 10 Psu and 20 Psu
electrolytes. This enables higher cur-
rent flow through the electrolyte due
to imposition of the same potential
difference. Depending on these initial
experiments, basically two different
salinities (20 Psu, 30 Psu) were tested
under two different maximal current
settings. Disinfectant was produced
with three different electrolyte flow
rates (50 L/h, 60 L/h, and 75 L/h).
The cell operation was run for 120 min.
The samples of the disinfectant were
taken at the 30th and 120th min. The
results with FTEC 100 underline the
importance of the flow rate. The higher
chlorine contents were obtained with a
lower disinfectant flow rate (Figure 2),
and the highest chlorine concentrations
were obtained when the flow rate was
50 L/h as the electrolytes retained
a longer span of time in the reaction
zone. The figure also shows that higher
chlorine concentrations are obtained
with higher salinity of electrolytes at
constant current. Salinity of the electro-
lyte depends on the NaCl concentration.
The rise in the NaCl concentration leads
Volume 47 Number 1 137
FIGURE 2
The effect of flow rate.
to liberation of higher amount of Cl2
after oxidation at the anode. The rapid
hydrolysis of Cl2 after oxidation yields
to the formation of higher amount of
HOCl and OCl− during electrolysis
process.
The TRC concentrations of the
experiments when the flow rate was
50 L/h are shown in Figure 3. Each
experiment is represented by two points
in the figure. These points are the chlo-
rine concentrations of the samples
taken at the 30th and 120th minutes;
however, the sampling time is not indi-
cated on the figure as the experiments
did not exhibit any direct effect of the
production duration on the disinfectant
quality under experimental conditions.
The effect of the hardness forming ion
(which may cause a decrease in cell
performance) content of the electro-
lyte (ASW) is negligible compared to
FIGURE 3
TRC with 16 A maximum current setting.
138 Marine Technology Society Journal
seawater. The annual average concen-
tration of Ca2+ and Mg2+ present in
tap water are respectively 49 mg/L
and 11 mg/L (ISKI, 2008), whereas
400 mg/L Ca2+ and 1,300 mg/L Mg2+
are present in typical 35 Psu seawater
(Riley & Skirrow, 1975). The figure
consists of three replicates of the ex-
periments with artificial seawater. Each
replicate is indicated in the legends
with the sequence number.
The results of the experiments un-
derline the importance of the salinity
for the electrochemical system stability.
The primer effect of electrolyte salinity
is seen on the chlorine concentrations
of the disinfectant, as the TRC rises
with increasing salinity. But another
important effect is on the system sta-
bility. The experiments with 20 Psu
electrolyte salinity exhibit irregularity
both in terms of chlorine concentrations
and current stresses even during the
time span of each experiment. Lower
salinity provides higher resistance in the
electrolyte phase compared to 30 Psu.
The voltage drops across the electro-
lyte phase caused by higher resistance
leads to system irregularity. However,
the differences between two samples
of each sequence are negligible when
salinity is 30 Psu. Higher conductivity
of the electrolyte minimizes the voltage
drops across the electrolyte phase and
maintains system stability. Higher
conductivity also enables higher cur-
rent flow through the electrolyte and
obtained current stress levels approach
the maximal current setting. Thus, the
salinity will improve the conformity of
the application of electrochemical pro-
cess as Li et al. (2002) mentioned. It is
also determined that seawater experi-
ments result in far lower FAC and
TRC concentrations than artificial sea-
water experiments under comparable
conditions. A monitoring program
carried out by Okus et al. (2008) over
10 years in 28 marine stations with crit-
ical quality parameters (DO, TOC,
POC, Total-N, Total-P, NO3−, etc.)
shows that the Marmara sea and the
Bosporus is subject to pollution caused
by marine outfall, surface water dis-
charges from Istanbul’s major waste-
water treatment plants, along with
transboundary pollution sourced by
the Black Sea. Considering that the sea-
water is collected from the Bosporus,
the pollution appears to be the main
cause of the decrease in FAC and
TRC concentrations, as chlorine reacts
with both organic and inorganic matter
in seawater.
Experiments with FTEC 500 are
carried out with both artificial seawater
and natural seawater as electrolytes.
Three different artificial seawater salin-
ities of water were tested under four
different maximal current stress settings
(30 A, 40 A, 50 A, and 60 A) at a
100 L/h flow rate. Operation of the
cell lasted 10 min after the flow rate be-
came stable at 100 L/h to avoid heat
excess to the cell. The readings from
test rig screen were recorded at the be-
ginning of the operation and at the
10th minute. Samples of disinfectant
were also taken at these precise times.
Chlorine concentrations explicitly
raise with FTEC 500 compared to
FTEC 100 (Figure 4), even with the
lowest salinity (10Psu). Another re-
markable observation is the chlorine
concentrations of electrolyte with
20 Psu approach rates of chlorine
concentrations of electrolyte with
30 Psu. Meanwhile, chlorine concen-
trations of electrolyte with 10 Psu lie
far below the others and the voltage
drops across the electrolyte phase due
to higher resistance causes to irregular-
ity. It is also observed that maximum
current settings of 50 A and 60 A
were not reached with the 10 Psu arti-
ficial seawater, since lower conductiv-
ity leads to lower current flow through
the electrolyte due to imposition of the
same potential difference.
The results with FTEC 500 show
that the properties of the electrolyte
have direct effects on the disinfectant
content. Figure 5 represents the ob-
tained current values for each maximal
current setting of the experiments when
FIGURE 4
TRC concentrations with FTEC 500 using ASW.
FIGURE 5
Obtained current values with FTEC 500 using ASW and SW.
the same voltage is applied (10 V). The
obtained currents with natural seawater
generally remain below 30 A, whereas
set values coincide with artificial sea-
water. The conductivity values of the
electrolytes (both ASW and SW) are
25.5 ± 0.3 mS/cm. However, hardness
formers available in the seawater seem to
be the reason for the lower current val-
ues, as they cause scaling on the cathode
and decrease the cell performance. Po-
larity reverse operations are conducted
at various times to enable self-cleaning
of the cell, and relatively higher currents
are obtained after these operations.
The difference among seawater
experiment results, under the same
operational conditions, is also remark-
able. Both TRC and FAC concentra-
tions of the disinfectant differ not only
depending on amperage but also the
used seawater as electrolyte (Figure 6).
January/February 2013
The seawater was collected from the
same location but on three different
dates. However, the pollutant content
of seawater from the Bosporus, such
as NH4+, changes over short periods
(Yonsel et al., 2000). Changes in the
content of the seawater used as the elec-
trolyte appear to be the cause of differ-
ence in TRC and FAC concentrations
as chlorine reacts with organic matter
and other reducers available in seawater.
Seawater experiments with EC
100 Nr. 201 and EC 100 Nr. 240
lasted 90 min. Two maximal voltage
settings were tested (10 V and 20 V)
at a 50 L/h flow rate. Experiments are
replicated for each voltage. The chlo-
rine concentrations with EC 100 Nr.
201 under 20 V are considerably higher
than the chlorine concentrations with
EC 100 Nr. 240 under the same volt-
age (Figure 7). Also, the stability of the
result with EC 100 Nr. 201 along the
production with 20-V maximal volt-
age is remarkable, whereas the results
of EC 100 Nr. 240 had some irregular-
ities for both maximal voltage settings.
Still, the results also reveal that chlo-
rine contents decrease along the pro-
duction duration when lower voltage
is applied. Accumulation of the hard-
ness formers in the seawater appears to
be the main cause for the decrease
of chlorine content. Each experiment
began after the reverse polarity operation.
Volume 47 Number 1 139
FIGURE 6
TRC with FTEC 500 using SW.
FIGURE 7
Disinfectant production with EC 100 Nr. 201 and EC 100 Nr. 240.
Higher chlorine concentrations were
obtained at the very beginning of the
experiment, whereas chlorine concen-
trations decreased through the end of
the experiment.
Effect of Seawater
Characteristics
Seawater has varying physical and
chemical characteristics, depending on
the locational and temporal conditions.
Within this study, the effect of seawater
hardness and ammonia concentration
on an electrochemical system’s capabil-
ity is also investigated along with the
internal parameters of the electrochem-
ical cells.
Raw seawater contains a wide range
of salts at various concentrations and
combinations. These characteristics
140 Marine Technology Society Journal
have a direct effect on the capability of
an electrochemical system. Ca2+ and
Mg2+ are the most common constit-
uents that define the hardness of sea-
water. Within the BaWaPla Project,
the effect of Ca2+ and Mg2+ on electro-
chemical chlorine production was in-
vestigated (Bilgin Güney & Yonsel,
2009). FTEC 100 is used as an electro-
lyzing cell. The maximal current setting
is 16 A and maximal voltage setting is
22 V for the experiments. Disinfectant
is produced at a 50 L/h rate. The elec-
trolyte used to produce disinfectant
is prepared artificially with deionized
water and varying NaCl, CaCl2, and
MgCl2 concentrations. The experimen-
tal limitations selected for Ca2+ concen-
tration is at a maximum of 400 mg/L,
and the Mg2+ concentration is at a max-
imum of 1300 mg/L. These limitations
also match the average compounds of
seawater (Riley & Skirrow, 1975).
Three sets of experiments were
conducted with different electrolytes.
Within the first set, the effect of only
one parameter was investigated. Three
different Ca2+ concentrations (150 mg/L,
300 mg/L, and 400 mg/L) were used in
the absence of Mg2+, while two differ-
ent Mg2+ concentrations are were used
in the absence of Ca2+ within this first
set.
The Ca2+ concentration kept con-
stant at 400 mg/L, and three dif-
ferent Mg2+concentrations were used
(500 mg/L, 100 mg/L and 1300 mg/L)
in the second set. The amount of added
NaCl was adjusted so that the salinity
of the electrolyte was kept at 30 Psu for
the all experiments.
Disinfectant production lasted
120 minutes for both sets. The first
sample was taken after 10 minutes of
production and the control experiment
was conducted at the same operational
conditions in the absence of Ca2+ and
Mg2+.
The results of the first set show that
the TRC concentration decreases in
the existence of Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions
in the electrolyte (Figure 8). However,
the decrease of TRC concentration is
higher within the Mg2+ experiments,
as the implemented concentration of
Mg2+ is higher in accordance with the
natural seawater content. The second
set of experiments demonstrates the
combined effect of Ca 2+ and Mg 2+
marks a decrease that is more than
only one ion. The disinfectant quality
decreases with the increasing Mg2+ in
the presence of Ca2+.
Within the last set, the effect of
scaling in a longer time span is inves-
tigated with maximal Ca2+ and Mg2+
concentrations. The production lasted
for 8 h. Figure 9 demonstrates the results
of the long-term disinfectant production
FIGURE 8
The effect of Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions.
FIGURE 9
Long-term binary effect of Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions.
with electrolyte contains 400 mg/L Ca2+
and 1300 mg/L of Mg2+. The results
show that the disinfectant quality dra-
matically decreases as the production
duration gets longer. The accumulation
of Ca2+ and Mg2+ on electrodes and
membrane causes the loss in disinfectant
quality. It is also observed that waste
generation increases with the rising
Ca2+ and Mg2+ on cathode side.
In addition to the wide range of
salt, coastal seawater may also contain
ammonia as well as domestic-based
organic pollutants. The ammonia con-
tent of the intake ballast water would
have a direct effect on the seawater
generated disinfectant. The effect of
ammonia content of the electrolyte,
which would be part of the electro-
chemical process during the disinfectant
production, is investigated (Bilgin
Güney & Yonsel, 2011). The experi-
ments were conducted with FTEC
100. The maximal current setting is
16 A and maximal voltage setting is
22 V in the experiments. Disinfectant
is produced with a 50 L/h rate.
Ammonia concentration of the elec-
trolyte started from 2.6 mg/L and grad-
ually rose to 39 mg/L with FTEC 100.
The control experiment was conducted
in the absence of ammonia. Disinfec-
tant production lasted 120 min for each
ammonia concentration. The first sam-
ple is taken after 10 min of production,
and the following samples are taken at
the 30th, 60th, 90th, and 120th minute.
Figure 10 includes chlorine concentra-
tions for each ammonia concentration,
depending on the sampling time. As
the active chlorine produced at the
electrode reacts rapidly with ammonia
in the reaction zone, chloramines are
formed. The formation of chloramines
causes a decrease in both the TRC and
FAC concentration of the electrochem-
January/February 2013
ically produced disinfectant, which
means the disinfection effect is de-
creased. The figures show that TRC
and FAC concentrations decrease dra-
matically after the addition of ammo-
nia even for the minimal ammonia
concentration (2.6 mg/L) of the ex-
periments. The presence of 2.6 mg/L
ammonia in the electrolyte may cause
up to 34% loss of FAC and 15% loss
of TRC concentrations while the pres-
ence of 7.8 mg/L ammonia may cause
up to 73% loss of FAC and 38% loss of
TRC concentrations. The decrease of
these values slows down after ammonia
reaches up to 13 mg/L in the electro-
lyte. The figure indicates that duration
of production does not affect the disin-
fectant quality contrary to other hard-
ness experiments and ammonia does
not accumulate in the electrochemical
cell along the duration of production
at the experimental conditions.
The experiments show that am-
monia, as an impurity, has a negative
effect on disinfection quality. If present
in water, ammonia causes a decrease in
both TRC and FAC values of the pro-
duced disinfectant. Moreover, as the
disinfectant added to the ballast water
stream for treatment, the residual FAC
will react rapidly with the ammonia
in the ballast water. This will lead to
another loss of the disinfection effect.
These double losses of disinfection
performance will increase the volume
of disinfectant needed to disinfect the
same biomass in the absence of ammo-
nia. Ammonia undergoes different
processes other than the reactions with
HOCl in electrochemical cells (Liu
et al., 2009; Li & Lui, 2009; Xiao
et al., 2009; Kapałka et al., 2010).
The resultant product of the electro-
chemical process is not only dependent
on active chlorine, but on several dif-
ferent parameters. If the ballasting pro-
cess is with seawater that has been
Volume 47 Number 1 141
FIGURE 10
The effect of ammonia concentration on TRC and FAC.
subjected to domestic waste, current
density and pH are the parameters
which should be considered at the pro-
duction stage (Liu et al., 2009; Li &
Lui, 2009; Xiao et al., 2009). The se-
lection of electrodes is (Liu et al., 2009;
Kapałka et al., 2010) another parame-
ter that can be taken into consideration
at the design stage of the electrochem-
ical cells, depending on the cell opti-
mization. The disinfectant effect of
combined available chlorine is dramat-
ically less than free available chlorine
(Weber, 1972). Attention should be
paid to the ammonia concentration of
the ballast water to adjust the disinfec-
tant volume that will be needed. Atten-
tion should also be paid to byproduct
formation in the presence of ammonia
as a side effect of disinfection (Echardt
& Kornmueller 2009; Oh et al., 2010).
Additionally, combined available chlo-
rine formation may affect the approval
process of the ballast water system nega-
tively as the chloramines persist in water
for a longer period (MEPC, 2005).
Conclusion
Five different electrochemical cells
were assessed for the BaWaPla Project
between December 2006 and May
2010. The variable parameters of the
cell design were the geometry and di-
mensions of the electrodes; the mate-
142 Marine Technology Society Journal
rials used for the electrodes and their
coatings.
The results showed that the com-
pact planar anode of FTEC 100 leads
to higher chlorine concentrations at
the same current compared to the
expanded grid anode of the Standard
Cell. The chlorine concentration de-
creases with increasing flow rate of
disinfectant as the electrolyte retains
a shorter span of time in the reaction
zone. However, larger dimensions of
FTEC 500 provide larger electrode
surface area to increase the electrolyte
conductivity. That leads to higher
production rate of disinfectant with
considerably higher chlorine content.
It is also stated that the chlorine
concentrations decrease as the Ca2+
and Mg2+ concentrations of the elec-
trolyte rise to the typical seawater levels.
Long-term disinfection production
causes the accumulation of Ca2+ and
Mg 2+ on electrodes and membrane
when Ca2+ and Mg2+ concentrations
rise to seawater levels. The accumulation
leads to a dramatic loss in the disinfec-
tant quality over time. Additionally,
the waste generation increases with the
rising Ca 2+ and Mg 2+ with the cell
FTEC 100; the characteristic of this
waste makes onboard handling diffi-
cult. The coating and polarity reversal
finish of the electrodes of EC 100 Nr.
201 and EC 200 Nr. 240 offer a viable
option to avoid the accumulation (and
crust-like formations) of hardness for-
mers of seawater on electrodes. Working
with reverse current direction provides
the cell with the ability to work with
reversed polarity so that self-cleaning
of the cell can be maintained while
high-quality disinfectant is produced.
Such cells will present substantial ad-
vantages considering the operations
onboard, although EC 100 Nr. 201
has proven to be more convenient than
EC 100 Nr. for seawater usage. The
overall results show that EC 100 Nr.
201 had the best electrode coating
and geometry. The enlargement of
EC 100 Nr. 201 would lead to higher
chlorine concentration at higher flow
rates like the FTEC 500.
Ammonia has a negative effect on
disinfectant quality. Experiments with
FTEC 100 show that presence of
7.8 mg/L ammonia in an electrolyte
may cause up to 73% loss of free avail-
able chlorine and 38% loss of total
available chlorine concentrations. More
comprehensive works are needed to
eliminate the adverse effect of ammo-
nia on the design stage. However, mea-
sures can be considered during the
onboard disinfection process. Adjust-
ment of current density and disinfec-
tant volume may offer a viable option
if ballasting will be with seawater sub-
jected to domestic waste.
Higher salinity is quite important
for all types of electrochemical cells
that are tested. It has been determined
that the primer effect of electrolyte sa-
linity is on the chlorine concentration
of the disinfectant, as the availability
of the chloride ions rises at constant
current. However, the rise in the con-
ductivity, as a result of salinity, also
enables higher current flow through
the electrolyte due to imposition of the
same potential difference. Besides, low
resistance of the electrolyte solution
also minimizes the voltage drop across
the electrolyte phase in the cell. As a
result, higher salinity improves the sys-
tem stability while concurrently reduc-
ing the power consumption.
Laboratory works underline that
the unpredictable properties of sea-
water that will undergo the electro-
chemical process have direct effects
on the disinfectant content. Different
chlorine concentrations are obtained
under the same operational conditions
with seawater collected from the same
location but on different dates. Thus,
several parameters (such as tempera-
ture and impurities of seawater) should
be taken into consideration for system
optimization.
Taking the results of laboratory
work into account, new cells were op-
timized for BaWaPla. These cells have
the electrode dimensions of FTEC
500. The enlargement of electrode
surfaces provides higher flow rates
and increased chlorine concentrations
in the disinfectant. The material used
for electrodes and their coatings are
similar to EC 100 Nr. 201 for their
ability to run in reverse polarity. Their
ability to run with reversed polarity
provides the cells self-cleaning simulta-
neously with disinfectant production.
Six of these cells were employed within
the land-based pilot BaWaPla system
in Blyth (England) between July and
September 2009 (Yonsel & Bilgin
Güney, 2010). The pilot system had
the capacity of 500 L/h disinfectant
production.
Acknowledgments
This study was founded by European
Union Project “BaWaPla—Sustainable
Ballast Water Management Plant”
(Contract No. 031529). The authors
would like to thank all partners of the
Project for their support.
Corresponding Author
Ceren Bilgin Güney
Istanbul Technical University Faculty
of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engi-
neering Department of Ship Building
and Ocean Engineering
Email: bilgincer@itu.edu.tr
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