TENSES

By Sunarto

Beginning with three basic times;

PAST --------------- PRESENT -------------- FUTURE
and

PERFECT

CONTINUOUS

to become 12 names of regular tenses;

1 Simple Past 5 Simple Present 9 Simple Future
2 Past Perfect 6 Present Perfect 10 Future Perfect
3 Past Continuous 7 Present Continuous 11 Future Continuous
4 Past Perfect 8 Present Perfect 12 Future Perfect
Continuous Continuous Continuous
and 4 conditional tenses (Past Future);
13 Past Future
14 Past Future Perfect
15 Past Future Continuous
16 Past Future Perfect Continuous
Verbs in Tense
No Tense Verbs Time (Ind.)
1 Past VII lampau
2 Present VI sekarang
3 Future will Vinf yang akan datang
4 Perfect have VIII telah, selesai
5 Continuous be Ving sedang
Passive be VIII di-, ter-
Forms of Verbs

Vinf VI VII VIII Ving sekedar

original present past Past/ Present/ arti
Passive Active
participle participle

go go, goes went gone going pergi

have have, has had had having mempunyai

dll.

make make, made made making membuat

makes
come come, came come coming datang

comes
do do, does did done doing mengerjakan,
melakukan

see see, sees saw seen seeing melihat,

bertemu

Structural words and modal

be is, am, are was, been being adalah,
merupakan,
were berada dll.

have have, has had - having telah

- do, does did - - -

- will would - - akan

- can could - - dapat

- shall should - - akan

- may might - - mungkin,

boleh
 - must had to - - harus

etc.

Formulating Verbs of Tenses

Yang lain bisa diformulasikan seperti di atas.

Applying in Sentences
Untuk menerapkan tenses perlu dipahami bahwa tenses
ditentukan oleh waktu. Maka penerapannya juga perlu
memperhitungkan kapan terjadinya.
1. Aku pergi ke Tegal kemarin.
Peristiwanya terjadi kemarin dan tidak ada peristiwa yang
menyertai. Cukuplah Past.

2. Ketika dia tiba di rumahku kemarin, aku telah makan

siang.
Peristiwanya terjadi kemarin, jadi past. Peristiwa tibanya
cukuplah simple, namun peristiwa makannya telah selesai,
berarti perfect, dan sudah tidak sedang makan, berarti
tanpa continuous.

3. Ketika dia tiba di rumahku kemarin, aku sedang makan.

Peristiwanya terjadi kemarin, jadi past. Peristiwa tibanya
cukuplah simple, namun peristiwa makannya sedang
terjadi, berarti continuous, dan tidak disebutkan lamanya
makan, berarti tanpa perfect.

4. Ketika dia tiba di rumahku jam 4 sore kemarin, aku

 sudah membaca novel ini sampai halaman 120.
Peristiwanya terjadi kemarin, jadi past. Peristiwa tibanya
cukuplah simple, namun peristiwa membacanya telah
dilaksanakan sampai halaman 120, berarti perfect, dan
ketika itu belum selesai membaca berarti continuous.

5. Aku makan nasi. (bukan yang lain)

Peristiwanya adalah sekarang ini saya biasa makan nasi,
berarti present. Perlukah Perfect atau continuous?

6. Aku telah makan.

Peristiwanya terjadi di waktu lampau, tetapi ini bermaksud
mengatakan masih kenyang sekarang, yang berarti waktu
sekarang baru saja makan dan masih terasa akibatnya.
Dalam hal ini bukan past tetapi present dan perfect.
Perlukan continuous?

7. Aku sedang makan, jangan diganggu.

Peristiwanya jelas terjadi di waktu sekarang dan sedang
terjadi, maka menggunakan present dan continuous.
Perlukan perfect?

8. Sampai saat ini aku sudah mengajar di SMA N 1 Slawi

selama 27 tahun.
Peristiwanya berlaku sampai saat ini berarti present, dan
sudah 27 tahun berarti perfect, apakah aku masih
mengajar sekarang? Masih, berarti continuous.
 9. Aku akan datang ke rumahmu besok.
Terjadi di waktu yang akan datang, future. Tidak ada
peristiwa yang menyertainya, tanpa perfect dan
continuous.

10. Menjelang waktu kamu butuh buku ini, aku sudah

selesai membacanya.
Peristiwa ini pasti terjadi di waktu yang akan datang,
Future. Peristiwa butuhnya present saja, tetapi peristiwa
membaca sudah selesai, perfect, tanpa continuous.

11. Aku sedang tidur kalau kamu datang ke rumahku jam 3

nanti siang.
Peristiwanya terjadi nanti siang, future. Sedang tidur,
continuous. Datangnya cukup menggunakan present
karena hanya menerangkan waktu.

12. Aku sudah tidur selama 1 jam kalau kamu datang ke

rumahku jam 3 nanti siang.
Peristiwanya terjadi nanti siang, future. Sudah, perfect.
Mungkin masih tidur waktu itu, continuous. Datangnya
cukup menggunakan present karena hanya menerangkan
waktu.

Tenses nomor 13 sampai 16 digunakan untuk conditional

sentences, jadi tidak bisa dilihat waktu kejadiannya seperti di
atas.
 NOUN CLAUSES in Complex Sentences
Source: Structure Reference Book II and III
It can function as a subject, an object, a complement in a complex
sentence.
A. Noun Clauses as Subject
Subjective conjunction
1 What happened made the boy cry.
2 Whoever heard the dog ran out of his house.
3 Who was inside the cave was not known.

Objective conjunction
1 What the man saw was the big stone.
2 Why the dog barked puzzled the man.
3 What they found was a dying cat.

Just conjunction
1 That something was wrong was clear.
2 That the dog couldn’t help his master made it unhappy.

Conjunction: Semua kata Tanya (what, who, why, whoever,

how etc.), if/whether and that

B. Noun Clauses as Objects

as direct Objects
1. Have you decided what you want to get?
2. We will buy whatever we need.
3. Can you tell me what they are?
4. Rim explained (to her friend) that there would be some
games during the party.

as Indirect Objects
 1 We plan to give whoever wins a present.
2 Let’s ask who understand the game to explain it.
.
a direct quotation.
(1) Rini said, “There will be some games during the party.”
(2) Anas asked, “What things do you want to get?”

an indirect quotation.
(1) Rini said that there would be some games during the
party.
(2) Anas asked what things she wanted to get.
(3) Rini asked whether (if) there would be some games
during the party.

Here is a list of verbs of reporting which may have noun clauses

as their direct objects:
add exclaim repeat
admit explain shout
announce inform state
answer mention report
ask promise tell
confess reply know
demand say suggest
discuss remind hope
think

Just as with an indirect quotation, the noun clause after these

verbs begins with the word that or a wh- word.
believe hear think
consider hope understand
decide know wonder
discover learn
doubt prove
expect realize
feel regret
find out remember
forget see
guess suspect

C. Noun Clauses as Complements

as Predicate Complements
1. Books and pens are what we need.
2. The question is where we can buy them.
3. The problem is (that) we do not have much money.
as Object Complements
The games made the party what it was.
They considered the presents what they really needed.

D. Other uses of Noun Clauses

After a preposition, with wh-
(1) We give a present to whoever wins the game.
(2) They have not decided on what they will buy for the
presents.
After certain predicate adjective; to be happy, to be sorry, to be
sure, with that
(1) Rini and Anas are happy that there will be some
games-during the party.
(2) Rini is sorry that most of the things in the store are
too expensive.
As an appositive with that. The word that is never omitted.
(1) The news that there will be some games during the
party pleased them.
(2) The fact that the winners will be given presents made
the games more interesting.
 ADJECTIVE CLAUSES in Complex
Sentences
Source: English for The SLTA-Structure Reference Book II &
III, Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan.
An adjective clause is a clause that does the work of an adjective
in a complex sentence.
Frame la. Wh- word/That as Subject in the Adjective Clause
COMPLEX SENTENCE
MAIN CLAUSE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE
SUBJECT + NOUN SUBJECT PREDICATE
VERB + PRONOUN/
ETC. NOUN
PHRASE
1 Do you the boy who is standing over
know there?
2 I mean the one that is reading a
magazine.
3 I want to The math which are assigned to us.
discuss problems
4 I’ll introduce Agus, who is the best student in
you to our school.

Frame Ib. Wh- word/That as Object as Object or Complement

COMPLEX SENTENCE
MAIN CLAUSE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE
NOUN/
SUBJECT + OBJECT/
PRONOUN/ SUBJECT +
VERB + COMPLE-
NOUN PREDICATE
ETC. MENT/ETC.
PHRASE
1 Isn’t he the best (that) we have in our
student school?
2 Do you see the (which) he is reading?
magazine
3 I mean the student (whom) Dudung is talking
to.
4 I want to his book, which I showed to you
return yesterday.
Usage
There are two types of adjective clauses: restrictive
and non-restrictive.
1) A restrictive adjective clause distinguishes (Ind.
membedakan) the noun it modifies from all other
members of the same noun. It restricts the meaning
of the noun. It says which particular person or thing.
A restrictive adjective clause is introduced by a wh-
word (who, whom, whose, which, when, where,
why), or that. The word always functions as a
sentence element in the adjective clause.
In a restrictive adjective clause, the wh- word or
that can be omitted (see sentences 1-3 in Frame
la).
2) A non-restrictive adjective clause does not
restrict the meaning of the noun it modifies. It gives
further information about the noun.
Those two sentences will still give complete
information if the adjective clauses are omitted.
A non-restrictive adjective clauses is introduced by
a wh- word only. The wh- word may be the subject
(see sentence 4, Frame la), object (see sentence 4,
Frame Ib), or complement in the adjective clause.
In a non-restrictive clause, the wh- word cannot be
omitted.
In writing, a non-restrictive clause is always
separated from the noun it modifies by a comma. If
the non-restrictive clause is in the middle of the
complex sentence it is separated by two commas.
The absence or presence of commas with an
‘adjective clause changes the meaning of a sentence.
Examples:
(1) The new student to whom Dudung is talking is
over there.
(2) The new student, to whom Dudung is talking, is
over there.
Sentence (1) states that there are probably more than
one new student in the school, and the adjective
clause explains which new student the writer means.
Sentence (2) says that probably there is only one new
student, and he is known to the writer as well as the
reader.

Note:
1) If a preposition (usually at, in or to} and which
express place, they can be replaced by where.
Example:
The school to which Ani and Mila go has many
students.
The school where Ani and Mila go has many
 students.
2) If a preposition (usually at, in, on or during) and
which express time, they can be -replaced by
when.
Example:
The year during which they will graduate is
1972.
The year when they will graduate is 1972.

RELATIVE PRONOUNS FOR ADJECTIVE (RELATIVE)

CLAUSES
By Sunarto

Position In for RESTRICTIVE for NON

Adjective Adjective clauses RESTRICTIVE
Clauses Adjective
clauses
Subjective who, that who
Persons Objective whom, that, who, - whom
Possessive whose whose
Subjective which, that which
Things Objective which, that, - which
Possessive whose, of which whose, of which

FORMATION OF ADJECTIVE CLAUSE

My watch is lost. I like it very much.
>>> My watch which/that/- I like very much is lost.

My watch is lost. Its color is red.

 The color of it is red.
>>> My watch whose color is red is lost.
>>> My watch the color of which is red is lost.

The table is so big. I put some apples on it.

>>> The table on which (where) I put some apples is so big.

The girl who wears a red tape is beautiful. (restrictive adjective

clause)

Mrs. Sri Rejekiningsih, who lives in BLPLKL, is our principal.

(non restrictive)

My watch is now lost. It was repaired yesterday.

>>> My watch which/that was repaired yesterday is now lost.
-------- My watch repaired yesterday is now lost.

ELIPTICAL CONSTRUCTION OF ADJECTIVE CLAUSE

The man who is educated is wise.
---------- The educated man is wise.
---------- The educated are wise.

The girl who is walking here is my daughter.

--------- The girl walking here is my daughter.

The girl who is singing is my daughter.

--------- The singing girl is my daughter.

The teacher who teaches us is Mr. Sun_sun_man@yahoo.com.

--------- The teacher teaching us is Mr. sun_sun_man@yahoo.com.
The truck which hit the boy cannot run again.
--------- The truck hitting the boy cannot run again.

The man who has been given the prize is very happy.
--------- Then man having been given the prize is very happy.

ADVERB CLAUSES in Complex Sentences

Source: English for The SLTA-Structure Reference Book II & III,
Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan.
An adverb clause is a dependent clause that does the work of an
adverb in a complex sentence.
Frame: Adverb Clauses before or after main clauses
ADVERB CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE ADVERB CLAUSE
CLAUSE SUBJECT + SUB- VERB/VER CLAUSE SUBJECT +
MARKER PREDICAT JECT B PHRASE MARKER PREDICATE,
E, ETC. ETC.
1 We used to before we moved
live in the here.
village
2 You didn’t tell when we left school.
me about
it
3 A car hit a tree where the street
makes a turn.
4 I wanted to as I thought best.
spend my
time
5 After I had I decided
written to see a
a letter, movie.
6 While I was I saw a
walking, traffic
accident.
7 Because I didn’t I went by
find myself.
you,
8 Since I had I came
nothing to here.
do,
9 After the balls they are sent to
are shops.
packed,
10 She has been since I first taught
the here in 1987.
headmast
er
11 Because she was she was
disturbed, angry.
12 Please, for I don’t love
release you anymore.
me let me
go

Usage
1. In the sentences in the above frame, the adverb clauses
modify the verb phrases of the main clauses.
2. An adverb clause may come at the beginning or at the end
of the complex sentence. If it comes at the beginning of
the sentence, it is commonly followed by a comma (see
sentence 5—8). If it comes at the end of the sentence it
needs not and usually should not be preceded by a
 comma (see sentences 1—4).
Note: A sentence may have adverb clauses at the
beginning and at the end of the sentence at the same
time.
Example:
While I was walking, I saw a traffic accident
where a similar accident had happened a week
before.
3. Adverb clauses may be divided into several types,
depending on the kind of information they give.
There are adverb clauses of;
a) time
An adverb clause of time can be introduced by the
following clause markers: after, before, when,
whenever (kapanpun), as, as soon as, until, while,
once, since
b) place
An adverb clause of place can be introduced by:
where, wherever (dimanapun).
In sentence 3 in the frame, the adverb clause is an
adverb clause of place. It tells about where a car ‘hit a
tree’.
c) manner
An adverb clause of manner may be introduced by as,
as if, as though. In sentence 4 in the frame, the adverb
clause is an adverb clause of manner. It tells how I
‘wanted to spend my time’.
d) cause (reason)
An adverb clause of cause (reason) may be
introduced by: because, since, as, for. The adverb
clauses in sentences 7 and 8 are adverb clauses of
cause (reason). In sentence 8, for example, the clause
’since I had nothing to do’ gives information about
 why ‘I came here’.
e) purpose (result)
An adverb clause of purpose can be introduced by: so,
so that, in order that, such … that, … enough that,
hence (oleh karena itu)
Example:
He studied hard so that he would pass the exam. The
adverb clause ’so that he would pass the exam’ tells
what ‘he studied hard’ for.
f) concession
An adverb clause of concession may be introduced by
though, although, even though, while (sedangkan),
nevertheless (namun demikian), even if (sekalipun),
(Inspite of, despite phrase not clause)
Example:
He failed even though he had studied hard.
g) condition
An adverb clause of condition may be introduced by
if, unless,
as long as (asalkan), on condition that (dengan
syarat).
Example:
I’ll go by myself if you can’t go. (See also Unit 13).

ELIPTICAL CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERB CLAUSES

By Sunarto
Yang bisa diringkas:
1. Subjek kedua klausa sama bendanya.
2. Beberapa Adverb clause of time, adverb clause of
reason.
1. We used to live in the village before we moved here.
>>> We used to live in the village before moving here.
5. After I had written a letter, I decided to see a movie.
>>> After having written a letter, I decided to see a movie.
>>> Having written a letter, I decided to see a movie.
6. While I was walking to school, I saw a traffic accident.
>>> While walking to school, I saw a traffic accident.
>>> Walking to school, I saw a traffic accident.
7. Because I didn’t find you, I went by myself.
>>> Not finding you, I went by myself.
8. Since I had nothing to do, I came here.
>>> Having nothing to do, I came here.
9. After the balls are packed, they are sent to shops.
>>> After being packed, the balls are sent to shops.
11. Because she was disturbed, she was angry.
>>> Being disturbed, she was angry.

ADVERB CLAUSE OF PURPOSE/ RESULT

‘so’ and ‘enough’ modify adjectives in the main clauses.
‘that’ clauses in the sentences below are the result or purpose.
1 I was so busy that I forgot about time.
2 The coffee is so hot that I can’t drink it.
3 It was late enough that I soon slept.
4 You are tall enough that you can touch the fruit of that tree.

‘so’ and ‘enough’ modify adverbs in the main clauses.

1 He spoke so quickly that I couldn’t understand him.
2 It is made so nicely that she wants to buy it.
3 He speaks slowly enough that everybody can understand him.
4 He works carefully enough that he rarely makes mistakes.

‘so’ and ‘such’ modify nouns (phrase) in the main clauses.

1 He bought so many books that he couldn’t carry them by
‘becak’.
2 He has so much work that nobody can see him.
3 It gave him such a shock that his face turned white.
4 It was such nice food that people liked it very much.

Conditional Sentences
Source: English for The SLTA-Structure Reference Book II & III, Departemen Pendidikan dan
Kebudayaan.

A conditional sentence is a complex sentence expressing a result

which is expected from a condition. The condition is stated in a
clause which generally begins with the word (/, and the result is
expressed in the main clause. The result expected can be real or
unreal.

Conditional Sentences with If.

Frame 1: Affirmative Main Clause
MAIN CLAUSE CONDITIONAL CLAUSE
PREDICATE PREDICATE
WILL/
SUB- WOULD/ OB- SUB-
IF OBJECT,
JECT WOULD VERB JECT, JECT VERB
ETC.
HAVE ETC.
ETC,
me the
1I will go if he gives
money.
the
2 He can pass if he studies hard.
exam
3 She may come if she isn’t ill.
 me the
4I would go if he gave
money.
the
5 He should pass if he studied hard.
exam
6 She might come if she weren’t ill.
would had me the
7I gone if he
have given money.
could the had
8 He passed if he hard.
have exam studied
might hadn’t
9 She come if she ill.
have been
1. There are three important types of conditional sentences:
a). Future conditional sentences
b). Present conditional sentences
c). Past conditional sentences
a) A future conditional sentence expresses that something
mentioned in the if – clause will probably happen or is
likely to happen in the present or in the future.
b) A present conditional sentence expresses that something
mentioned in the if – clause is unreal or contrary to the fact
of the present.
c) A past conditional sentence also states a contrary – to – the
-fact condition. It expresses that something mentioned in
the if- clause did not occur in the past.
a) In the future conditional sentence the main clause uses will,
 can, must, may, to be going to. have to, expect to, plus the
first form of a verb. The verb in the conditional clause is in
the present tense. See sentences 1, 2 and 3 in the frame.
b) In the present conditional sentence the main clause uses
would, could, might, was going to, expected to, plus the
first form of a verb. The verb in the conditional clause is in
the past tense. See sentences 4, 5 and 6 in the frame.
c) In the past conditional sentence the main clause uses would
have, could have, might have, plus the third form of a
verb. The verb in the conditional clause is in the past
perfect tense. See sentences 7, 8 and 9 in the frame. The
contracted forms would’ve, could’ve, etc. are often used
instead of would have, could have, etc.
2. When the verb in the present conditional sentence is be, were
is commonly used for all persons. See sentence 6 in the
frame.
Other examples:
(1) I might come if I weren ‘t ill.
(2) You could go if she were here.
(3) They would study if they were students.
3. The verb form used in the contrary – to – fact condition is
also called subjunctive.
 The conditional clause can follow or precede the main clause.
Examples:
(1) He will come if he gets a car.
(2) I would go if he gave me the book.
(3) We could have invited her if she had been here. or:
(1) If he gets a car, he will come.
(2) If he gave me the book, / would go.
(3) If she had been here, we could have invited her.
4. When the conditional clause precedes the main clause, it is
often separated from the main clause by a comma (,).
5. The main clause can be in the affirmative, interrogative
(question); or negative form. All the sentences in the above
frame have affirmative main clauses. The conditional clause
can be affirmative (sentences 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8 or negative
(sentences 3, 6, 9).
Frame 2: Interrogative Main Clause
MAIN CLAUSE CONDITIONAL
WILL/WOULD SUBJECT VERB OBJECT CLAUSE
ETC.
1 Will you go if he gives you the
money?
2 Can he pass the if he studies hard?
exam
 MAIN CLAUSE CONDITIONAL
WILL/WOULD SUBJECT VERB OBJECT CLAUSE
ETC.
3 May she come if she isn’t ill?
4 Would you go if he gave you the
money?
5 Could he pass the if he studied hard?
exam
6 Might she come if she weren’t ill?

Conditional Clause without if

Source: English for The SLTA-Structure Reference Book II & III, Departemen Pendidikan dan
Kebudayaan.

Another way of expressing the present and past conditional

sentence is by a conditional clause without if.
Frame 1: Conditional Clauses before Main Clauses
CONDITIONAL CLAUSE
WERE,
HAD,
OBJECT, MAIN CLAUSE
SHOULD, SUBJECT VERB
COULD, ETC
ETC.
1 Were she ill she might not
come today.
2 Had they a sense of nobody would be
humour bored.
3 Were he a doctor he could help
you.
4 Should he call what would you
say to him?
5 Had he studied hard he would have
passed the exam.
6 Had they come yesterday I would’ve seen
them.
7 Could the dead have he would’ve told
man spoken us who murdered
him.
1. If the word if is omitted the conditional clause comes before
the main clause and the word order in the conditional clause
is the same as the one in a question sentence. The word order
in the main clause is not changed. See the sentences in the
frame above.
2. The word if can be omitted from the conditional clause if the
clause has were or had as a verb, (see sentences 1 —3), or
were, had, should, or could as a structure word (see
sentences 1 — 7).
3. The conditional clause without if can be made negative by
adding not after the subject. The contracted form n’t is never
used.
Examples:
(1) Were he not here, he wouldn’t know about it.
(2) Had he not come earlier, you wouldn’t have met him.
4. In a conditional sentence without if, a comma is commonly
 used after the conditional clause.

CAUSATIVES
by Sunarto
have, get, make
(menyuruh, menjadikan, mamaksa, membuat)
Active
have Object Vinf
Berarti:
make (commonly Vinf
person)
me-
get to Vinf
Passive
have Object VIII Berarti:
(commonly di-
get thing)
VIII
Examples:
I have her sew my dress.
Don’t make her cry.
She gets the gardener to cut the grass.

The man has his car washed.

She gets her dress shortened.

CONCORD/AGREEMENT
By FOSTER

A. Pengertian
Concord atau agreement adalah persesuaian antara subjek dengan
kata kerja atau predikat suatu kalimat (subject-verb agreement)
dan juga persesuaian antara kata atau frase (benda) dengan kata
gantinya (pronoun).

B. Ketentuan dan Pola Kalimat berkaitan dengan Concord

Untuk memahami concord/agreement perlu diperhatikan kata-
kata tertentu yang mempengaruhi persesuaian/kesesuaian antara
subjek dengan predikat dan antara pronoun dan antecedent-nya.
1. Pola kalimat yang menggunakan kata-kata berikut:
Every
Each
+ Verb (Singular)
either of
neither of
one of
1. Subjek yang menyatakan satuan/jumlah jarak, berat, volume,
dan waktu, uang selalu dianggap tunggal
The 10 dollars is for you.

3. Subjek yang terbentuk dari gerund V-ing dan kata benda

yang dianggap abstrak selalu dianggap tunggal.

4.
accompanied by
as well as
Subjek (tunggal) together with Verb(tunggal)
in addition to
a long with

5. Pola kalimat yang menggunakan kata-kata berikut ini:

Neither Noun nor + Singular Noun+Singular verb
 Either Noun or
Neither Noun nor + Plural Noun + Plural verb
Either Noun or
Noun or/nor + Singular Noun + Singular verb
Noun or/nor + Plural Noun + Plural verb

6. Pola kalimat dengan Kata-kata berikut:

• A number + Plural Noun + plural Verb
• The number + Plural Noun + singular Verb

7. All, No, Half, sangat mengacu kepada kata yang ditekankan.

Contoh:
• No book is expensive
• No books are expensive

8. Not only . . . but also …

Both … and …
Either … or …
Neither … nor …

Concord and agreement 2

http://linggris.wordpress.com/2010/07/13/concord-subject-verb-
agreement/

Aturan-aturan dasar dalam Subject-Verb

Agreement:
1.Each, every, much selalu diikuti oleh verba
tunggal
Contoh: Each student has got the workbook.
2.Uncountable noun (waktu, uang, jarak, dll) selalu
diikuti verba tunggal
 Contoh: Three minutes is all I need to fix the
computer.
3.“The” + adjective selalu diikuti oleh verba jamak
Contoh: The young need guidance from the old.
4.Public, police, people, cattle, clergy selalu diikuti
verba jamak.
Contoh: The police ask everybody to obey the
rules.
5.Jika dua subjek dihubungkan dengan and, maka
diikuti verba jamak.
Contoh: Steve and Noel are siblings.
6.Gerund yang berfungsi sebagai subjek kalimat
selalu diikuti verba tunggal.
Contoh: Planting trees is necessary to decrease
the level of pollutants in the air.
7.Pada kata other:
Jika Other diikuti nomina tunggal, maka verbanya
tunggal.
Contoh: There isn’t any other way to do it.
Jika Other diikuti nomina jamak, maka verbanya
jamak.
Contoh: There aren’t any other ways to do it.

CAPITALIZATION RULES
By Kenneth Beare, About.com

1. Capitalize the first word of a sentence

2. Capitalize the pronoun "I"
3. Capitalize proper nouns
 Examples:
I visited California on my vacation.
She gave Peter a present for his birthday.

a. Capitalize North, South, East, and West when contained in

the name of a place (state, country, etc.) but not when used
for giving directions.
Examples:
My friend lives in South Carolina.
We are planning a vacation in South Africa.
but
She lives in southern Europe.
I'm going to visit my friends in eastern Oregon.

b. Capitalize the group name of members of an organization

Examples:
The Neighborhood Players are presenting a musical next
week.
Some Washington Democrats would like to see the
company up.

c. Capitalize company trademarks (product names)

Examples:
My niece loves Converse shoes.
Do you prefer Siesta or Aloha products?

d. Capitalize common names of periods of time in history

Examples:
The Psychedelic Sixties were pretty groovy baby!
The Dot Com Era lasted far shorter than many people
expected.

e. Capitalize specific events

 Examples:
I went to the Tomato Growers Conference in Salinas last
weekend.
Have you ever attended the Technoland Convergence
Festival?

f. Capitalize acronyms which refer to specific names

Examples:
I prefer to watch PBS tv whenever possible.
The ICAM commissioned a study on OBLOG.

g. Common nouns may be capitalized when used as names for

the entire class of something.
Example:
Some feel that Man is destined for outer space!
h. Names of gods are capitalized, including Allah, Vishnu, and
God. The word god is generally not capitalized if it is used
to refer to the generic idea of a deity, nor is it capitalized
when it refers to multiple gods.
Examples:
Wotan is one of the gods in Wagner's Ring Cycle.
The paster prayed that God should deliver us from our sins.

4. Capitalize days of the week, holidays, and months of the

year. Do not capitalize seasons.
Correct Examples:
She flew to Dallas in September.
Do you have any time on Monday?
But
I love skiing in winter.
They visited Bob last summer.

5. Capitalize countries, languages, and nationalities (adjective

 form of a specific country)
Examples:
I lived in Italy for over 10 years.
Have you ever had any really expensive French wine?
Do you speak Russian?

Capitalize family relationships when used in place of a name

Examples:
Have you given Mom her present yet?
I think Dad needs some time off work.

6. Capitalize titles that come before names. Do not capitalize

titles that follow names.
Correct Examples:
The soldier wrote to General Smith and asked for advice.
Have you spoken to Vice Principal Smithers yet?
But
George Washington was the first president of the United
States.
Peter Smith was elected mayor in 1995.

7. Capitalize letter salutations (openings) and closings

Examples:
Dear Mr. Smith,
Best regards,

8. Capitalize the first word in a quote.

This is true even if the quote occurs in the middle of a
sentence.
Examples:
The last time I talked to Peter he said, "Study hard and get to
bed early!"
Thomas Patterman was a simple man who said, "Give me life,
 liberty and a bottle of rum!"

9. Capitalize content words in titles.

Remember that content words include nouns, pronouns,
principal verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.
Examples:
Rainy Days and Mondays
How to Win Friends and Influence your Neighbors

10. Capitalize the first word in each line of poetry

Roses are red
Violets are blue
I think I said He's in love with you!

INVERSION (emphasis, rhetorical)

http://www3.telus.net/linguisticsissues/Inversion.htm
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/internet-grammar/function/subjinv.htm
http://www.fullspate.net/efl-advanced-grammar/
http://www.edufind.com/english/grammar/ADVERBS7.cfm
http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/grammar/learnit/learnitv34.shtml

Negative adverbs can cause an inversion

I have never seen such courage.
 Never have I seen such courage.
She rarely left the house.
 Rarely did she leave the house.
Bob rarely speaks to himself.
 Rarely does Bob speak to himself.
If ‘rarely’ comes after the subject, there is no inversion but if it comes before the
subject, we need an inversion.

 In Bryce Canyon are immense chasms filled with realistic

rock forms resembling oriental cities and castles of the
 Middle Ages.
 Nowhere are retail trade figures more skewed than in the
auto industry.

Inversions after negative adverbials

The sentence with the inversion sounds more formal or more literary, and
sentences like this are less common in ordinary conversation.
At no time did the prisoner look as if he might confess.
At no time did I say I would accept late homework.
At no time did he get permission for what he was doing.
Hardly had we walked in the door when the phone started
ringing.
Hardly/Scarcely had he stepped outside when it started to rain.
In no way will I agree to sharing an office with Ben.
Little** did she realize that her grandmother was really a wolf.
** This means that the girl didn't realize at all that her grandmother was really a
wolf.
Little do you know how much trouble you are in.
Little did she realize that her grandmother was really a wolf.
Never in her life had she experienced this exhilarating emotion.
Never before have I seen such awful behaviour.
Never have we seen such a breathtaking view.
No sooner had I reached the door than I realised it was locked.
No sooner did I reach the door than I realised it was locked.
Not only has McDonalds played a huge role in pioneering low
standards but it has also decided to restrict our ability to
have a public discussion.
Not until the next morning did she realize how serious it was.
Not until she took up rock climbing did she overcome her fear of
heights.
Nowhere had Susan seen a more beautifully decorated room.
Not a single word did she say.
Not only is she a great dancer but she is also an amazing
mathematician.
Not until she took up rock climbing did she overcome her fear of
heights.
Only at night do bats leave their cave.
Only then/if/when/later did I know what I had got myself into.
Only later did they learn his terrible secret.
Note that it is not always the first verb that is inverted.
Only after he arrived at the airport did he look for his passport.
Only if you look through this dark glass will you be able to see
the spots on the sun.
We accepted the invitation. Only later did we suspect it might be
a trap.
Only by threatening extreme physical violence was the teacher
able to control the class.
Note that there is no inversion when "only" is used in the following way.
Only Fiona knew the answer to the question.
Rarely does a movie make you feel so warm and so uneasy at the
same time.
Scarcely/Barely had I arrived home when there was a knock on
the door.
Seldom does Bob get invited to parties. (seldom = rarely)
Under no circumstances/ On no account should you be absent
from your seminars.
Under no circumstances* will prisoners be allowed to give
interviews to the media.
* This is used to describe rules for which there are no exceptions. The alternative
without the inversion is: Prisoners will not be allowed to give interviews to the
media under any circumstances.

event that happened immediately after another

Hardly had he stepped outside when it started to rain.
Scarcely had he stepped outside when it started to rain.
No sooner had he stepped outside than it started to rain.
Note that the past perfect tense is used to describe the event that happened first.

Conditionals with inversions

Should you see Nigel, give him my regards.
Were I in your shoes, I would make a formal complaint.
Had I known it was her birthday, I would have bought her a gift.
Note that "should", "were" and "had" are the only verbs that can be inverted in this
way.

Inversions with "as"

Elisabeth was too shy to dance, as was Gerald.
She decided to leave early, as did Gerald.
In these sentences "as" indicates the similarity between two things.

Inversions with "so" and "such"

So excited were they that they couldn't sit still.
Such was their excitement that they began to jump up and
down.
Note that "so" is followed by an adjective and "such" can be replaced by "so great" (So great was
their excitement that...).

Inversions after adjectives

A few very literary sentences begin with an adjective and include
an inversion.
Blessed are the children who are still unaware of what the future
holds.
Gone* are the days when I could have been happy.
* Here the past participle is used like an adjective.
However there is no inversion in the following sentence.
Strange as it may seem, we were sorry to leave in the end.

Inversion for Prayer

May you both live happily ever after!
PREFERENCE SUMMARY
By Sunarto
1. I would rather study than sleep. (British)
2. I had rather study than sleep. (American)
3. I would rather have some tablets than an injection.
4. I would prefer to go home rather than stay here.
5. I prefer to do something rather than do something else.
6. I prefer going home to staying here.
7. I prefer mangoes to bananas.
8. I like mangoes better than bananas.
9. I like cooking better than sewing.
10. You had better study hard.
11. We are thirsty. We would like a glass of milk.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS
By Sunarto

Personal Pronouns
Reflexive
Persons Subje Possessive
Object Pronouns
ct Adjective Pronouns
First I me my mine myself
Second you you your yours yourself
Singul
she, her, herself,
ar Third her, his hers, his
he him himself
Thing it it its its itself
First we us our ours ourselves
Second you you your yours yourselves
Plural
Third they them their theirs themselves
Things they them their theirs themselves
THE SEQUENCE OF ADJECTIVES IN A NOUN PHRASE
Taken from MODERN ENGLISH by Marcella Frank
Determiners Numeral General Description Physical Proper Adjectives Noun Nouns
State Adjuncts
1. partitive 1. Descripti 1. size nationality,
all, both, ordinals ve 2. shape religion, etc.
half (pre- 2. adjectives 3. age
determiners) cardinals (often 4. Also in this
2. articles inherent tempe position are
(or) quality) rature some
demonstrati Includes 5. color adjectives
ves (or) most ending in -
possessives adjectives ic(al) -al,
3. indefinite with etc., that
adjectives derivational function
endings (-y, - almost like
ous, -ful, - noun
ing, -ed, etc.) adjuncts

air- white Lincoln cars

conditioned Continental
both the gifted young Negro colleg studen
e ts
A beautiful, residential district
exclusive 11
those three self-conscious little ladies
two spacious old American colonial houses
Jane's daringly-cut Parisian evenin gown
g
excellent automatic bottlin equip
g ment
the first ten commercial Jet planes
four multi-purpose aluminum utensil
kitchen s
 several well-known French priests
Catholic
an expensive brand- four- highw
new lane ay
that temperamental Italian opera singer
every streamlined electric mimeo machi
graph ne
For the purpose of demonstrating more clearly the sequence of adjectives
before a noun, some of these examples contain more adjectives than
would normally occur in pre-position.

NOUN PHRASE
By Sunarto
Article – adverb – adjective – Noun
The really delicious food
The most beautiful girl

DERIVATIVE ADJECTIVE etc

beauty => beautiful => beautifully
1. Adjective berakhiran –ful
Contoh: beautiful, helpful, colourful
2. Adjective berakhiran -less
Contoh: careless, useless
3. Adjective berakhiran –ous, -y, -ing, -ed
Contoh: generous, famous, humorous, rusty, gloomy,
smiling, interesting, closed, disappointed.
4. Adjective berakhiran –ive, -ish, -ly
Contoh: expensive, talkative, childish, foolish, friendly,
lonely
DERIVATIVE NOUN
Prefix + adjective + suffix  Noun
Contoh: dis + able + ity  disability = ketidakmampuan

Verb + suffix noun

Contoh:
Verb + ion : destruct + ion = destruction
Verb + ment : manage + ment = management
Verb + er : write + er = writer
Verb + or : translate + or = translator
Verb + th : warm + th = warmth

INFINITIVE WITHOUT TO and

PARTICIPLES
Source: English for The SLTA-Structure Reference Book II & III,
Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan.

Infinitive without to
The infinitive without to is used after certain verbs in English,
namely;
a) physical perception; hear, see, feel, listen to, look at, notice,
observe, watch
b) make, let, help, have, know
c) in that clause; propose, advise, ask, command, demand,
 desire, insist, order, recommend, request, require, suggest,
urge.
Frame 1
1 I heard her sing.
2 He saw them go out.
3 They felt the house shake.
4 We are going to the men do the job.
look at
The verbs in Frame can also be followed by the active participle
(Ving).
I heard her sing. or I heard her singing.
Frame 2
1 The made the photo- take their
boys grapher pictures.
2 They let their children come with us.
3 He can help* you finish the work.
4 She has him take her to the
office.
5I never him behave so badly.
knew*
6 We have never him do such a
known* thing.

The verbs ‘help’ and ‘know’ in the frame above may also be
followed by the to- infinitive.
(1) They helped us carry the boxes or They helped us to carry the
boxes,
(2) We never knew him behave so badly. or We never knew him
to behave so badly,
(3) They have never known him do such a thing. or They have
never known him to do such a thing
Note: the verb ‘knew’ in this pattern may only be used in the
simple past and the perfect tenses.
When the verb ‘see’, ‘make’ or ‘know’ is in the passive voice it
is followed by the to- infinitive
They were seen to go out.
The photographer was made to take their pictures.
He has never been known to do such a thing.

Frame 3
I propose that the be distrib-
report uted
2 He advised that Mr. write the
Jones report.
3 She asked that they be quiet.
4 The demanded that she hand the
man over money.
Corrier has urged that the be
o juvenile repealed
offender altogeth
law er
5 They insisted that we finish the work.
6 The suggested that he go out Quickly.
boss
7 It is im- that we be on time.
portant,
 essential,
necessary
Usage.
The infinitive without to may also be used in the dependent
clause that follows certain adjectives, such as important, nec-
essary, essential,

Participles
1. Active Participles
Catch, keep, leave, smell can only be followed by the active
participle while the others can be followed either by the
active participle or the infinitive without to.
I saw him go out (= He went out and I saw him). I saw him
going out (= He was going out when I saw him).
1 I saw the man crossing the
street.
2 The old felt the house shaking.
man
3 Mrs. Pock caught little smoking a cigar.
Johnny
4 They kept us waiting.
5 She smelt something burning.
Note that the verbs see, catch, keep can also be used in the
passive. The other verbs are not commonly used in the passive.
(1) The man was seen crossing the street.
(2) Little Johnny was caught smoking.
(3) We were kept waiting.
2. Passive Participles
The passive participles may be used after the verbs make, feel,
find, hear, like, prefer, see, want, wish, get, have.
 He couldn’t make his voice heard.

1 He felt her thumb

pressed against his
temple.
2 I found the book covered with dust.
3 I like my egg boiled.
4 She saw her friend hit by the car.
5 He got his hair cut.
6 She had a new dress made.

TO INFINITIVE dan GERUND

By Bob Foster
To Infinitive
1. Subject (as subject)
Contoh: To study hard makes us clever.
2. Setelah kata-kata kerja tertentu:
ditambah dari http://www.grammaring.com/verbs-followed-by-to-infinitive
https://www.ef.com/english-resources/english-grammar/verbs-followed-infinitives/
afford get prove (turn out)
agree guarantee refuse
aim happen remind
appear hasten resolve
arrange hate seek
ask have (be obliged) seem
attempt help strive
beg hesitate swear
bother hope teach
care instruct tell
choose intend tend
command invite threaten
condescend learn trouble
consent long undertake
decide manage volunteer
 demand offer vow
deserve order wait
determine persuade want
enable plan warn
endeavour prepare would
expect pretend would like
fail proceed would love
forbid promise
force

Contoh:
• I want to visit him.
• She decided to study hard.

3. Setelah kata kerja object pelaku

(accusative object) Contoh:
• I want you to visit him.
• She asked me to call her soon.
https://www.ef.com/english-resources/english-grammar/verbs-followed-infinitives/
accustom, aid, appoint, assist, cause, challenge, command,
defy, direct, drive, empower, enable, encourage, entice,
entitle, entreat, force, get, implore, incite, induce, inspire,
instruct, invite, lead, leave (=make someone responsible),
oblige, order, persuade, press, prompt, provoke, remind,
require, stimulate, summon, teach, tell, tempt, trust, warn.
Examples
 The professor challenged his students to argue with his
theory.
 This law empowers the government to charge higher taxes.
 You can't force me to do something I don't agree with.
4. Setelah kata sifat (adjective)
Contoh:
• She is clever to study hard.
 • He is careful to finish his job.
5. Setelah beberapa kata tanya (question words),
where, what, how.
Contoh:
• I don't know where to go.
• She understands how to finish her works.

Gerunds
1. Sebagai subjek (as subject) Contoh:
• Studying hard makes us clever.
• Reading is useful for us.

2. Setelah kata kerja tertentu

acknowledge discuss permit
admit dislike postpone
anticipate don't mind practice
appreciate dread prevent
avoid enjoy quit
begin entail recall
can't bear escape recollect
can't help excuse recommend
can't see finish regret
can't stand forgive report
cease hate require
celebrate imagine resent
claim involve resist
complete keep risk
contemplate loathe save
defend mention start
defer mind stop
 delay miss suggest
deny need tolerate
despise neglect understand
detest pardon
Contoh:
• She denied finishing her homework.
• I suggested driving carefully.

3. Setelah kata kerja objek pelaku (accusative object) Contoh:

• We enjoy them playing football.
• They postponed the plane flying in the rain.

4. Sebagai objek (as object) Contoh:

• My hobby is reading a novel.

5. Setelah kata-kata berikut ini:

1. interested in 9. get to
2. be used to 10. be opposed to
3. confess to 11. be busy
4. object to 12. key to
5. dedicate to 13. be worth
6. advanced to 14. can't help/bear
7. be looking forward to 15. get used to
8. be accustomed to
6. Setelah posessive adjective: (her, his, my, our, their,
Boneng's, dll)
Contoh:
• I don't like her leaving for the city.
8. Setelah preposition (kata depan): on, in, of, after, about,
before, at, by,
Contoh:
 • I am sorry for making some trouble.
8. In passive meaning ‘want’ and ‘need’ are often followed by a
gerund.
1 Your shoes want mending.
2 Your work needs correcting.
Your shoes need mending (= Your shoes need to be mended).

Followed by to infinitive or gerund

Ada beberapa kata kerja dalam Bahasa Inggris yang dapat
diikuti oleh to infinitive atau gerund.
(gerund: cenderung telah terjadi, to infinitive: akan terjadi)
Misalnya:
begin love
continue prefer
start like
stop go
remember forget
Contoh:
• I go to shop today.
• I go shopping every week

Using “dare (to)”

In negative and interrogative sentences the infinitive with or
without 'to' is possible as long as the subject of both verbs is the
same, though it is more common to omit the 'to'. If the subject of
the two verbs is different, you must include to.
 I never dared tell him what happened.
  Do you dare tell him?
 Would you dare (to) jump out of a plane?
 I dare you to tell him the truth.
 She dared me to jump off the wall.

LINKING VERBS
by Tristan
https://www.ecenglish.com

Appear, be, become, feel, get, go, grow, look,

prove, remain, seem, smell, sound, stay, taste,
turn.
These verbs are often followed by adjectives instead of adverbs.
In these sentences the adjective describes the subject of the
sentence and not the verb which is why an adverb is not possible.
Look at these examples:
Sarah seemed tired. (not tiredly)
Peter seemed angry
The wine tastes fine.
The signal is low.
Peter grew tired of listening.
The food all went bad.
She remained calm.
Peter grew angry. In this sentence 'grew' is being used to link the
adjective 'angry' to 'Peter'.
 MODAL WITH PERFECT
Source: English for The SLTA-Structure Reference Book II & III,
Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan.
Modals such as can, may, must, shall, could, might, should,
ought to and would, can be used with the perfect tense.
Frame 1: Affirmative Statements

SUBJECT PREDICATE
MODAL HAVE+VERB OBJECT, TIME
3RD FORM ETC.
1 They can have left already.
2 I could have done my home-
work on
the train.
3 I could have lifted the box just now.
4 He may have left the last week.
umbrella
on the
train
5 They may have finished the work by next
week.
6 He might have gone by train early this
morning.
7 They might have waited for a few before
minutes they went
home.
8 It must have rained last night.
9 We shall have finished the house before the
rainy
season
starts.
10 I should have finished the book before you
(ought to have finished) need it
next week.
11 You should have given him the last week.
(ought to have given) money
12 I would have returned your yesterday.
bicycle
13 You would have stopped the man.
and helped

Usage
1. The verb phrase in this construction consists of Modal + have
+ the third form of the main verb.
2. Basically the modals retain the meanings that they have when
they are used with the simple tenses. However, some
differences do occur when they are used with the perfect
tense. Following are the meanings of the modals when they
are used with the perfect tense.

CAN
Can indicates a possibility (sentence 1).
Sentence 1 means: It is possible that they have left when you get
there.

COULD
Could indicates
a) a past possibility which was not acted upon (sentence 2).
This sentence means: It was possible for you to do it then,
 but you did not.
b) a past ability (sentence 3).
This sentence means: I was able to lift the box, but I did not
do it because, say, I preferred to sit and watch.

MAY
May indicates
a) a past possibility (sentence 4).
This sentence means: It was possible that he left the umbrella
on the train. (We do not know yet).
b) a future doubtful possibility (sentence 5).
This sentence means: It is possible that they will finish the
work by next week but they also have a lot of other things to
do, so you’d better not be too hopeful

MIGHT
Might indicates
a) a past possibility (the same as may, sentence 6).
This sentence means: It was possible that they left by train.
b) a past possibility which was not acted on (sentence 7).
This sentence means: It was possible for them to wait but
instead they left immediately and did not see us.

MUST
Must indicates a deduction about the past (sentence 8).
(The road is wet.) It must have rained last night.

SHALL
Shall is used almost exclusively with I or we. It indicates
prediction, with emphasis (sentence 9). This sentence means: We
are determined to finish the house before the rainy season starts.

SHOULD and OUGHT TO

These two are usually interchangeable. They express
a) expectation (sentence 10).
This sentence means: I expect to finish the book before you
need it.
b) unfulfilled obligation in past time (sentence 11).
This sentence means: You had the obligation to give the
money but you did not.

WOULD
Would indicates
a) an expectation that did not take place (sentence 12).
This sentence means: I expected to return your bicycle
yesterday, but I could not, because, say, it rained
This use of would is similar to that in conditional sentences.
Compare the sentence with the following:
I would have returned your bicycle yesterday if it hadn’t
rained.
b) an alternative to something that took place (sentence 13).
This sentence means: You did not stop and help the man
although you had this choice.

Frame 2: Negative Statements

SUB- PREDICATE
JECT MODAL NOT HAVE+VERB OBJECT, TIME
3RD FORM ETC.
1 We can not have given your before you
back money leave.
2 They can not have left already when you
get there.
3 I could not have done my home- yesterday.
work on
the train
4 I could not have lifted the box just now.
5 He may not have left the last week.
umbrella
on the
train
6 They may not have finished the work by next
week.
7 He might not have gone by train this
morning.
8 They might not have waited for a few before
minutes they went
home.
9 We shall not have finished the house before the
rainy
season
starts.
10 You should not have given him the last week.
(ought not to have given) money
11 I would not have returned your yesterday.
bicycle
Usage
1. The negative statement is formed by putting not after the
modal.
2. Note that not all affirmative statements with modal + perfect
can be turned into negative. In changing the affirmative into
the negative we should also remember that sometimes the
meaning of the modal changes.

Here are some of the changes.

COULD NOT
could not expresses that one situation is known to be impossible
as the result of another situation (sentence 3 and 4).
Sentence 3 means: It was not possible for me to do my homework
on the train because, say, it was very crowded.
Sentence 4 means: It was impossible for me to lift the box
because, say, it was too heavy.

MAY NOT and MIGHT NOT

may not and might not express lack of possibility or probability,
i.e. they express doubt and uncertainty (sentences 5, 6, 7, 8).

SHOULD NOT
should not expresses disapproval of something that was done in
the past (sentence 10). This sentence means: You gave him the
money

Modal Perfect by Bob Foster

1. Should (ought to) have = seharusnya telah

Penggunaan: Untuk menyatakan adanya suatu keharusan pada
waktu lampau namun kegiatan/kejadian tersebut tidak
dilakukan.

Contoh:
Bert should have studied hard.
Bert seharusnya telah belajar keras. (Kenyataannya dia tidak
belajar/ She did not study).
He ought not to have wasted his time.
Dia tidak seharusnya menghabiskan waktunya. (Kenyataannya
dia menghabiskan waktunya secara percuma/He wasted his
time).
2. Could have = sebenarnya mampu
Penggunaan: Menyatakan suatu kegiatan yang bisa terjadi di
masa lampau tetapi tidak dilakukan.

Contoh:
He could have passed the examination.
Dia mungkin dapat lulus ujian. (Kenyataan dia tidak lulus. I
did not pass the examination).
He could have taken it by mistake = He didn't take it by
mistake. Dia mungkin telah membauianya tanpa sengaja.

3. May/might have = mungkin (belum diketahui kenyataanya)

Penggunaan: Untuk menyatakan suatu kemungkinan
berdasarkan dugaan atau prakiraan dimasa lampau.

Contoh:
He did not speak to us, he might have become angry.
Dia tidak bicara pada kami, mungkin dia marah (artinya
mungkin marah mungkin tidak karena hanya praduga saja).

4. Must have = kepastian

Penggunaan: Untuk menyatakan kesimpulan bahwa sesuatu
pasti telah terjadi pada waktu lampau.

Contoh:
The lights went out, the electricity must have been off. Lampu
mati, listriknya pasti putus.
The opera star fainted, she must have been ill. Pemain Opera
itu kelihatan lesu, dia pasti sakit.
 SUBJUNCTIVES
Source: English for The SLTA-Structure Reference Book II & III,
Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan.

When we talked about conditional sentences, we found some

uses of the subjunctive. Here are some examples taken from its
frames:
(1) She might not come if she were ill.
(2) She might have come if she hadn't been ill.
(3) Were he a doctor, he could help you.
(4) Had they come yesterday, I would've seen them.
Remember that the subjunctive is used in contrary-to-fact
condition. Now we will look at the uses of the subjunctive in
clauses after wish, would rather, as if, as though, if only.
A. The subjunctive referring to a present situation
Frame 1a: wish/would rather + the 'past tense' form

CLAUSE
SUBJECT +
WISH (THAT)
VERB ETC.
SUBJE
CT
1 I wish (that) I remember her
ed address.

2 He wishes (that) he were rich.

3 We wish (that) it would

rain

4 She would (that) did it now.

rather you
5 They would (that) came tomorro
rather she w.

Frame 1b: as if etc. + the 'past tense' form

SUBJEC CLAUSE
AS IF,
T+ SUBJE
ETC, VERB ETC.
VERB CT

1 He walks as if he were drunk.

They as nothing happen

2 keep though ed.
singing

3 If only it were cheap.

Usage
1. The situation as expressed in the clause after wish, as if, as
though, etc. is unreal or contrary - to - fact.
2. We use the past tense form of a verb in the clauses to
express a situation or event which is contrary to the fact of
the present. (After would rather it may also refer to a
future situation). Look at the sentences in the frames
above. For example, Frame la, sentence 1 means: 'I don't
remember her address, (but I wish I remembered it).
Frame la, sentence 5 means: 'They have come now, (but
I would rather they came tomorrow).
 Frame Ib, sentence 1 means: 'He isn't drunk, (but he
walks as if he were drunk).
3. Note that were is used for all persons (see Frame la,
sentence 2 and Frame Ib, sentences 1, 3).

B. The subjunctive referring to a past situation

Frame 2a: wish/would rather + the 'past perfect tense' form
CLAUSE

SUBJECT (THAT) VERB ETC.

+ WISH SUBJECT

1 We wish (that) we had invited him.

2 I wished (that) the had been in his office

doctor yesterday.

3 I would (that) you had not there.

rather gone

Frame 2b: as if, etc. + the 'past perfect tense'form

SUBJECT AS IF, CLAUSE
+ VERB ETC. SUBJECT VERB ETC.
1 She cried as if she had been hit by her
loudly mother.

2 They sat as though nothing had

quietly happened.
 3 If only I had arrived earlier.

Usage
1. We use the 'past perfect tense' form in clauses after wish,
as if, etc. to express a situation or event which is contrary
to the fact of the past Look at the sentences above. For
example Frame 2a, sentence 1 means:
2. We didn't invite him, (but we wish now that we had invited
him)! Frame 2b, sentence 1 means: 'She was not hit
(nobody touched her), (but she cried as if she had been
hit).

Subjunctive (the other topic)

https://www.englishpage.com/minitutorials/subjunctive.html

The following is a mini-tutorial on the use of the Subjunctive.

After you have studied the tutorial, complete the associated
exercises. If you already know how to use this verb form, you can
skip the explanation and go directly to the exercises.
FORM
Use the simple form of the verb. The simple form is the infinitive
without the "to." The simple form of the verb "to go" is "go." The
Subjunctive is only noticeable in certain forms and tenses.
USE
The Subjunctive is used to emphasize urgency or importance. It
is used after certain expressions (see below).
Examples:
  I suggest that he study.
 Is it essential that we be there?
 Don recommended that you join the committee.
NOTICE
The Subjunctive is only noticeable in certain forms and tenses. In
the examples below, the Subjunctive is not noticeable in the
you-form of the verb, but it is noticeable in the he-form of the
verb.
Examples:
 You try to study often. you-form of "try"

 It is important that you try to study often. Subjunctive form

of "try" looks the same.

 He tries to study often. he-form of "try"

 It is important that he try to study often. Subjunctive form

of "try" is noticeable here.

Verbs Followed by the Subjunctive
The Subjunctive is used after the following verbs:
to advise (that)
to ask (that)
to command (that)
to demand (that)
to desire (that)
to insist (that)
to propose (that)
to recommend (that)
to request (that)
to suggest (that)
to urge (that)
Examples:
 Dr. Smith asked that Mark submit his research paper before

the end of the month.

 Donna requested Frank come to the party.

 The teacher insists that her students be on time.

Expressions Followed by the Subjunctive

The Subjunctive is used after the following expressions:
It is best (that)
It is crucial (that)
It is desirable (that)
It is essential (that)
It is imperative (that)
It is important (that)
It is recommended (that)
It is urgent (that)
It is vital (that)
It is a good idea (that)
It is a bad idea (that)
Examples:
 It is crucial that you be there before Tom arrives.

 It is important she attend the meeting.

 It is recommended that he take a gallon of water with him

if he wants to hike to the bottom of the Grand Canyon.

Negative, Continuous and Passive Forms of Subjunctive
The Subjunctive can be used in negative, continuous and passive
forms.
Negative Examples:
 The boss insisted that Sam not be at the meeting.
  The company asked that employees not accept personal
phone calls during business hours.
 I suggest that you not take the job without renegotiating

the salary.
Passive Examples:
 Jake recommended that Susan be hired immediately.

 Christine demanded that I be allowed to take part in the

negotiations.
 We suggested that you be admitted to the organization.

Continuous Examples:
 It is important that you be standing there when he gets off

the plane.
 It is crucial that a car be waiting for the boss when the

meeting is over.
 I propose that we all be waiting in Tim's apartment when

he gets home.
Should as Subjunctive
After many of the above expressions, the word "should" is
sometimes used to express the idea of subjunctiveness. This
form is used more frequently in British English and is most
common after the verbs "suggest," "recommend" and "insist."
Examples:
 The doctor recommended that she should see a specialist

about the problem.

 Professor William suggested that Wilma should study

harder for the final exam.

FEW AND LITTLE
http://www.english-at-home.com/grammar/few/
few/little mean examples
a few not very A few people came to the
with plural, many party.
countable A few people understand.
nouns (some people understand).
a little not very There's a little coffee left, if
uncountable much you would like some.
nouns
Few negative Few people understand. (not
meaning many people understand)
little negative There's little point in calling"
meaning (= there's not much point
calling).
not many = few
only a few
only a little = little
not much
fewer There are fewer people here
than last year
Less he drinks less coffee than I do

Little less least (uncountable)

Few fewer fewest (countable)
 Because there are fewer members present tonight
than there were last night we must wait until the
next meeting to vote.
 UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
http://www.fortunecity.com/bally/durrus/153/gramch16.html

Some English nouns usually cannot form a plural or be preceded

by a, an or a number. Because they usually cannot be preceded
by a number, such nouns can be referred to as uncountable.
English uncountable nouns include:
a) nouns naming intangible things which normally cannot be
counted:
e.g. honesty
courage
impatience
b) nouns naming tangible things which are thought of as
substances:
e.g. butter
milk
sand
c) nouns naming groups of things which in English are referred to
collectively:
e.g. furniture
luggage
news
d) names of languages:
e.g. English
German
Spanish
An uncountable noun takes a singular verb.
e.g. Honesty is a virtue.
Butter tastes good.
Furniture was provided.
1. The absence of a determiner before uncountable nouns

a. Making a general statement

In general statements, uncountable nouns are usually not
preceded by determiners. The uncountable nouns in the
following general statements are underlined.
e.g. Information is often valuable.
Butter is fattening.
Courage and honesty are admirable qualities.
Sunlight and water are usually required for plants to grow.

b. Referring to something not mentioned before

In descriptions, uncountable nouns are generally not preceded
by a determiner when naming something which has not been
referred to previously.
e.g. Rain was forecast for the next day.
However, thunder and lightning were not expected.
Our breakfast consisted of bread, honey and marmalade.

In these examples, the uncountable nouns rain, thunder,

lightning, bread, honey and marmalade are not preceded by
determiners. It is assumed that the things referred to by these
nouns have not been mentioned previously.

2. The use of ‘the’ before uncountable nouns

a. Referring to something mentioned before

The is used with uncountable nouns referring to things
previously mentioned.
e.g. We were served bread and cheese. The bread was
 somewhat stale, but the cheese was delicious.
Gold was discovered in the Klondike. The gold attracted
thousands of prospectors.
Furniture and clothing are being sold at the flea market.
The furniture is reasonably priced, and the clothing is
cheap.

In these examples, the first time the uncountable nouns bread,

cheese, gold, furniture and clothing are used, they are not
preceded by determiners, because the things referred to have not
been mentioned previously. The second time these nouns are
used, they are preceded by the, since the things referred to have
already been mentioned.

b. Referring to something when it is considered obvious what

is meant
The is used with uncountable nouns when the speaker or writer
considers it obvious which particular thing is meant.
e.g. The weather is fine.
The butter is hard.
The music is too loud.
The expression the weather usually refers to the local weather.
The expression the butter could refer to butter which one plans
to use, and the expression the music could refer to music which
is playing nearby.

The is often used before uncountable nouns followed by

descriptive phrases, since such phrases tend to make it clear to
which particular things the uncountable nouns are referring.
e.g. The warmth of the sun causes water to evaporate.
The coal mined in Germany is used in making steel.
The milk which they produce is marketed locally.
In the first sentence, the is used with the uncountable noun
warmth, since the phrase of the sun specifies what warmth is
meant. In the second sentence, the is used with the uncountable
noun coal, since the phrase mined in Germany specifies which
particular coal is meant. In the third sentence, the is used with the
uncountable noun milk, since the phrase which they produce
makes it clear which particular milk is meant.

As shown in the following table, the absence of a determiner and

the use of the before uncountable nouns follows a pattern similar
to the absence of a determiner and the use of the before plural
countable nouns.

The absence of a determiner and the use of The before

uncountable nouns

Use Uncountable Nouns

Making a general statement no determiner
Something not mentioned before no determiner
Something mentioned before the
When it is obvious what is meant the

3. The use of uncountable nouns to refer to individual things

Uncountable nouns can be used to refer to individual things by
being preceded by a countable noun and the word of. For
example:

Uncountable Noun Referring to an Individual Thing

information a piece of information
wheat a grain of wheat
 milk a glass of milk
sunlight a patch of sunlight

The countable nouns may, of course, be put into the plural. For
example:

Singular
one piece of information
one grain of wheat
one glass of milk
one patch of sunlight
Plural
two pieces of information
three grains of wheat
four glasses of milk
five patches of sunlight

In sentences such as the following, it is the countable noun which

is the subject of the verb.
e.g. Fifty grains of wheat are required.
Two glasses of milk are enough.
In the above examples, the plural countable nouns grains and
glasses each take the plural verb are.

In English, the names of games are usually uncountable nouns.

e.g. He plays hockey.
Chess is a challenging game.

When it is desired to refer to individual games, the word game

must usually be used. For example:

Uncountable Noun Referring to an Individual Thing

chess a game of chess
hockey a game of hockey or a hockey game

4. Nouns which can be either countable or uncountable

Many English nouns are used sometimes as countable nouns and
sometimes as uncountable nouns. Nouns which can be either
countable or uncountable include nouns which may have different
shades of meaning, normally uncountable nouns which are used
to refer to types of things, and a few nouns which refer to places
used for specific activities.

a. Differences in meaning
Many nouns are uncountable when they refer to something as a
substance or a concept, but are countable when they refer to an
individual thing related to the substance or concept. For instance,
cake is used as an uncountable noun when referring to cake as a
substance, but is used as a countable noun when referring to
individual cakes.
e.g. Cake and ice cream is my favorite dessert.
This afternoon we baked two cakes.
In the first sentence cake is an uncountable noun, and in the
second sentence cakes is a countable noun.

Similarly, life is used as an uncountable noun when referring to

life as an abstract concept, but is used as a countable noun when
referring to individual lives.
e.g. Life is full of surprises.
It was feared that two lives had been lost.
In the first sentence life is an uncountable noun, and in the second
sentence lives is a countable noun.
b. Referring to a type of something
An uncountable noun can be used as countable noun when it
refers to a type of something.
e.g. He has an honesty which is rare nowadays.
The wheats of Canada differ from those of India.
In the first sentence, the usually uncountable noun honesty is
used with an as a countable noun to refer to a type of honesty. In
the second sentence, the usually uncountable noun wheat is used
as a countable noun in the plural to refer to types of wheat.

c. Referring to places used for specific activities

A few nouns referring to places used for specific activities can be
either countable or uncountable. These nouns are used as
uncountable nouns when referring to places as locations where
specific activities are carried out, but are used as countable nouns
when referring to the places as objects. In the following pairs of
sentences, the words bed and church are used first as
uncountable nouns, and then as countable nouns.
e.g. Because I was tired, I stayed in bed.
Please help me to move the bed.

She goes to church.

She likes to photograph churches.

In the first pair of sentences, stayed in bed refers to the activity

of resting in bed, whereas move the bed refers to a bed as an
object. In the second pair of sentences, goes to church refers to
the activity of taking part in church services, whereas likes to
photograph churches refers to churches as objects.

Nouns which are used in this way include:

bed home sea

church hospital town
college prison university
court school

d. Names of meals
Similarly, the word television and the names of meals such as
breakfast, lunch, dinner and supper are used as uncountable
nouns when it is desired to emphasize the activity being carried
out.
e.g. They are watching television.
We are eating breakfast.

5. Infinitives used in the place of nouns

Infinitives are sometimes used in the place of nouns.

e.g. To ski well is one of my goals.
They plan to call us.

In the first sentence, the infinitive to ski performs the function of

a noun, since it is the subject of the verb is. In the second
sentence, the infinitive to call performs the function of a noun,
since it is the object of the verb to plan. These infinitives also
function as verbs, since to ski is described by the adverb well,
and to call takes the object us.

Like an uncountable noun, an infinitive which is the subject of a

verb takes a singular verb. Unlike an uncountable noun, an
infinitive usually cannot be preceded by the word the.

6. Gerunds

Present participles are often used in the place of nouns. A present

participle used in the place of a noun is usually referred to as a
gerund. In the following sentences, the gerunds are underlined.
e.g. Skating is good exercise.
They like jogging.
In the first sentence, skating is the subject of the verb is. In the
second sentence, jogging is the object of the verb like.

A gerund can perform the functions of a noun and a verb at the

same time.
e.g. Riding a bicycle is good exercise.
They like playing hockey.

In the first sentence, the gerund riding functions as a noun, since

it is the subject of the verb is, and also functions as a verb, since it
takes the object bicycle. In the second sentence, the gerund
playing functions as a noun, since it is the object of the verb like,
and also functions as a verb, since it takes the object hockey.

In their role as nouns, gerunds are sometimes regarded as

uncountable nouns. Like an uncountable noun, a gerund which is
the subject of a verb takes a singular verb. Also, like an
uncountable noun, a gerund can be preceded by the when
referring to a particular thing or to something previously
mentioned.
e.g. The skiing was excellent.
He went hunting. The hunting was good.

In the first example, the skiing could refer to skiing done at a

particular place. In the second example, the hunting refers to the
hunting mentioned in the previous sentence.

7. Specific verbs followed by infinitives and gerunds

a. Verbs followed by infinitives

Many English verbs can be followed by an infinitive. In the
following examples, the verbs are underlined, and the infinitives
are printed in bold type.
e.g. They want to succeed.
He hopes to travel next year.

The following verbs can take an infinitive as an object, but

cannot take a gerund as an object:

agree demand learn promise

appear deserve manage refuse
arrange expect mean seem
ask fail need tend
claim forget offer threaten
consent hesitate plan wait
dare hope prepare want
decide intend pretend

Other examples of the use of infinitives with these verbs are:

They agreed to come.
He expected to win.
She managed to keep the secret.
We pretended to agree with them.

b. Verbs followed by either infinitives or gerunds

Some English verbs can be followed either by an infinitive or by
a gerund. In the following examples, the verbs are underlined,
and the infinitives and gerunds are printed in bold type.
e.g. I like to fish.
I like fishing.

She prefers to ride a bicycle.

She prefers riding a bicycle.
The following verbs can take either an infinitive or a gerund as
an object:

attempt like
begin love
cease prefer
commence propose
continue start
hate try

c. Verbs followed by gerunds

Other English verbs can be followed by a gerund, but cannot be
followed by an infinitive used as an object. In the following
examples, the verbs are underlined, and the gerunds are printed in
bold type.
e.g. They disliked waiting.
It stopped raining.

The following verbs can take a gerund as an object, but cannot

take an infinitive as an object:

1 2 3 4 5
keep appreciate admit avoid complete
practise deplore anticipate defer finish
risk detest consider delay quit
dislike deny escape stop
dread discuss miss
enjoy mention postpone
loathe recall
mind recommend
regret suggest
resent
 resist
tolerate

It should be noted that many of the verbs listed above have

similar meanings. The second column contains verbs which
express feelings about doing something, many of the feelings are
negative. The third column contains verbs which refer to thoughts
about doing something. The fourth column contains verbs which
refer to negative actions with respect to doing something. The
fifth column contains verbs which refer to ceasing to do
something.

Other examples of the use of gerunds with these verbs are:

I kept calling the office.
We appreciate hearing from you.
He denies following us.
They avoid discussing the subject.
She finished filling in the blanks.
MORE THINGS
SORRY causing etc.
Sorry to cause you trouble

Question:
Are these sentences ok:
I'm sorry for the inconvenience caused to you
I'm sorry for the inconvenience (is it necessary to add "caused
to you")
I'm sorry for causing you so much trouble
I'm sorry for the trouble caused to you

Answer:
I'm sorry for the inconvenience caused to you. OK.
I'm sorry for the inconvenience (is it necessary to add "caused
to you") No, if someone is aware what the inconvenience is.
I'm sorry for causing so much trouble to you. OK now.
I'm sorry for the trouble caused to you. It sounds good.

 I have read twice as many books as you have.

 David is particularly fond of cooking, and he often cooks
really delicious meals. (Kata yang salah adalah really.
Seharusnya very. Kata really adalah slang (bahasa gaul/tidak
baku) dalam Bahasa Inggris. Kata really tidak sesuai dengan
formal written English)
 Coral reefs areas are damaged now. Small fish live and take
shelter in it.
 Now a new way in tooth cleaning, different in formula and
effect, is embodied in the special film-removing dentifrice.
(ditambahkan)
 The poverty level in the US is currently set at 12,000 dollars or
less.
 While living in Bogor, we always went to school on foot.
= We … on foot while we were living in Bogor.
o were used to going
o used to go
 She speaks so (adverb) that I cannot hear her.
 Her voice is so (adjective) that I cannot hear it.
 Benar: Stuff Stuffs Salah: Stuffes Stuves
 mental adalah adjective dan diikuti oleh noun.
Toughness adalah noun dari tough.
 Beijing Capital International Airport offers 20 inter-city bus
routes and 5 intra-province bus routes. Passengers can take the
buses at the Gate 9-11 on the 1st floor.
(http://www.csair.com)
 The Food Court is located on the Departures Level between
Gates C13 and C15. (http://www.dubaiairport.com)
 It was in 1980 that Voyager transmitted photographs of Saturn
to earth.
 The beginning of the symbolist movement in art was regarded
as having begun in the late 1880s.
 Both of teams are required to fight fairly.
 can't complain (spoken)>> to admit that things are
mostly all right My job gives me a month's vacation, so
I really can't complain.
 France’s Independence day
 The French independence day
 It was Einstein who developed the theory of relativity.
 One of the professor's greatest attributes is his ability to
lecture.
 Pearl Buck, a recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize for
Literature in 1938 strove to bring understanding and
peace for (not on) everyone.
 "Some people like opera, while other people
prefer pop music".
 Some like opera, while others do not.
 Silver nitrate dyes everything it touches black.
 The observation deck at the Sears Tower is higher than any
other one in Chicago.
 The union won benefits for its members.
 Excessive absenteeism result __ in __ problems for the
schools.
 In 1970 B.C, Hammurabi wrote the most collection of
early laws.
  If you try to pull someone’s leg, you try and make them
believe something that isn’t true. You’re pulling my leg! is
another way of saying I don’t believe what you’re saying or
You must be joking!
 There were a wide variety of flowers in the show, from
simple carnation to the most exquisite roses.
 This university’s programs are second only to those of
Harvard.
 There are only two tenses in English: past and present.
(startnow.com-1_0-zg-rp-rp&p=use+of+only)
 The physical phenomenon that plant roots use to obtain
water from the soil is osmosis.
 The jurors were told to speak freely.
 People all over the world are starving in greater
numbers.
 Those students do not like to read novels much less
test books.
Jewelry: an adornment (as a bracelet or ring or necklace) made of
precious metals and set with gems (or imitation gems) All his
jewelry was stolen
Jewellery = intan permata (perhiasan)
Jewel = batu permata
Jeweller = toko permata
Jeweler = jauhari = tukang emas