Anabolisme

• Proses pembentukan senyawa kompleks dari

senyawa sederhana dengan bantuan enzim.
• Memerlukan energi  reaksi endergonik
• Contoh : Fotosintesis
 Fotosintesis
• Sintesis zat organik (glukosa) dari zat anorganik (air
dan karbondioksida) dengan bantuan cahaya matahari
• Terjadi pada organ tumbuhan yang memiliki klorofil
dalam kloroplas.
• Terdapat beberapa jenis pigmen : klorofil a (pigmen
hijau  mampu menyerap cahaya merah dan biru
ungu serta memantulkan cahaya hijau), klorofil b
(pigmen hijau kuning  menyerap cahaya biru dan
jingga), dan karotenoid (pigmen kuning jingga 
menyerap cahaya biru-hijau).
 Penelitian Fotosintesis
• Jan Ingenhouz (adanya gas oksigen)
• Nicholas de Saussure (pertambahan berat)
• Samuel Ruben dan Martin Kamen (Oksigen yang
dihasilkan berasal dari air)
• Julius Robert Mayer (absorbsi energi dalam
bentuk energi cahaya  energi kimia (ATP/NADH)
• Daniel Arnon  organ fotosintesis (memisahkan
kloroplas)
• Van Niel  2 reaksi fotosintesis (terang dan
gelap)
 Chloroplasts: The Sites of
Photosynthesis in Plants
• The leaves of plants
– Are the major sites of photosynthesis
Leaf cross section
Vein

Mesophyll

CO2 O2
Stomata

Figure 10.3
• Chloroplasts
– Are the organelles in which photosynthesis occurs
– Contain thylakoids and grana
Mesophyll

Chloroplast

5 µm

Outer
membrane

Thylakoid Thylakoid Intermembrane

Stroma Granum space space
Inner
membrane

1 µm
 The Splitting of Water
• Chloroplasts split water into
– Hydrogen and oxygen, incorporating the electrons
of hydrogen into sugar molecules

Reactants: 6 CO2 12 H2O

Products: C6H12O6 6 H2 O 6 O2

Figure 10.4
 Reaksi Terang
• Terjadi di grana
• Disebut fotolisis karena menguraikan air oleh matahari.
• Energi cahaya ditangkap molekul pigmen fotosintesis yang
tersusun dalam satu bagian yang disebut fotosistem (I dan
II), partikel FS I di lamela intergrana, sedang FS II di
membran grana.
• Tiap fotosistem mengandung molekul klorofil/ pigmen
aksesori (karotenoid atau xantofil). Sedang molekul klorofil
utama adalah klorofil a  pigmen primer (FS I = P700 nm
dan FS II = P680 nm).
• Pada reaksi terang terjadi fotofosforilasi (pelepasan
elektron akibat cahaya matahari). Ada dua fotofosforilasi
(siklik dan non siklik)
 – Reflect light, which include the colors we see

Light
Reflected
Light

Chloroplast

Absorbed Granum
light

Transmitted
light
Figure 10.7
 • The electromagnetic spectrum
– Is the entire range of electromagnetic energy, or radiation

1m
10–5 nm 10–3 nm 1 nm 103 nm 106 nm 106 nm 103 m

Gamma Micro- Radio

rays X-rays UV Infrared waves waves

Visible light

380 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 nm

Shorter wavelength Longer wavelength

Higher energy Lower energy
Figure 10.6
• The absorption spectra of three types of pigments in
chloroplasts
EXPERIMENTThree different experiments helped reveal which wavelengths of light are photosynthetically important.
The results are shown below.

RESULTS

Chlorophyll a

Chlorophyll b
Absorption of light by
chloroplast pigments

Carotenoids

Wavelength of light (nm)

(a) Absorption spectra. The three curves show the wavelengths of light best absorbed by
three types of chloroplast pigments.
Figure 10.9
• Chlorophyll a
– Is the main photosynthetic pigment
• Chlorophyll b CH3 in chlorophyll a

– Is an accessory pigment
CHO in chlorophyll b
CH2

CH H CH3

C C C
H3 C C C C C CH2 CH3 Porphyrin ring:
C N N C
Light-absorbing
“head” of molecule
H C Mg C H
note magnesium
H 3C C N N C
atom at center
C C C C CH3
H C C C
CH2 H
H C C
CH2 O O

C O O

O CH3
CH2

Hydrocarbon tail:
interacts with hydrophobic
regions of proteins inside
thylakoid membranes of
chloroplasts: H atoms not
shown
Figure 10.10
• When a pigment absorbs light
– It goes from a ground state to an excited state,
which is unstable
Excited
e– state
Energy of election

Heat

Photon
(fluorescence)

Ground
Photon Chlorophyll state
molecule

Figure 10.11 A
• A photosystem
– Is composed of a reaction center surrounded by a number of
light-harvesting complexes

Thylakoid

Photon Photosystem

STROMA
Light-harvesting Reaction Primary election
complexes center acceptor

Thylakoid membrane

e–

Transfer Special Pigment

of energy chlorophyll a molecules
molecules
THYLAKOID SPACE
Figure 10.12 (INTERIOR OF THYLAKOID)
 Fotofosforilasi non siklik
• Elektron yang tereksitasi diganti posisinya
oleh elektron asal fotolisis air dan tidak bisa
mereduksi pigmen lagi atau di bawa ke P700.
• Cahaya diserap oleh pigmen utama di FS I dan
FS II.
• Elektron dari FS digunakan untuk mereduksi
NADP
• Menghasilkan ATP, NADPH, dan oksigen
 Fotofosforilasi Siklik
• Elektron yang tereksitasi dapat kembali ke
P700 melalui rantai transfer elektron
• Hanya melibatkan FS I
• Tidak mereduksi NADP
• Hanya menghasilkan ATP
• Produces NADPH, ATP, and oxygen
H2 O CO2
Light
NADP+
ADP
LIGHT CALVIN
REACTIONS CYCLE
ATP

NADPH

Ele
Tra ctron
O2 [CH2O] (sugar) ns
cha port
in
Primary
acceptor 7
Primary
4
acceptor Elect
ro n t Fd
ra nspo
Pq r t cha
2 in e 8
H2O e e–
NADP+
Cytochrome
2 H+ NADP + + 2 H+
complex
+ reductase
3
O2 NADPH
PC
e–
+ H+
e– 5 P700
Light
1 P680 Light

ATP

Photosystem-I
Photosystem II
Figure 10.13 (PS II)
(PS I)
• A mechanical analogy for the light reactions
e–
ATP

e– e–

NADPH
e
–
e–
e –

Mill

n o
makes

Phot
ATP

e–
n
Photo

Photosystem II Photosystem I
Figure 10.14 
• In cyclic electron flow
– Only photosystem I is used
– Only ATP is produced

Primary
Primary acceptor
Fd
acceptor Fd

Pq NADP+
NADP+
reductase
Cytochrome NADPH
complex

Pc

ATP Photosystem I
Photosystem II
Figure 10.15
• The light reactions and chemiosmosis: the
organization of the thylakoid membrane H2O CO2
LIGHT
NADP+
ADP
CALVIN
LIGHT
CYCLE
REACTOR
ATP
NADPH

STROMA O2 [CH2O] (sugar)

(Low H+ concentration) Cytochrome
Photosystem II complex Photosystem I
Light NADP+
2 H+ reductase
3
Fd NADP+ + 2H+

NADPH + H+
Pq
Pc
2
H2O 1
⁄ 2 O2
THYLAKOID SPACE 1 2 H+
+2 H+
(High H+ concentration)
To
Calvin
cycle

ATP
Thylakoid synthase
STROMA membrane ADP
(Low H+ concentration) ATP
P
H +

Figure 10.17
 Siklus Calvin
• Terjadi di stroma kloroplas
• Menggunakan hasil dari reaksi terang (ATP
sebagai energi utama dan NADPH2 sebagai
sumber energi pereduksi)
• Memerlukan CO2
• Tidak memerlukan cahaya
• Ditemukan oleh Melvin Calvin.
• Terdiri dari 4 tahap : karboksilasi, reduksi,
regenerasi, dan sintesis produk.
• The Calvin cycle
H2O CO2
Light Input
NADP+ 3 (Entering one
ADP
CALVIN
CO2 at a time)
LIGHT
REACTION CYCLE
ATP
NADPH
Phase 1: Carbon fixation

Rubisco
O2 [CH2O] (sugar)
3 P P

Short-lived
intermediate 6 P
3 P P
Ribulose bisphosphate 3-Phosphoglycerate
(RuBP) 6 ATP
6 ADP

3 ADP CALVIN
CYCLE 6 P P
3 ATP
1,3-Bisphoglycerate
6 NADPH
Phase 3:
Regeneration of 6 NADPH+
the CO2 acceptor 6 P
(RuBP) 5 P
(G3P) 6 P
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate Phase 2:
(G3P) Reduction

1 P
G3P Glucose and
Figure 10.18 (a sugar) other organic
Output compounds
The Importance of Photosynthesis: A
Review Light reaction Calvin cycle
H 2O CO2

Light
NADP+
ADP
+P1
RuBP 3-Phosphoglycerate
Photosystem II
Electron transport chain
Photosystem I
ATP G3P
NADPH Starch
(storage)
Amino acids
Fatty acids
Chloroplast
O2 Sucrose (export)
Calvin cycle reactions:
Light reactions:
• Take place in the stroma
• Are carried out by molecules in the
• Use ATP and NADPH to convert
thylakoid membranes
CO2 to the sugar G3P
• Convert light energy to the chemical
energy of ATP and NADPH • Return ADP, inorganic phosphate, and
• Split H2O and release O2 to the
Figure 10.21 NADP+ to the light reactions
atmosphere