Sistem kendali dapat dikatakan sebagai hubungan antara

komponen yang membentuk sebuah konfigurasi sistem, yang akan

menghasilkan tanggapan sistem yang diharapkan. Jadi harus ada
yang dikendalikan, yang merupakan suatu sistem fisis, yang biasa
disebut dengan kendalian (plant).
Masukan dan keluaran merupakan variabel atau besaran fisis.
Keluaran merupakan hal yang dihasilkan oleh kendalian, artinya
yang dikendalikan; sedangkan masukan adalah yang
mempengaruhi kendalian, yang mengatur keluaran. Kedua dimensi
masukan dan keluaran tidak harus sama.
Pada sistem kendali dikenal sistem lup terbuka (open loop system)
dan sistem lup tertutup (closed loop system). Sistem kendali lup
terbuka atau umpan maju (feedforward control) umumnya
mempergunakan pengatur (controller) serta aktuator kendali
(control actuator) yang berguna untuk memperoleh respon sistem
yang baik. Sistem kendali ini keluarannya tidak diperhitungkan
ulang oleh controller. Suatu keadaan apakah plant benar-benar
telah mencapai target seperti yang dikehendaki masukan atau
referensi, tidak dapat mempengaruhi kinerja kontroler.
Pada sistem kendali yang lain, yakni sistem kendali lup tertutup
(closed loop system) memanfaatkan variabel yang sebanding
dengan selisih respon yang terjadi terhadap respon yang diinginkan.
Sistem seperi ini juga sering dikenal dengan sistem kendali umpan
balik. Aplikasi sistem umpan balik banyak dipergunakan untuk
sistem kemudi kapal laut dan pesawat terbang. Perangkat seharihari yang juga menerapkan sistem ini adalah penyetelan
temperatur pada almari es, oven, tungku, dan pemanas air.
Ada beberapa standar input yang dinyatakan cukup mewakili dalam
mendisain sebuah sistem, input tersebut dikenal dengan input
satuan step, ramp dan parabola.
Step
Sebuah satuan step yang didefinisikan seperti :
u(t) =

0, t < 0
1, t 0

Fungsi dari satuan step ini sangatlah penting, hanya

dalam sistem kontrol namun juga pada pemrogresan

sinyal, analisa sistem, segala cabang dari pelajaran

keteknikan. Jika satuan step dijadikan input sebuah
sistem, kaluaran dari sistem akan disebut dengan respon
step.

Ramp
Sebuah satuan ramp yang didefinisikan seperti :
r(t) = t u(t)
Hal yang perlu dicatat bahwa fungsi satuan step
merupakan turunan dari fungsi satuan ramp:
r(t) =

u ( t ) dt=t u(t)

Definisi akan mudah dipahami dengan menguasai prinsip

Transformasi Laplace

Parabola
Sebuah unit input parabola hampir mirip dengan satuan
ramp:

Dapat dilihat bahwa input berupa satuan parabola sama

dengan integral dari fungsi ramp:

Dan definisi juga akan mudah dipahami dengan

menguasai prinsip Transformasi Laplace

Steady State
When a unit-step function is input to a system, the steady-state
value of that system is the output value at time
. Since it is
impractical (if not completely impossible) to wait till infinity to
observe the system, approximations and mathematical calculations
are used to determine the steady-state value of the system. Most
system responses are asymptotic, that is that the response
approaches a particular value. Systems that are asymptotic are
typically obvious from viewing the graph of that response.
Keadaan mantap

Ketika fungsi satuan step menjadi input sebuah sistem, nilai

keadaan mantapnya merupakan nilai keluaran pada waktu
Kebanyakan respons sistem merupakan asimptot.

Step Response
The step response of a system is most frequently used to analyze
systems, and there is a large amount of terminology involved with
step responses. When exposed to the step input, the system will
initially have an undesirable output period known as the transient
response. The transient response occurs because a system is
approaching its final output value. The steady-state response of the
system is the response after the transient response has ended.
Respon step sering digunakan dalam menganalisa sebuah sistem,
dan ada banyak istilah yang digunakan dalam respon step. Ketika
step diinputkan, sistem akan memiliki perioda keluaran yang tak
diinginkan atau disebut juga transient response. Respon ini terjadi
karena sebuah sistem sedang mendekati nilai keluaran akhirnya.
Respon dalam keadaan mantap sebuah sistem merupakan respon
yang terjadi setelah respon transient berakhir
The amount of time it takes for the system output to reach the
desired value (before the transient response has ended, typically) is
known as the rise time. The amount of time it takes for the
transient response to end and the steady-state response to begin is
known as the settling time.
Waktu yang diperlukan untuk sistem dalam mencapai nilai yang
diinginkan (biasanya sebelum respon transient berakhir) disebut
dengan waktuk naik (rise time). Waktu selama berakhirnya respon
transient dan mulainya respon dalam keadaan mantap disebut
waktu penurunan (settling time)
It is common for a systems engineer to try and improve the step
response of a system. In general, it is desired for the transient
response to be reduced, the rise and settling times to be shorter,
and the steady-state to approach a particular desired "reference"
output.
Para Insinyur untuk system mencoba dan memperbaiki response
sebuah system. Umumnya, perbaikan tersebut dilakukan dengan
memperkecil nilai respon transient, memperpendek waktu naik (rise

time) dan waktu penurunan (settling time), dan keadaan mantap

mendekatik keluaran yang diinginkan.

An arbitrary step function with

A step response graph of input x(t) to a made-up system

Target Value
The target output value is the value that our system attempts to
obtain for a given input. This is not the same as the steady-state
value, which is the actual value that the target does obtain. The
target value is frequently referred to as the reference value, or
the "reference function" of the system. In essence, this is the value
that we want the system to produce. When we input a "5" into an
elevator, we want the output (the final position of the elevator) to
be the fifth floor. Pressing the "5" button is the reference input, and
is the expected value that we want to obtain. If we press the "5"

button, and the elevator goes to the third floor, then our elevator is
poorly designed
Nilai keluaran target adalah nilai yang dicapai oleh system dengan
input tertentu. ini bukanlah sama dengan nilai pada keadaan
mantap, yang mana merupakan nilai sebenarnya ----. Nilai target
terkadang disebut nilai referensi atau fungsi referensi dari sebuah
system. Dapat dikatakan nilai ini merupakan nilai yang ingin kita
harapkan di hasilkan oleh sistem. Ketika kita masukkan 5 pada
elevator, kita ingin keluaran (posisi terakhir elevator) harusnya
lantai kelima. Menekan tombol 5 merupakan masukan referensi dan
ingin kita dapatkan. Jika tekan tombol 5 dan elevator berada pada
lantai 3 maka elevator sangat buruk dalam pendesainnya.
Rise Time
Rise time is the amount of time that it takes for the system
response to reach the target value from an initial state of zero.
Many texts on the subject define the rise time as being the time it
takes to rise between the initial position and 80% of the target
value. This is because some systems never rise to 100% of the
expected, target value, and therefore they would have an infinite
rise-time. This book will specify which convention to use for each
individual problem. Rise time is typically denoted tr, or trise.
Waktu naik merupakan waktu yang dibutuhkan respon system
untuk mencapai nilai target dari keadaan nol awal (initial state of
zero). banyak referensi yang menyebutkan bahwa waktu naik itu
waktu yang dibutuhkan untuk naik dari kondisi inisiasi (awal)
hingga 80% dari nilai yang ditargetkan. Karena system takkan akan
pernah mencapai kondisi 100% dari nilai target atau nilai yang
dibutuhkan bisa sangat lama. Wwaktu naik biasanya dilambangkan
dengan
Rise time is not the amount of time it takes to achieve
steady-state, only the amount of time it takes to reach the
desired target value for the first time.
Percent Overshoot
Underdamped systems frequently overshoot their target value
initially. This initial surge is known as the "overshoot value". The
ratio of the amount of overshoot to the target steady-state value of
the system is known as the percent overshoot. Percent overshoot

represents an overcompensation of the system, and can output

dangerously large output signals that can damage a system.
Percent overshoot is typically denoted with the term PO.
Example: Refrigerator
Consider an ordinary household refrigerator. The refrigerator has
cycles where it is on and when it is off. When the refrigerator is on,
the coolant pump is running, and the temperature inside the
refrigerator decreases. The temperature decreases to a much lower
level than is required, and then the pump turns off.
When the pump is off, the temperature slowly increases again as
heat is absorbed into the refrigerator. When the temperature gets
high enough, the pump turns back on. Because the pump cools
down the refrigerator more then it needs to initially, we can say that
it "overshoots" the target value by a certain specified amount.
Example: Refrigerator
Another example concerning a refrigerator concerns the electrical
demand of the heat pump when it first turns on. The pump is an
inductive mechanical motor, and when the motor first activates, a
special counter-acting force known as "back EMF" resists the motion
of the motor, and causes the pump to draw more electricity until
the motor reaches its final speed. During the startup time for the
pump, lights on the same electrical circuit as the refrigerator may
dim slightly, as electricity is drawn away from the lamps, and into
the pump. This initial draw of electricity is a good example of
overshoot.
Steady-State Error
Sometimes a system might never achieve the desired steady-state
value, but instead will settle on an output value that is not desired.
The difference between the steady-state output value to the
reference input value at steady state is called the steady-state
error of the system. We will use the variable ess to denote the
steady-state error of the system.
Kesalahan keadaan mantap
Terkadang sebuah system mungkin tidak akan pernah mencapai
nilai mantap yang diinginkan. Perbedaan antara keluaran keadaan

mantap hingga ke nilai masukan referensi pada keadaan mantap

disebut kesalahan keadaan mantap dari sebuah system. Kita
menggunakan variabel ess untuk kesalahan keadaan mantap.
Settling Time
After the initial rise time of the system, some systems will oscillate
and vibrate for an amount of time before the system output settles
on the final value. The amount of time it takes to reach steady state
after the initial rise time is known as the settling time. Notice that
damped oscillating systems may never settle completely, so we will
define settling time as being the amount of time for the system to
reach, and stay in, a certain acceptable range. The acceptable
range for settling time is typically determined on a per-problem
basis, although common values are 20%, 10%, or 5% of the target
value. The settling time will be denoted as ts.

System Order
Orde sistem

The order of the system is defined by the highest degree of the

linear differential equation that describes the system. In a transfer
function representation, the order is the highest exponent in the
transfer function. In a proper system, the system order is defined
as the degree of the denominator polynomial. In a state-space
equation, the system order is the number of state-variables used in
the system. The order of a system will frequently be denoted with
an n or N, although these variables are also used for other
purposes. This book will make clear distinction on the use of these
variables.
Orde sebuah sistem didefinisikan oleh pangkat terbesar dari
persamaan differensial linear yang digambarkan oleh sistem. Dalam
sebuah fungsi alih, orde sistem didefinisikan oleh pangkat polinom
denominator. Orde sebuah sistem terkadang disimbolkan dengan n
atau N, tergantung penggunaannya.
Proper Systems
A proper system is a system where the degree of the denominator
is larger than or equal to the degree of the numerator polynomial. A
strictly proper system is a system where the degree of the
denominator polynomial is larger than (but never equal to) the
degree of the numerator polynomial. A biproper system is a

system where the degree of the denominator polynomial equals the

degree of the numerator polynomial.
Sebuah sistem yang proper merupakan sistem dimana pangkat
denominator nya lebih besar atau sama dengan pangkat polinom
numeratornya. Sebuah strictly proper system merupakan sistem
dimana pangkat polinom denominatornya lebih besar dari pangkat
polinom numeratornya. Sebuah biproper sistem merupakan sistem
yang pangkat polinom denominatornya sama dengan dengan
polinom numeraotrnya.
It is important to note that only proper systems can be physically
realized. In other words, a system that is not proper cannot be built.
It makes no sense to spend a lot of time designing and analyzing
imaginary systems.
Hal yang perlu diingat bahwa hanya sistem yang proper saja yang
dapat dibuat, sehingga sistem yang non proper tidak dapat
diwujudkan. Jadi jangan sia-siakan banyak waktu untuk mendesain
dan menganalisa sistem yang imajiner (tidak nyata/ tidak dapat
diwujudkan).
Find the order of this system:

The highest exponent in the denominator is s2, so the

system is order 2. Also, since the denominator is a higher
degree than the numerator, this system is proper.
Nilai eksponen terbesar ada pada denominator yaitu s2,
jadi orde dari sistemnya adalah 2. Dan termasuk sistem
proper karena pangkat denominator lebih besar dari
numeratornya.
in the above example, G(s) is a second-order transfer function
because in the denominator one of the s variables has an exponent
of 2. Second-order functions are the easiest to work with.
System Type
Let's say that we have a transfer function that is in the following
generalized form (known as pole-zero form):

we call the parameter M the system type. Note that increased

system type number correspond to larger numbers of poles at s =
0. More poles at the origin generally have a beneficial effect on the
system, but they increase the order of the system, and make it
increasingly difficult to implement physically. System type will
generally be denoted with a letter like N, M, or m. Because these
variables are typically reused for other purposes, this book will
make clear distinction when they are employed.
Parameter M adalah tipe sistem, hal yang perlu dicatat bahwa
bertambahnya tipe sistem
Now, we will define a few terms that are commonly used when
discussing system type. These new terms are Position Error,
Velocity Error, and Acceleration Error. These names are
throwbacks to physics terms where acceleration is the derivative of
velocity, and velocity is the derivative of position. Note that none of
these terms are meant to deal with movement, however.
Sekarang, kita akan mendefinisikan beberapa istilah yang sering
digunakan ketika membahas tipe system, yakni : kesalahan posisi,
kesalahan kecepatan, kesalahan percepatan.
Position Error
Kesalahan posisi
The position error, denoted by the position error constant
. This is the amount of steady-state error of the system
when stimulated by a unit step input. We define the position
error constant as follows:
Kesalahan posisi, disebut dengan konstanta kesalahan posisi
.
Merupakan jumlah kesalahan dalam keadaan mantap dari system
ketika dimasukkan oleh satuan step. Kita mendefinisikan konstanta
kesalahan posisi sebagai berikut :

Where G(s) is the transfer function of our system.

Dimana G(s) merupakan fungsi alih dari system.
Velocity Error
Kesalahan kecepatan
The velocity error is the amount of steady-state error when
the system is stimulated with a ramp input. We define the
velocity error constant as such:
Kesalahan kecepatan merupakan jumlah kesalahan dalam
keadaan mantap ketika system dimasukkan satuan ramp
pada system. kita mendefinisikan konstanta kesalahan
kecepatan sebagai berikut :

Acceleration Error
The acceleration error is the amount of steady-state error
when the system is stimulated with a parabolic input. We
define the acceleration error constant to be:
Kesalahan percepatan merupakan jumlah kesalahan dalam
keadaan mantap ketika system dimasukkan dengan masukan
parabola. Kita mendefinisikan konstanta kesalahan
percepatan sebagai berikut :

Now, this table will show briefly the relationship between the
system type, the kind of input (step, ramp, parabolic), and the
steady-state error of the system:
Tabel ini merupakan hubungan antara tipe system, jenis masukan
input (step,ramp dan parabola) dan kesalahan pada keadaan
mantap dari system :

Phase margin
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In electronic amplifiers, the phase margin (PM) is the difference between the phase,
measured in degrees, and 180, for an amplifier's output signal (relative to its input),
as a function of frequency. Typically the open-loop phase lag (relative to input) varies
with frequency, progressively increasing to exceed 180, at which frequency the
output signal becomes inverted, or antiphase in relation to the input. The PM as
defined will be positive but decreasing at frequencies less than the frequency at which
inversion sets in (at which PM = 0), and PM is negative (PM < 0) at higher
frequencies. In the presence of negative feedback, a zero or negative PM at a
frequency where the loop gain exceeds unity (1) guarantees instability. Thus positive
PM is a "safety margin" that ensures proper (non-oscillatory) operation of the circuit.
This applies to amplifier circuits as well as more generally, to active filters, under
various load conditions (e.g. reactive loads). In its simplest form, involving ideal
negative feedback voltage amplifiers with non-reactive feedback, the phase margin is
measured at the frequency where the open-loop voltage gain of the amplifier equals
the desired closed-loop DC voltage gain.[1]
More generally, PM is defined as that of the amplifier and its feedback network
combined (the "loop", normally opened at the amplifier input), measured at a
frequency where the loop gain is unity, and prior to the closing of the loop, through
tying the output of the open loop to the input source, in such a way as to subtract
from it.
In the above loop-gain definition, it is assumed that the amplifier input presents zero
load. To make this work for non-zero-load input, the output of the feedback network

needs to be loaded with an equivalent load for the purpose of determining the
frequency response of the loop gain.
It is also assumed that the graph of gain vs. frequency crosses unity gain with a
negative slope and does so only once. This consideration matters only with reactive
and active feedback networks, as may be the case with active filters.
Phase margin and its important companion concept, gain margin, are measures of
stability in closed-loop, dynamic-control systems. Phase margin indicates relative
stability, the tendency to oscillate during its damped response to an input change such
as a step function. Gain margin indicates absolute stability and the degree to which
the system will oscillate, without limit, given any disturbance.
The output signals of all amplifiers exhibit a time delay when compared to their input
signals. This delay causes a phase difference between the amplifier's input and output
signals. If there are enough stages in the amplifier, at some frequency, the output
signal will lag behind the input signal by one cycle period at that frequency. In this
situation, the amplifier's output signal will be in phase with its input signal though
lagging behind it by 360, i.e., the output will have a phase angle of 360. This lag is
of great consequence in amplifiers that use feedback. The reason: the amplifier will
oscillate if the fed-back output signal is in phase with the input signal at the frequency
at which its open-loop voltage gain equals its closed-loop voltage gain and the openloop voltage gain is one or greater. The oscillation will occur because the fed-back
output signal will then reinforce the input signal at that frequency.[2] In conventional
operational amplifiers, the critical output phase angle is 180 because the output is
fed back to the input through an inverting input which adds an additional 180.
In practice, feedback amplifiers must be designed with phase margins substantially in
excess of 0, even though amplifiers with phase margins of, say, 1 are theoretically
stable. The reason is that many practical factors can reduce the phase margin below
the theoretical minimum. A prime example is when the amplifier's output is
connected to a capacitive load. Therefore, operational amplifiers are usually
compensated to achieve a minimum phase margin of 45 or so. This means that at the
frequency at which the open and closed loop gains meet, the phase angle is 135.
The calculation is: {{{1}}} See Warwick[3] or Stout[4] for a detailed analysis of the
techniques and results of compensation to insure adequate phase margins. See also
the article "Pole splitting". Often amplifiers are designed to achieve a typical phase
margin of 60 degrees. If the typical phase margin is around 60 degrees then the
minimum phase margin will typically be greater than 45 degrees. A phase margin of
60 degrees is also a magic number because it allows for the fastest settling time when
attempting to follow a voltage step input (a Butterworth design). An amplifier with
lower phase margin will ring[nb 1] for longer and an amplifier with more phase margin
will take a longer time to rise to the voltage step's final level.

A related measure is gain margin. While phase margin comes from the phase where
the loop gain equals one, the gain margin is based upon the gain where the phase
equals -180 degrees.