Pengaruh Latihan Lari 12 Menit Dan Lari Bolak Balik Terhadap Peningkatan Daya Tahan Vo2 Max Anggi Yuga Prayuda, Guntur Firmansyah

Nama : Noviana Ayu Wulandari
NIM : 23010123120045
Kelas : Peternakan E
Matkul : Olahraga (tugas pengganti lari, mencari jurnal nasional dan internasional)
Jurnal Nasional
1. Pengaruh Latihan Lari 12 menit dan llari bolak balik terhadap peningkatan daya tahan
VO2 max
PENGARUH LATIHAN LARI 12 MENIT DAN LARI BOLAK BALIK TERHADAP
PENINGKATAN DAYA TAHAN VO2 max
Anggi Yuga Prayuda1), Guntur Firmansyah2)

Pendidikan Jasmani Kesehatan dan Rekreasi
Fakultas Pendidikan Ilmu Eksakta dan KeolahragaanIKIP Budi Utomo Email :
1
yugaprayuda@gmail.com
2
gunturpepeng@gmail.com
ABSTRAK
Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui pengaruh latihan lari 12 menit dan
lari bolak balik terhadap peningkatan daya tahan VO2. Hasil data dari penelitian
dianalisis dengan menggunakan teknik analisis varian satu jalur atau one way anova
dengan taraf signifikansi 0,05. Dari uji tersebut diperoleh Fhitung sebesar 8,385< 4,41
Ftabel pada hasil pretest dan posttest kelompok X1 dan diperoleh Fhitung sebesar
5,831< 4,41 Ftabel pada hasil pretest dan posttest kelompok X1, kemudian untuk
kelompok kontrol diperoleh Fhitung sebesar 0,00039< 4,41 dan untuk selisih
kelompok X1 dengan kelompok kontrol diperoleh Fhitung sebesar 112,71 > 4,20
Ftabel dan selisih kelompok X2 dengan kelompok kontrol diperoleh Fhitung sebesar
73,14 > 4,20 Ftabel. Perolehan tersebut merujuk pada hasil penelitian yang diperoleh.
Kesimpulan ada pengaruh signifikan antara latihan lari 12 menit dan lari bolak balik
dengan latihan konvensional terhadap peningkatan daya tahan pemain.
Kata kunci: eksperimen, lari 12 menit, lari bolak-balik, daya tahan vo2 max
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of running 12 minutes and
running back and forth to increase VO2 endurance. The results of the data from the
study were analyzed using one-way ANOVA variant analysis techniques with a
significance level of
0.05. From the test obtained Fcount of 8.338 <4.41 Ftable on the results of pretest
and posttest in group X1 and obtained Fcount of 5.831 <4.41 Ftable on the results of
the pretest and posttest group X1, then for the control group obtained Fcount of
0.00039 <4, 41 and for the difference in group X1 with the control group obtained
Fcount of 112.71> 4.20 Ftable and the difference in group X2 with the control group
obtained Fcount of 73.14> 4.20 Ftable. The acquisition refers to the results of the
research obtained. The conclusion is that there is a significant influence between
running 12 minutes and running back and forth with conventional exercises to
increase the player's endurance.
Keywords: experiment, 12 minutes run, shuttle run endurance vo2 max
PENDAHULUAN
Untuk mencapai hidup yang sehat dapat dilakukan dengan berbagai cara, salah
satunya adalah dengan melakukan aktivitas olahraga. Olahraga merupakan kegiatan
yang sudah tidak asing di telinga setiap orang. Pada dasarnya setiap orang mempunyai
kesempatan berolahraga sesuai yang diminati. Olahraga dapat di jadikan gaya hidup
untuk setiap umat manusia.
Olahraga terbukti dapat meningkatkan kesehatan dan tingkat kesegaran jasmani
seseorang. Seseorang yang memiliki kesegaran jasmani prima dapat melakukan
kegiatan sehari-hari dengan optimal dan tidak cepat lelah, serta masih memiliki
cadangan energi untuk melakukan kegiatan lain. Kondisi tubuh yang kurang bagus di
karenakan dari kurangnya berolahraga dapat mengakibatkan prestasi bekerja yang
buruk terlihat dari daya tahan yang tidak memadahi. Dalam hal ini olahraga dapat di
jadikan sebuah alat untuk memperbaiki dan mengembangkan kondisik fisik yang
sering di butuhkan dalam kondisi tertekan ataupun tidak di duga.
Saat ini olahraga yang sangat banyak diminati oleh masyarakat indonesia adalah
cabang olahraga futsal. Permainan futsal merupakan gabungan dari beberapa teknik
individu dan tim yang menyatu dalam sebuah kerja sama keseluruhan. Pada dasarnya
futsal adalah permainan yang sangat cepat dan dinamis. Permainan futsal yang dikenal
dengan permainan cepat dan dinamis, dengan permainan seperti itu dibutuhkan daya
tahan dan stamina yang cukup baik karena tanpa didukung dengan daya tahan dan
stamina yang cukup kuat pola penyerangan dan pola pertahanan yang dibangun oleh
sebuah tim tidak akan berjalan dengan baik.
Di Kota Malang, olahraga futsal adalah olahraga yang populer, seiring dengan
perkembangan olahraga futsal di Indonesia, saat ini banyak sekali turnamen -
turnamen baik itu antar pelajar, mahasiswa ataupun masyarakat umum. Dari situ
banyak sekali rasa ketertarikan lebih besar terhadap olahraga futsal dengan banyaknya
pelajar yang menggemari olaharaga tersebut. Hampir di setiap sekolah dapat di
pastikan ada ekstrakulikuler futsal yang nantinya akan membentuk sebuah tim futsal
untuk bisa eksis di turnamen futsal antar sekolah. Salah satunya adalah tim dari
ekstrakulikuler futsal yang ada di SMK Negeri 6 Malang.
Menurut (Harsono,2015), ”faktor yang mempengaruhi prestasi dan keterampilan
seorang atlet adalah latihan. Latihan adalah proses yang sistematis dari berlatih yang
dilakukan secara berulang-ulang, dengan kian hari kian menambah jumlah beban
latihan serta intensitas latihannya”. (Mylsidayu dan Kurniawan, 2015) mengemukakan
pendapatnya bahwa “latihan berasal dari kata dalam bahasa inggris yang dapat
mengandung beberapa makna seperti: practice (praktek), exercise (latihan), dan
training (latihan).”
Hal yang perlu di perhatikan adalah terjadinya peningkatan dalam latihan
apabila latihan 12 dilakukan minimal 3x seminggu, dan maksimal 12- 14x dalam
seminggu (sehari 2 sesi). Sebab, dalam keadaan normal, kelelahan yang timbul akan
dapat diatasi dalam waktu antara 12-24 jam dan setelah itu atlet akan merasa segar dan
bugar kembali (Harsono, 2015). Jadi, dapat di simpulkan bahwa peningkatan latihan
terjadi secara signifikan apabila sekurang-kurangnya latihan 3x seminggu selama 4
minggu. Semakin sering/banyak latihan maka peningkatan akan terjadi semakin cepat,
tetapi tetap harus memperhatikan prinsip-prinsip latihan agar tidak terjadi overtraining
(latihan berlebih) menurut (Mylsidayu dan Kurniawan, 2015).
Menurut (Suhendro, dkk, 2007) “boredom (kebosanan) dalam dapat di kurangi
atau dihilangkan dengan membuat olahraga tersebut menjadi menirik sehingga
menimbulkan perhatian, rangsangan, dan motivasi bagi orang yang melakukan olahrag
tersebut.” Menururt (Harsono, 2015) menjelaskan “Latihan yang telalu berat yang
melebihi kemampuan atlet untuk mampu menyesuaikan diri (adapt), apalagi tanpa
ingat pentingnya istirahat, akan dapat mempengaruhi keseimbangan fisiologisnya, dan
terlebih lagi psikologis atlet”. Tingkat kecepatan atlet dalam mengadaptasi setiap
beban latihan berbeda-beda tergantung dari usia/umur, usia latihan, kualitas latihan,
kebugaran otot, kebugaran energi, dan kualitas latihannya (Sukadiyanto, 2015).
(Lhaksana, 2011) menyatakan bahwa ”futsal adalah suatu permainan dengan
menggunakan lapangan yang relatif lebih kecil dengan permainan yang sangat cepat
dan dinamis diikuti dengan aturan yang lebih ketat. (Bangsbo dan Mohr, 2012)
menjelaskan bahwa futsal is played between two teams of five players. the small size
of the field and relative large number of players challenge improvisation, creativity
and technique as well as ball control and passing in small spaces yang artinya futsal
dimainkan oleh dua tim terdiri dari lima pemain, ukuran lapangan yang kecil dan
sebagian besar pemain dituntut improvisasi, kreatif, teknik kontrol bola yang baik dan
mengumpan di ruang yang kecil.
(Amiq, 2014) menjelaskan bahwa “futsal banyak didominasi permainan kaki ke
kaki, maksudnya pengaturan dalam bertahan maupun menyerang lebih banyak
dilakukan dengan umpan-umpan pendek, mengingat ukuran lapangan yang lebih kecil
dibanding lapangan sepakbola.” Dari beberapa pendapat tersebut dapat ditarik
kesimpulan bahwa futsal adalah suatu permainan yang dimainkan di area atau
lapangan yang relatif lebih kecil dengan permainan cepat diikuti dengan peraturan
yang ketat.
Menurut (Sugiharto, 2014), ”VO2 max adalah jumlah maksimal oksigen yang
dapat dikonsumsi selama aktivitas fisik yang intens sampai akhirnya terjadi kelelahan
dan VO2 max dinyatakan dalam liter/menit/kilogram berat badan. VO2 maxini dapat
membatasi kapasitas kardiovaskuler seseorang, maka VO2 maxdianggap sebagai
indikator terbaik dari ketahanan aerobik”. Menurut (Fenanlampir dan Muhyi,
2015)ada beberapa faktor yang mempengaruhi VO2 max sebagai berikut. 1) Jantung,
paru dan pembuluh darah harus berfungsi dengan baik sehingga oksigen yang dihirup
ke dalam paru selanjutnya sampai ke darah, 2) Proses penyampaian oksigen ke
jaringan- jaringan sel-sel darah merah harus normal, yakni fungsi jantung harus
normal, konsentrasi hemoglobin harus normal, jumlah sel darah merah harus normal
dan pembuluh darah harus mampu mengalirkan darah dari jaringan-jaringan yang
tidak aktif ke otot yang sedang aktif yang membutuhkan oksigen lebih besar, 3)
Jaringan- jaringan (terutama otot) harus mempunyai kapasitas yang normal untuk
mempergunakan oksigen yang disampaikan kepadanya. Dengan kata lain, harus
mempunyai metabolisme yang normal.
Berdasarkan pengamatan dan observasi penulis pada tanggal 29 Desember 2016,
peserta ekstrakulikuler di SMK Negeri 6 Malang yang rata – rata berumur 16 - 17
tahun atau rata – rata kelas 10 dan 11, belum memiliki kemampuan fisik seperti Daya
tahan cardiovesculer (VO2 max), ini terbukti saat melakukan pertandingan uji coba
melawan tim futsal SMK Negeri 4 Malang. Jika pertandingan futsal biasanya 20 menit
x 2 babak, namun pada saat uji coba melawan futsal SMK Negeri 4 Malang waktu
yang diuji coba kan adalah 20menit x 3babak, dengan waktu yang cukup lama tersebut
dibutuhkan stamina dan daya tahan tubuh yang baik, karena dalam permainan futsal
diharuskan untuk bergerak secara terus menerus dalam keadaan menyerang ataupun
bertahan.
METODE
Penelitian ini termasuk jenis penelitian eksperimental yaitu penelitian yang
menjelaskan perbandingan pengaruh antara sebelum diberi perlakuan dan sesudah
diberikan perlakuan terhadap peningkatan daya tahan VO2 max siswa peserta
ekstrakurikuler futsal. Adapun variabel yang diteliti meliputi variabel terikat berupa
peningkatan kemampuan daya tahan VO2 max, dan variabel bebas berupa latihan lari
12 menit dan lari bolak-balik dan latihan gaya komando, sedangkan variabel
kendalinya berupa jenis kelamin yaitu siswa laki-laki di ekstrakurikuler futsal usia 16-
17 tahun.
Rancangan penelitian yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah rancangan
The Static Group Pre test-Post test Design. Penelitian ini menggunakan instrumen tes
dan non tes, hasil keseluruhan tes digunakan untuk memperoleh data tes awal dan tes
akhir variabel terikat berupa peningkatan kemampuan daya tahan VO2 max. Instrumen
multistage fitness test ini dipilih karena pada umumya sering digunakan dalam
menentukan daya tahan VO2 max seorang pemain. Sedangkan instrumen non tes
berupa observasi digunakan untuk mengamati tes dan pelaksanaan perlakuan. Tes
awal bertujuan untuk mengukur kemampuan awal, setelah mengambil data tes awal
maka selanjutnya melaksanakan latihan lari 12 menit dan latihan lari bolak-balik
selama 6 minggu.
Rancangan The Static Group Pre test-Post test Design
Teknik analisis data yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah analisis varian
satu jalur (one way anova) yaitu untuk menguji perbedaan dua mean distribusi atau
lebih. Uji normalitas adalah uji yang dilakukan untuk mengecek apakah data kita
berasal dari populasi yang sebenarnya normal. Untuk menguji normalitas data
digunakan uji lilliefors (Sudjana, 2005). Menurut (Sugiyono, 2011), “pengujian
homogen diperlukan sebelum analisis varians dilakukan, pengujian dilakukan dengn
menggunakan uji F”.
HASIL DAN PEMBAHASAN

Berdasarkan hasil analisis varian satu jalur tes awal dan tes akhir multistage
yang dilakukan pada kelompok lari 12 menit (X1), diperoleh kesimpulan bahwa ada
pengaruh yang signifikan terhadap peningkatan daya tahan vo2 max pemain.
Kesimpulan Berdasarkan hasil uji hipotesis yang menggunakan alnalisis varian satu
jalur pada kelompok lari 12 menit (X1) diperoleh Fhitung sebesar 8,385 > dari
Ftabel dengan taraf signifikansi α 0.05 = 4,41, sehingga hipotesis nihil ditolak.
Kesimpulan tersebut diperoleh berdasarkan beberapa aspek yang cukup terpenuhi
dalam pelaksanaan latihan lari 12 menit yaitu, stamina tubuh para pemain yang
mengalami perubahan oleh berbagai kondisi, pola istirahat yang dilakukan secara
teratur dan masa pemulihan yang cukup setelah melakukan berbagai aktivitas diluar
jam latihan. Stamina atau kondisi fisik yang baik diperlukan untuk program latihan
maupun pertandingan, yang mempengaruhi seluruh aspek latihan. Stamina yang baik
akan memengaruhi kondisi fisik pemain saat mengikuti proses latihan.
Tabel 1. Hasil Analisis Varians Skor Prestasi Kelompok Latihan Lari 12 menit (X1)
Berdasarkan penjelasan tersebut maka sangat penting kondisi fisik pemain yang
optimal, hal tersebut memengaruhi keaktifan pemain dalam mengikuti berbagai
tahapan dan proses selama latihan, sehingga mempengaruhi pula peningkatan daya
tahan yang dimiliki.
Berdasarkan hasil analisis varian satu jalur tes awal dan tes akhir multistage
yang dilakukan pada kelompok lari bolak balik (X2), diperoleh kesimpulan bahwa ada
pengaruh yang signifikan terhadap peningkatan daya tahan vo2 max pemain.
Kesimpulan Berdasarkan hasil uji hipotesis yang menggunakan alnalisis varian satu
jalur pada kelompok lari bolak balik (X2) diperoleh Fhitung sebesar 5,831 > dari
Ftabel dengan taraf signifikansi α 0.05 = 4,41, sehingga hipotesis nihil ditolak.
Kesimpulan tersebut diperoleh berdasarkan beberapa aspek yang cukup terpenuhi
dalam pelaksanaan latihan lari bolak balik yaitu, stamina tubuh para pemain yang
mengalami perubahan oleh berbagai kondisi, pola istirahat yang dilakukan secara
teratur dan masa pemulihan yang cukup setelah melakukan begbagai aktivitas diluar
jam latihan. Stamina atau kondisi fisik yang baik diperlukan untuk program latihan
maupun pertandingan, yang mempengaruhi seluruh aspek latihan. Stamina yang baik
akan memengaruhi kondisi fisik pemain saat mengikuti proses latihan.
Tabel 2. Hasil Analisis Varians Skor Prestasi Kelompok Latihan Lari Bolak Balik (X2)
Berdasarkan penjelasan tersebut maka sangat penting kondisi fisik pemain yang
optimal, hal tersebut memengaruhi keaktifan pemain dalam mengikuti berbagai tahapan
dan proses selama latihan, sehingga mempengaruhi pula peningkatan daya tahan yang
dimiliki.
Berdasarkan hasil uji hipotesis dengan analisis varian satu jalur antara lari 12
menit (X1 )dan lari bolak balik (X2) dengan latihan konvensional dalam peningkatan
kemampuan daya tahan pemain. Latihan lari 12 menit (X1 )dan lari bolak balik (X2)
memberikan pengaruhyang signifikan dari pada latihan konvensional (X3) yang
dilakukan selama 6 minggu dengan 18 kali pertemuan dengan Fhitug > Ftabel sebesar
112,71 > 4,41 untuk latihan lari 12 menit (X1) dan Fhitug > Ftabel sebesar 73,14 > 4,41
untuk latihan lari bolak balik (X2) dengan signifikansi α= 0.05 sehingga berada pada
kesimpulan Hipotesis nihil ditolak. Hal ini dapat dibuktikan dengan adanya perbedaan
peningkatan rata-rata (mean) yang didapatkan oleh masing- masing kelompok.
Kelompok X1 dan X2 mengalami peningkatan (mean), yaitu sebesar 4,44 untuk
kelompok X1 dan 3,27 untuk kelompok X2 sedangkan kelompok X3 hanya mengalami
peningkatan (mean) sebesar 0,02. Sesuai dengan data yang diperoleh membuktikan
bahwa latihan lari 12 dan lari bolak balik lebih baik dalam meningkatkan kemampuan
daya tahan jika dibandingkan dengan latihan konvensional dan memberikan pengaruh
yang signifikan terhadap kemampuan daya tahan pemain.
Tabel 3. Hasil Analisis Varians Selisih Skor Prestasi Tes Awal dengan Tes Akhir
Masing-masing Kelompok
Berdasarkan penelitian yang telah dilakukan, latihan lari 12 menit dan lari bolak
balik mampu memberikan pengaruh terhadap daya tahan pemain. Maka dari itu dapat
di simpulkan bahwa kemampuan VO2 max seorang pemain begitu penting karena
seperti yang di jelaskan oleh Sugiharto (2014:82) ”VO2 max adalah jumlah maksimal
oksigen yang dapat dikonsumsi selama aktivitas fisik yang intens sampai akhirnya
terjadi kelelahan dan VO2 max dinyatakan dalam liter/menit/kilogram berat badan.
VO2 max ini dapat membatasi kapasitas kardiovaskuler seseorang, maka VO2 max
dianggap sebagai indikator terbaik dari ketahanan aerobik.”
SIMPULAN
Hasil peneliitian yang dapat disimpulkan bahwa latihan lari 12 menit
berpengaruh lebih baik dibandingkan latihan konvensional terhadap peningkatan daya
tahan, latihan lari bolak balik berpengaruh lebih baik sama halnya seperti latihan lari 12
menit, dibandingkan dengan latihan konvensional terhadap peningkatan daya tahan
latihan lari 12 menit dan lari bolak balik memberikan pengaruh yang signifikan dan
berpengaruh lebih baik terhadap peningkatan daya tahan peserta ekstrakulikuler futsal
usia 16-17 tahun. Dengan memperhatikan hasil penelitian ini, maka dalam kesempatan
ini penulis bermaksud ingin menyampaikan saran-saran sehubungan dengan harapan
peneliti agar nantinya penelitian ini memiliki kemanfaatan yang sangat berarti bagi
banyak pihak. Pelatih dapat menggunakan latihan lari 12 menit dan lari bolak
balik sebagai bentuk latihan untuk meningkatkan daya tahan para pemain, Dalam
penelitian selanjutnya hendaknya melihat tentang penelitian sebelumnya sehingga
dalam menentukan atau melakukan penelitian sesuai dengan rancangan yang diinginkan
2. Tingkat Daya Tahan Jantung Paru Pada Pusat Pendidikan dan Latihan Pelajar Atlet Sepak
Bola (PPLP) Pekanbaru Menggunakan Metode Lari 12 Menit
Tingkat Daya Tahan Jantung Paru Pada Pusat Pendidikan dan

Latihan Pelajar Atlet Sepak Bola (PPLP) Pekanbaru
Menggunakan Metode Lari 12 Menit
Afandi Ahmad1*, Miftah Azrin2, Firdaus3
ABSTRACT
Cardiorespiratory fitness is defined as the maximum capacity of the heart and lungs to inhale and spread
oxygen or abbreviated as VO2 Max. The higher the VO2 max, the higher the body’s resistance when exercising,
so that an athlete is very important to have a high level of VO2 max. This research was a descriptive study with
a sample of all Center for Education and Training soccer athletes measured using the 12-minute run method.
Based on the research, the highest age was 15 years with a frequency of 9 (37.5%), with the most practice time
was those who practiced for <1 year with a frequency of 15 (62.5%), most of the respondents have normal
nutritional status with frequency 17 ( 70.8%), and the highest value of cardiorespiratory fitness (VO2 Max) is
sufficient with a frequency of 17 athletes (70.8%).
Keywords: Soccer,cardiorespiratory fitness, 12-minute run test, VO2 max
Pusat Pendidikan dan Latihan Pelajar (PPLP) merupakan sekolah pembibitan olahraga
nasional, yang digunakan untuk mencari dan membina bakat olahraga pada usia sekolah. Setiap
tahunnya diadakan kejuaraan nasional antar PPLP yang diselenggarakan Kementerian Pemuda dan
Olahraga. Kegiatan ini adalah bagian dari sistem kompetisi olahraga pelajar secara nasional yang
berjenjang dan berkelanjutan. Tujuan dari kejuaraan nasional antar PPLP adalah sebagai puncak
pembinaan prestasi olahraga pelajar dan evaluasi terhadap berbagai bentuk pembinaan PPLP. Salah
satu fokus cabang olahraga PPLP adalah sepakbola
Sepak bola merupakan olahraga yang paling populer di dunia dan bahkan telah menjadi olahraga
nasional bagi setiap negara di Eropa, Amerika, Asia dan bahkan di Afrika. Sepak bola menjadi olahraga
populer karena sepakbola merupakan olahraga yang sangat digemari oleh semua kalangan baik untuk
anak-anak, orang dewasa, bahkan orang tua. Sepak bola digemari oleh semua kalangan karena sepak
bola merupakan olahraga yang murah dan dapat dilakukan oleh siapapun dan dimanapun seperti di
lapangan berlumpur, tanah liat, sawah, jalan atau gang-gang sempit.Sepak bola adalah permainan
menggunakan bola yang dimainkan oleh dua tim, masing-masing tim terdiri dari sebelas orang
pemain termasuk seorang penjaga gawang.4 Sepak bola yang dilihat dari segi lamanya bermain
merupakan bentuk olahraga yang berat, sepak bola dituntut untuk bergerak cepat secara terus
menerus. Oleh karena itu pemain sepak bola harus sanggup bermain 2x45 menit, bahkan hingga babak
tambahan selama 2x15 menit jika pertandingan memang memerlukan babak tambahan, dan pemain juga
dituntut untuk memiliki kebugaran jasmani yang baik.5
Tingkat kebugaran jasmani akan sangat berpengaruh terhadap pencapaian prestasi
terutama pada olahraga yang dituntut untuk bergerak cepat dan terus menerus seperti sepak bola. 6
Kebugaran jasmani yang prima akan berdampak positif terhadap peningkatan kemampuan sirkulasi
darah dan kerja jantung, peningkatan kekuatan, kelenturan, daya tahan, koordinasi, keseimbangan,
kecepatan, dan kelincahan tubuh, selain itu akan berdampak pada terjadinya peningkatan
kemampuan gerak secara eûsien dan peningkatan kemampuan pemulihan organ-organ tubuh
setelah latihan serta meningkatnya kemampuan daya respons tubuh. Permainan sepakbola
menuntut setiap pemain agar selalu bergerak cepat dan tepat untuk mencari ruang kosong, merebut
bola, dan mencetak gol, sehingga para pemain sepakbola wajib memiliki kebugaran jasmani yang
baik agar dapat mendukung pergerakan secara efisien dan efektif.7
Kebugaran jasmani merupakan suatu kemampuan tubuh seseorang dalam melakukan
pekerjaan sehari-hari secara efektif dan efisien dalam jangka waktu relatif lama tanpa menimbulkan
kelelahan yang berlebihan. Hal ini dimaksudkan untuk meningkatkan produktivitas yang dimiliki
seseorang agar dapat terwujud derajat kesehatan dan kebugaran jasmani yang sesuai harapan.8
Kebugaran jasmani memiliki lima komponen dasar yaitu daya tahan jantung dan paru, kekuatan otot,
daya tahan otot, kelenturan serta komposisi tubuh. Ada beberapa faktor yang mempengaruhi
kebugaran jasmani yaitu genetik (keturunan), umur, jenis kelamin, latihan, kebiasaan merokok dan
status gizi. Kebugaran daya tahan jantung dan paru dideûnisikan sebagai kapasitas maksimal jantung
dan paru-paru untuk menghirup dan menyebarkan oksigen atau disingkat VO2 Maks. Semakin tinggi
VO2 Maks maka ketahanan tubuh saat berolahraga juga semakin tinggi yang berarti seseorang yang
memiliki tingkat VO2 Maks tinggi tidak akan cepat lelah setelah melakukan berbagai aktivitas.9
Seorang atlet sangat penting untuk memiliki tingkat VO2 Maks yang tinggi. Seorang atlet
dengan VO2 Maks yang kurang dari 50% tidak cukup cepat untuk melakukan aktivitas latihan yang lebih
intensif karena sumber energi yang digunakan berasal dari pembakaran lemak. VO2 Maks yang
kurang dari 50% akan membuat tubuh bekerja secara aerob, sehingga lemak merupakan sumber
energi utama. Tubuh olahragawan atau atlet harus memiliki cadangan energi yang cukup agar
dapat dimobilisasikan untuk menghasilkan energi. Cadangan energi yang berupa glikogen
akan disimpan dalam otot dan hati, apabila cadangan glikogen dalam tubuh atlet sedikit maka atlet
tersebut akan mudah lelah karena kehabisan tenaga. Berdasarkan uraian di atas, ditambah dengan
pengukuran tingkat daya tahan jantung paru (VO2 Maks) pada atlet sepak bola PPLP Pekanbaru
dengan metode lari 12 menit belum pernah dilakukan, maka peneliti tertarik melakukan penelitian
mengenai tes pengukuran tingkat daya tahan jantung paru (VO2 Maks) pada atlet sepakbola PPLP
Pekanbaru dengan metode lari 12 menit.
METODE
Penelitian ini merupakan penelitian deskriptif observasional dengan pendekatan cross
sectional. Penelitian ini dilakukan di Pusat Pendidikan dan Latihan Pelajar (PPLP) Pekanbaru
pada bulan September 2018 – Januari 2019. Populasi penelitian adalah seluruh atlet sepak bola di
PPLP Pekanbaru. Sampel penelitian ini adalah seluruh atlet sepak bola (total sampling) dengan
kriteria Drop Out yaitu atlet sedang mengalami cedera dan atlet yang sedang sakit. Daya tahan
jantung paru (VO2 Maks) didapatkan menggunakan metode lari 12 menit. Setelah mendapatkan
data yang diperlukan, data tersebut dimasukkan pada lembar kerja penelitian. Data disajikan
dalam bentuk tabel distribusi frekuensi dengan analisis univariat.
HASIL
Tabel 1. Karakteristik responden penelitian
Frekuensi (N) Persentase (%)

Karakteristik
Usia
12 tahun 0
0
13 tahun 1 4,2
14 tahun 3 12,5
15 tahun 9 37,5
16 tahun 8 33,3
17 tahun 3 12,5
Jumlah 24 100
Lama Berlatih
<1 tahun 62,5
15
1 - <2 tahun 5 20,8
2 - <3 tahun 3 12,5
3 - <4 tahun 1 4,2
4 - <5 tahun 0 0
5 - <6 tahun 0 0
Jumlah 24 100
Status Gizi
Underweight = < 18.5 16,7
4
Normal = 18.5 – 22.9 17 70,8
Overweight = 23.0 – 24.9 2 8,3
Obesitas I = 25.0 – 29.9 1 4,2
Obesitas II = > 30.0 0 0
Jumlah 24 100
Berdasarkan tabel 1, responden penelitian berdasarkan usia terbanyak adalah 15 tahun (37,5%)
dan usia paling sedikit adalah 13 tahun (4,2%). Berdasarkan lama berlatih didapatkan yang
(62,5%) dan paling sedikit adalah yang berlatih selama 3 - <4 tahun (4,2%). Berdasarkan status gizi
didapatkan hasil yang terbanyak adalah normal (70,8%) dan yang paling sedikit adalah obesitas
terbanyak adalah yang berlatih selama <1 tahun (4,2%).
Tabel 2. Hasil tes lari 12 menit
VO2 Maks Frekuensi Persentase (%)

(N)
Baik sekali 1 4,2

Baik 6 25
Cukup 17 70,8
Kurang 0 0
Kurang sekali 0 0
Jumlah 24 100
Berdasarkan tabel 2 didapatkan nilai VO2 Maks terbanyak adalah cukup (skor 3) dengan
frekuensi 17 (70,8%) dan yang paling sedikit adalah baik sekali (skor 5) dengan frekuensi 1 (4,2).
Tabel 3. Distribusi gambaran tingkat daya tahan jantung paru (Vo2 Maks) berdasarkan lama berlatih
Vo2 Maks
Lama Baik Baik Cukup Kurang Kurang Total

berlatih Sekali sekali
(tahun)
<1 0 0 15 0 0 15
1 - <2 1 3 1 0 0 5
2 - <3 0 2 1 0 0 3
3 - <4 0 1 0 0 0 1
4 - <5 0 0 0 0 0 0
5 - <6 0 0 0 0 0 0
Total 1 6 17 0 0 24
Berdasarkan tabel 3 didapatkan nilai VO2 Maks baik sekali dengan frekuensi 1 orang di rentang lama
berlatih 1 - <2 tahun. Nilai Vo2 Maks baik dengan frekuensi 3 orang di rentang lama berlatih 1
- <2 tahun, 2 orang di rentang lama berlatih 2 - <3 tahun dan 1 orang di rentang lama berlatih 3 - <4
tahun. Nilai Vo2 Maks cukup dengan frekuensi 15 orang di rentang lama berlatih <1 tahun, 1 orang
di rentang lama berlatih 1 - <2 tahun dan 1 orang di rentang lama berlatih 2 - <3 tahun. Tidak
terdapat nilai VO2 maks kurang maupun kurang sekali pada
tiap rentang lama berlatih.
PEMBAHASAN
Berdasarkan tabel 1, penelitian yang dilakukan didapatkan rentang usia para atlet sepakbola
Pusat Pendidikan dan Latihan Pelajar (PPLP) Pekanbaru yaitu usia 13 – 17 tahun dengan usia
terbanyak adalah usia 15 tahun (37,5%) dan paling sedikit adalah usia 13 tahun (4,2%). Rentang usia
ini merupakan salah satu rentang usia yang sangat bagus untuk dilakukan pembinaan. Dalam
pembinaan sepakbola yang ditempuh melalui jalur pendidikan digolongkan pada tiga tahapan, tahap
pertama adalah pembinaan multilateral yang dilaksanakan pada usia 10 – 12 tahun, tahap
pembinaan berikutnya adalah pembinaan menengah yang dilaksanakan pada usia 13 – 17 tahun
dan tahap pembinaan prestasi puncaknya adalah usia 18 – 24 tahun. Data yang didapatkan oleh
peneliti menunjukkan atlet sepakbola PPLP Pekanbaru berada pada pembinaan atlet usia menengah
dan termasuk rentang usia yang bagus untuk dilakukan pembinaan. Penelitian lain yang juga
mendapatkan atlet dengan rentang usia menengah adalah penelitian yang dilakukan oleh Tang pada
tahun 2014 yang dilakukan terhadap atlet sepakbola Pusat Pendidikan dan Latihan Pelajar (PPLP)
Sulawesi Selatan dan didapatkan hasil usia terbanyak yaitu usia 16 tahun dengan frekuensi 6 orang
atlet (31,6%) dari total 17 atlet.12 Waktu berlatih atau pembinaan atlet di PPLP paling lama selama 6
tahun, kemudian atlet akan meneruskan latihan atau pembinaannya ke Pusat Pendidikan dan Latihan
Mahasiswa (PPLM).
Pada penelitian ini didapatkan lama berlatih para atlet sepakbola PPLP Pekanbaru
memiliki waktu paling lama yaitu 3 - <4 tahun dengan lama berlatih terbanyak yaitu <1 tahun
(62,5%) dan lama berlatih paling sedikit yaitu 3 - <4 tahun (4,2%). Lama berlatih terbanyak <1
tahun menunjukkan banyaknya atlet- atlet sepakbola yang baru bergabung dalam binaan PPLP
Pekanbaru. Hal ini merupakan persiapan awal mendasar untuk keberhasilan pembinaan jalur PPLP
yang mempunyai tenggang waktu pelatihan maksimal 6 tahun dalam mencapai prestasi. Untuk
mencapai suatu prestasi, sesuai dengan sistem pembinaan olahraga dari Kantor Menteri Pemuda
dan Olahraga yang tersusun dalam himpunan kebijaksanaan pemerintah di bidang
keolahragaan salah satu poin menyatakan bahwa untuk mencapai prestasi puncak dalam
olahraga diperlukan latihan jangka panjang kurang lebih 8 – 10 tahun yang dilakukan secara
kontiniu, bertahap, meningkat dan berkesinambungan. Dalam proses pentahapan pembinaan
terbagi dalam 4 tahapan yaitu : 1) tahap latihan persiapan yang lamanya latihan kurang lebih 3
– 4 tahun, 2) tahap latihan pembentukan 2 – 3 tahun, 3) tahap latihan pemantapan
2 – 3 tahun, 4) golden age untuk sepakbola pada usia 24 – 30 tahun.11 Namun dalam hal ini para
atlet hanya bisa bergabung dan berlatih bersama PPLP selama 6 tahun, kemudian dalam usia
emasnya dibina pada PPLM. Selain waktu lama berlatih, status gizi para atlet juga perlu
diperhatikan untuk mendapatkan kebugaran yang baik dalam mengikuti latihan ataupun
pertandingan.
Perhitungan status gizi yang dilakukan pada atlet sepakbola PPLP Pekanbaru mendapatkan
hasil status gizi terbanyak adalah normal (70,8%). Status gizi normal menunjukkan bahwa seorang
atlet memang seharusnya memiliki status gizi yang ideal (normal) tidak terlalu kurus dan tidak terlalu
gemuk. Seseorang yang memiliki lemak berlebih pada tubuhnya akan mengkonsumsi oksigen lebih
rendah dibandingkan dengan seseorang yang memiliki tubuh atletis dan tidak berlemak banyak,
setiap kenaikan IMT sebesar 1 kg/m2 di ikuti dengan penurunan VO2 maks sebesar 1,30
ml/kgBB/menit. Atlet yang mempunyai Indeks Massa Tubuh (IMT) normal akan mempunyai tingkat
VO2 maks yang baik untuk menunjang performa saat latihan maupun bertanding.13 Penelitian
lain yang juga didapatkan hasil status gizi normal para atlet adalah penelitian yang dilakukan oleh
Hudriah pada tahun 2018 yang dilakukan terhadap atlet sepakbola Pusat Pendidikan dan Latihan
Pelajar (PPLP) Sulawesi Selatan didapatkan hasil status gizi terbanyak yaitu status gizi normal
(100%) dari total 29 orang atlet.14
Berdasarkan tabel 2, penelitian yang dilakukan didapatkan nilai daya tahan jantung paru
(VO2 Maks) terbanyak adalah cukup sebanyak 17 orang atlet (70,8%). Hasil ini menunjukkan
bahwa rata- rata atlet sepakbola PPLP Pekanbaru masih memiliki tingkat daya tahan jantung paru
(VO2 Maks) yang cukup, masih sangat sedikit atlet yang mencapai tingkat daya tahan jantung paru
(VO2 Maks) baik maupun baik sekali. Seorang atlet sangat penting untuk memiliki tingkat VO2
Maks yang tinggi. Semakin tinggi VO2 Maks seorang atlet maka ketahanan tubuh atlet tersebut saat
berolahraga juga semakin tinggi yang berarti seorang atlet yang memiliki tingkat VO2 Maks tinggi
tidak akan cepat lelah setelah melakukan berbagai aktivitas.9 Seorang atlet dengan VO2 Maks yang
kurang dari 50% tidak cukup cepat untuk melakukan aktivitas latihan yang lebih intensif karena
sumber energi yang digunakan berasal dari pembakaran lemak.10
Berdasarkan tabel 3, hasil pendistribusian tingkat daya tahan jantung paru berdasarkan
lama berlatih didapatkan bahwa semua atlet yang waktu lama berlatihnya <1 tahun memiliki nilai
VO2 Maks cukup, tidak ada atlet dengan waktu lama berlatih <1 tahun memiliki nilai VO2
Maks baik sekali maupun baik. Atlet dengan waktu lama berlatih 1 - <2 tahun rata-rata memiliki
nilai VO2 Maks baik, hanya ada satu orang atlet yang memiliki nilai VO2 Maks baik sekali dan
satu orang atlet yang memiliki nilai VO2 Maks cukup. Para atlet dengan lama berlatih 2 - <3 tahun
rata-rata memiliki nilai VO2 Maks baik, tidak ada atlet yang memiliki nilai VO2 Maks baik sekali,
dan hanya ada satu orang atlet yang memiliki nilai VO2 Maks cukup. Lama berlatih termasuk salah
satu faktor yang dapat menentukan peningkatan kadar VO2 Maks seseorang, karena pada dasarnya
untuk meningkatkan nilai VO2 Maks seseorang memerlukan jenis latihan daya tahan. Latihan daya
tahan ini memerlukan waktu yang lama untuk dapat terlihat hasilnya, semakin lama seorang atlet
berlatih maka semakin bagus pula tingkat VO2 Maks nya.15
SIMPULAN
Berdasarkan penelitian yang telah peneliti lakukan dapat diambil kesimpulan, atlet
sepakbola PPLP Pekanbaru terbanyak berusia 15 tahun (37,5%), dan yang paling sedikit adalah usia
13 tahun (4,2%), lama berlatih sebagian besar adalah <1 tahun (62,5%), dan lama berlatih terlama
yaitu 3 - <4 tahun (4,2%), dan status gizi sebagian besar adalah normal (70,8%), selebihnya
tergolong dalam underweight, overweight dan obesitas (29,2%). Tingkat VO2 Maks terbanyak atlet
sepakbola PPLP Pekanbaru adalah cukup (70,8%) dan hanya ada 1 orang atlet (4,2%) yang
memiliki tingkat VO2 Maks baik sekali. Tingkat VO2 Maks baik sekali terdapat pada atlet dengan
lama berlatih 1 - <2 tahun. Tingkat VO2maks baik terbanyak terdapat pada atlet dengan lama
berlatih 1 - <2 tahun. Tingkat VO2 Maks cukup terbanyak terdapat pada atlet dengan lama berlatih
<1 tahun sebanyak 15 orang atlet.
3. Pengaruh Daya Ledak Otot Tungkai, Kecepatan Reaksi Dan Motivasi Terhadap
Kecepatan Lari Jarak Pendek 100 Meter Pada Atlet Ppl Pprovinsi Riau
ISSN 2527-760X (Print) ISSN

2528-584X (Online)
PENGARUH DAYA LEDAK OTOT TUNGKAI, KECEPATAN REAKSI DAN

MOTIVASI TERHADAP KECEPATAN LARI JARAK PENDEK 100 METER
PADA ATLET PPL PPROVINSI RIAU
Raffly Henjilito Universitas Islam Riau

Email: raffly_henjilito@yahoo.co.id
ABSTRAK
Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui ada atau tidaknya pengaruh langsung dan tidak
langsung antara daya ledak otot tungkai, kecepatan reaksi dan motivasi terhadap kecepatan lari
jarak penek 100 meter. Penelitian ini dilakukan pada atlit atletik PPLP Pekanbaru Provinsi Riau.
Populasi menggunakan populasi sasaran adalah seluruh atlit atletik PPLP lari jarak pendek
berjumlah 12 atlit. Pengambilan sampel dilakukan dengan menggunakan teknik sampel total (total
sampling). Pengujian hipotesis pengaruh daya ledak otot tungkai terhadap kecepatan lari jarak
pendek 100 meter sebesar 0,659. Pengaruh kecepatan reaksi terhadap kecepatan lari jarak pendek
100 meter sebesar 0,621. Pengaruh motivasi terhadap kecepatan lari jarak pendek 100 meter
sebesar 0,764. Pengaruh daya ledak otot tungkai terhadap motivasi sebesar 0,625. Pengaruh
kecepatan reaksi terhadap motivasi sebesar 0,782. Pengaruh daya ledak otot tungkai terhadap
kecepatan lari jarak pendek 100 meter melalui motivasi sebesar 0,915. Pengaruh kecepatan reaksi
terhadap kecepatan lari jarak pendek 100 meter melalui motivasi sebesar 0,960. Hasil penelitian
menyimpulkan: Terdapat pengaruh positif antara daya ledak otot tungkai terhadap kecepatan lari
jarak pendek 100 meter pada atlit atletik PPLP Pekanbaru. Terdapat pengaruh positif antara
kecepatan reaksi terhadap kecepatan lari jarak pendek 100 meter pada atlit atletik PPLP Pekanbaru.
Terdapat pengaruh positif antara motivasi terhadap kecepatan lari jarak pendek 100 meter pada atlit
atletik PPLP Pekanbaru. Terdapat pengaruh positif antara daya ledak otot tungkai terhadap
motivasi pada atlit atletik PPLP Pekanbaru. Terdapat pengaruh positif antara kecepatan reaksi
terhadap motivasi pada atlit atletik PPLP Pekanbaru. Terdapat pengaruh positif antara daya ledak
otot tungkai terhadap kecepatan lari jarak pendek 100 meter melalui motivasi pada atlit atletik
PPLP Pekanbaru. Terdapat pengaruh positif antara kecepatan reaksi terhadap kecepatan lari jarak
pendek 100 meter melalui motivasi pada atlit atletik PPLP Pekanbaru.
Kata Kunci : Kecepatan Lari Jarak Pendek 100 Meter, Daya Ledak Otot Tungkai Kecepatan
Reaksi dan Motivasi
ABSTRACT
The purposeofthis researchwasto determine whether or notof influencethe directandin direct
between explosive power of leg muscle, speed ofre action and motivation to speed of sprinting100
meters.This research was conducted on athletes athletics PPLP Pekanbaru Riau province. The
Population wasusing the target populationfor all athletic sprinting athlete of PPLP, the total was 12
athletes. Take Sampling wasdone by usingthe total sample technique (total sampling). The
hypothesis test of the influence explosive power of leg muscleto speed sprinting 100 meterswas
0.659. Influence ofreaction speed to the speed ofthe 100-meter sprintwas 0.621. Influence of
motivation on the speed ofthe 100-meter sprintwas 0.764. Influence explosive power of leg
muscleon the motivationwas0.625. The influence of the reaction speed on the motivationwas 0,782.
The influence explosive power of leg muscle of the speed of the 100-meter sprint through the
motivation of 0.915. Influence ofreaction speed to the speed ofthe 100-meter sprint through the
motivation of 0,960.The research concludes: There is apositive effect explosive power of leg
muscleof the speed of the 100-meter sprinting athletics athletes of PPLP Pekanbaru. There is
apositive influence between the speed of reaction to speed sprint 100 meters in athletics athletes of
PPLP Pekanbaru. There is apositive influence between motivation to speed sprint 100meter for
athleticathletes PPLP Pekanbaru. There is positive influence between explosive power of leg
muscleon the motivation of the athleticathlete of PPLP Pekanbaru. Thereis positive influence
between the speed ofreaction to motivate athleticsathletes PPLP Pekanbaru. Thereis positive
influence between explosive power of leg muscleto speedthe 100 meter sprint through the
motivation of athleticsathletes of PPLP Pekanbaru. Thereis positive influence between the speed
ofreaction to speed the 100 meter sprint throughthe motivation of athletics athletes of PPLP
Pekanbaru.
Keywords: Sprint 100 Meters, Explosive Power Of Leg, Reaction Time and Motivation
PENDAHULUAN
Atletik merupakan salah satu cabang olahraga yang tertua, yang telah dilakukan
oleh manusia sejak zaman purba sampai dewasa ini. Bahkan boleh dikatakan sejak adanya
manusia di muka bumi ini atletik sudah ada, karena gerakan-gerakan yang terdapat dalam
cabang olahraga atletik, seperti berjalan, berlari, melompat, dan melempar adalah gerakan
yang dilakukan oleh manusia di dalam kehidupannya sehari- hari. Oleh karena itu, tidak
berlebihan kiranya jika dikatakan bahwa atletik adalah induk dari semua cabang olahraga.
Cabang olahraga atletik terdiri dari beberapa nomor yaitu jalan, lari lompat dan lempar.
Lari terdiri dari lari jarak pendek, lari jarak menengah, lari jarak jauh dan marathon. Lari
jarak pendek memiliki nomor lari diantaranya lari 50 meter, lari 100 meter, lari 200 meter
dan lari 400 meter.
Lari merupakan salah satu nomor yang diperlombakan dalam cabang olahraga
atletik, baik yang bertaraf daerah, nasional maupun internasional. Prestasi olahraga cabang
atlit nomor lari, khususnya lari jarak pendek di tingkat daerah mengalami penurunan atau
memiliki kemampuan prestasi yang rendah. Itu semua terlihat dari hasil pertandingan yang
telah diikuti. Pencapaian kemampuan yang paling baik dalam kegiatan olahraga adalah
kecepatan. Kecepatan merupakan keadaan yang sebenarnya diekspresikan melalui
perbandingan jarak dan waktu. Kecepatan lari merupakan gerakan lari yang dilakukan
dengan secepat-cepatnya. Kecepatan lari sprint 100 meter termasuk nomor lari jarak
pendek. Lari jarak pendek adalah semua nomor lari yang dilakukan dengan kecepatan
penuh atau kecepatan yang maksimal sepanjang jarak yang harus ditempuh. Oleh sebab itu,
untuk menghasilkan lari yang maksimal diperlukan faktor penunjang seperti, kecepatan
reaksi, daya ledak otot tungkai , panjang tungkai serta motivasi dan sebagainya. Sprint
yang baik memerlukan reaksi yang cepat, akselerasi yang baik, dan efesiensi gerak lari.
Pelari juga harus membangun kecepatan start yang execellent dan memelihara kecepatan
maksimum sejauh mungkin. Daya ledak otot tungkai merupakan kemampuan otot tungkai
dalam melakukan gerakan-gerakan yang terkoordinir untuk melakukan berbagai kegiatan
terutama yang menggunakan tungkai. Dengan demikian untuk mendapatkan lari yang baik
diperlukan faktor penunjang, salah satunya adalah daya ledak otot tungkai.
Daya ledak otot tungkai merupakan hasil dari kombinasi kekuatan dan kecepatan
untuk melakukan kerja maksimum dengan waktu yang sangat cepat. Kekuatan disini
diartikan sebagai kemampuan otot atau sekelompok otot untuk mengatasi beban, baik
beban dalam arti tubuh sendiri maupun beban dalam arti benda atau alat yang digerakan
oleh tubuh. Sedangkan kecepatan menunjukan cepat atau lambatnya otot berkontraksi
mengatasi beban. Kombinasi keduanya itulah yang menghasilkan kecepatan gerak sacara
explosive. Dapat diartikan bahwa kekuatan otot dan kecepatan gerak merupakan ciri utama
dari kemampuan explosive.Explosive atau daya ledak sangat dibutuhkan dalam lari jarak
pendek 100 meter, terutama ketika akan melakukan start. Syafrudin (2011: 69) mengatakan
pada lari 100 meter sprint dibutuhkan komponen atau unsur kondisi fisik antara lain (1)
kecepatan reaksi untuk start, (2) kekuatan kecepatan sampai 30 meter pertama, (3)
akselerasi atau percepatan dari 30 meter sampai jarak 80 meter, (4) daya tahan kecepatan
pada 20 meter terakhir. Sehingga untuk melahirkan seorang sprinter saja diperlukan
beberapa komponen kondisi fisik. Hal ini berarti bahwa untuk melatih seorang pelari jarak
pendek tidak hanya diberikan latihan kecepatan sprint saja, melainkan harus diperlukan
latihan - latihan terhadap semua komponen kondisi fisik yang lainnya seperti latihan
kekuatan kecepatan, kecepatan reaksi dan latihan daya tahan kecepatan.
PPLP Atletik kota pekanbaru merupakan salah satu tempat latihan yang membina
atlit-atlit dari berbagai kabupaten yang ada di Pekanbaru. Mereka semuanya diseleksi
terlebih dahulu di Kabupaten mereka masing-masing, kemudian mereka dikumpulkan
menjadi satu tempat untuk dilatih kecepatan berlari mereka khususnya lari jarak pendek
100 meter. Meski lari jarak pendek atau lari sprint diajarkan kepada atlit , namun masih ada
atlit yang kurang menguasai teknik lari sprint dan belum menunjukkan kecepatan dan
rekasi yang maksimal. Terlihat dari berbagai perlombaan yang mereka ikuti, pada saat
melakukan start, kurang nya konsentrasi atlit saat mendengarkan aba-aba yang diberikan
oleh starter, sehingga kecepatan reaksi atlit tidak maksimal yang menyebabkan atlit
terlambatnya keluar dari balok start dan juga kurangnya daya ledak otot tungkai sehingga
kurangnya dorongan untuk memulai langkah awal berlari.Tidak hanya tolakan kaki saja
yang kuat pada saat melakukan start akan tetapi seorang pelari sangat membutuhkan
kecepatan. Namun pada bagian ini kecepatan yang dimaksud adalah kecepatan rekasi.
Kecepatan reaksi adalah suatu kemampuan organisme alat untuk menjawab suatu
rangsangan secepat mungkin dalam mencapai hasil yang sebaik-baiknya.
Kecepatan reaksi sangat diperlukan dalam melakukan start yaitu pada saat starter
membunyikan peluit maka pelari dapat melakukan start dengan sempurna dalam waktu
yang cepat. Kemudian melakukan lari secepat mungkin sampai dengan garis finish. Hal ini
mendukung kecepatan dalam lari yang berguna untuk menyelesaikan perlombaan dengan
cepat. Selain itu motivasi merupakan suatu dorongan yang terjadi dalam diri individu untuk
senantiasa meningkatkan kualitas tertentu dengan sebaik-baiknya. Tercapainya tujuan
seseorang tiada lain untuk memuaskan atau memenuhi kebutuhan-kebutuhan dalam dirinya
yang dianggap perlu. Motivasi dipandang sebagai motivasi sosial untuk mencapai suatu
nilai tertentu dalam perbuatan seseorang berdasarkan standar atau kriteria yang paling baik.
Secara umum tujuan penelitian untuk mengetahui ada atau tidaknya pengaruh langsung dan
tidak langsung antara daya ledak otot tungkai, kecepatan rekasi dan motivasi terhadap
kecepatan lari jarak pendek 100 meter pada atlit atletik PPLP Pekanbaru.
METODE PENELITIAN
Metode penelitian yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah pendekatan
kuantitatif, metode survei dengan teknik pengukuran dan tes, sedangkan teknik analisis
menggunakan pendekatan analisis jalur (path analysis) yaitu suatu teknik untuk
menganalisis hubungan sebab akibat yang terjadi pada regresi berganda jika variabel
bebasnya mempengaruhi variabel tergantung tidak hanya secara langsung tetapi juga secara
tidak langsung (Supardi, 2012 : 263). Pengambilan data daya ledak otot tungkai, kecepatan
reaksi, motivasi dan kecepatan lari jarak pendek 100 meter dilakukan di stadion Atletik
Kaharuddin Nasution Rumbai Pekanbaru.Waktu pelaksanaan penelitian dibagi menjadi dua
tahap yaitu: Tahap pertama uji coba instrumen penelitian, Tahap kedua pengambilan data
mentah pada atlit atletik PPLP Pekanbaru. Poulasi penelitian yang digunakan sebagai
populasi sasaran (target population) penelitian adalah seluruh atlit Atletik PPLP lari jarak
pendek yang terdiri dari 12 atlet. Pengambilan sampel dilakukan dengan menggunakan
teknik sampel total (total sampling). Data yang dikumpulkan dalam penelitian ini meliputi:
data tes daya ledak otot tungkai, tes kecepatan reaksi, tes motivasi dan tes kecepatan lari
jarak pendek 100 m.
Sesuai dengan jenis variabel-variabel yang dilibatkan dalam penelitian maka untuk
mendapatkan data yang diolah dalam penelitian ini, maka instrumen yang digunakan
adalah (1) Instrumen kecepatan lari jarak pendek 100 meter (Y) menggunakan tes
kecepatan lari 100 meter (Ismaryati, 2008 : 58), (2) Instrumen dayaledak otot tungkai (X1)
menggunakan tes daya ledak otot tungkai dengan standing broad jump (Widiastuti, 2011 :
104-105), (3) Kecepatan reaksi (X 2) menggunakan tes kecepatan reaksi dengan whole body
reaction(Arie S Sutopo, 2006 : 7) dan (4) Motivasi (X3) menggunakan tes motivasi dengan
angket, tes angket disusun menurut skala likert (Sugiyono, 2012 : 134). Analisis data
meliputi: (1) deskripsi data, (2) uji persyaratan analisis yakni uji normalitas data dan uji
homogenitas varians data, (3) uji linearitas regresi dan uji signifikasi regresi, (4) analisis
jalur yang meliputi: pengujian model, pengujian hipotesis.
HASIL DAN PEMBAHASAN

Untuk melihat apakah data yang diperoleh dari masing-masing variabel penelitian
normal atau tidak, maka dilakukan uji normalitas dengan menggunakan uji
Liliefors.Apabila hasil dari harga Lhitung (L0) tertinggi dari kelompok variabel yang di teliti
lebih kecil dari pada Ltabel (Lt) dalam daftar, maka data tersebut dikatakan berdistribusi
normal. Sedangkan yang dimaksud dengan Lhitung (L0) adalah selisih antara harga mutlak
terbesar antara peluang data mentah dengan proposi data mentah.Untuklebih jelasnya
disajikan hasil perhitungan normalitas dari variabel yang diteliti dengan menggunakan uji
liliefors pada taraf signifikansi a = 0,05.
Uji Normalitas Data
Tabel 1. Uji Normalitas Dengan Menggunakan Uji Liliefors

Variabel Lhitung (L0) Ltabel (Lt) Taraf 0.05 Keterangan
Daya Ledak Otot Tungkai(X1) 0.1351 Normal
Kecepatan Reaksi(X2) 0,2346

Motivasi(X3) Normal 0.242
0,1874 Normal
Lari 100 Meter (X4) 0,1930 Normal
Uji Normalitas X1
Berdasarkan hasil perhitungan uji normalitas liliefors diperoleh harga L 0 sebesar
0,1351. Dimana nilai kritis L0 pada tabel liliefors untuk ukuran sampel (n) =12 dengan
a=0,05 diperoleh nilai sebesar 0,242. Jika dibandingkan nilai L 0 hitung ternyata lebih kecil
dari L0 tabel, sehingga dapat disimpulkan bahwa uji normalitas X1 berdistribusi normal.
Uji Normalitas X2
dari L0 tabel, sehingga dapat disimpulkan bahwa uji normalitas X2 berdistribusi normal.
Uji Normalitas X3
dari L0 tabel, sehingga dapat disimpulkan bahwa uji normalitas X3 berdistribusi normal
Uji Normalitas Y
dari L0 tabel, sehingga dapat disimpulkan bahwa uji normalitas Yberdistribusi normal.
Uji Homogenitas
Uji homogenitas digunakan untuk mengetahui apakah beberapa varian populasi
adalah sama atau tidak. Uji ini dilakukan sebagai prasyarat dalam analisis yakni bagi
peneliti yang menggunakan lebih dari satu kelompok sampel yang pada umumnya dipakai
untuk membuktikan hipotesis komparatif. Asumsi yang mendasari dalam analisis varian
adalah bahwa varian dari populasi adalah sama. Sebagai kriteria pengujian, jika nilai
signifikansi lebih dari 0,05 maka dapat dikatakan bahwa varian dari dua atau lebih
kelompok data adalah sama.
Uji Homogenitas X1 Terhadap Y
Tabel 2. Test of Homogeneity of Variance

Levene Statistic df1 df2 Sig.
Based on Mean 0.002 1 22 0.967
Based on Median 0.002 1 22 0.968
Daya Ledak Otot Based on Median
Tungkai Terhadap and with adjusted 0.002 1 21.43 0.968
Lari 100 Meter df
Based on trimmed
0.002 1 22 0.967
mean
Berdasarkan hasil perhitungan uji homogenitas varias daya ledak otot tungkai
terhadap kecepatan lari jarak pendek 100 meter diperoleh nilai signifikansi sebesar 0,967.
Karena nilai signifikansinya lebih dari 0,05. sehingga dapat disimpulkan bahwa varians
kelompok X1 terhadap Y adalah homogen.

Based on Mean 0.017 1 22 0.897
Kecepatan Reaksi Based on Median 0.015 1 22 0.905
Terhadap Lari Based on Median
100 Meter and with adjusted 0.015 1 21.67 0.905
df
Berdasarkan hasil perhitungan uji homogenitas varias kecepatan reaksi terhadap

kecepatan lari jarak pendek 100 meter diperoleh nilai signifikansi sebesar 0,898. Karena
nilai signifikansinya lebih dari 0,05. sehingga dapat disimpulkan bahwa varians kelompok
X2 terhadap Y adalah homogen.

Based on Mean 0.006 1 22 0.937
Motivasi Based on Median
Terhadap Lari and with adjusted 0.006 1 22 0.94
100 Meter df
Based on trimmed mean 0.006 1 22 0.937
Berdasarkan hasil perhitungan uji homogenitas varias motivasi terhadap kecepatan lari jarak
pendek 100 meter diperoleh nilai signifikansi sebesar 0,937. Karena nilai signifikansinya
lebih dari 0,05. sehingga dapat disimpulkan bahwa varians kelompok X3 terhadap Y adalah
homogen.
Uji Homogenitas X1 Terhadap X3

Based on Mean 0.002 1 22 0.966
Daya ledak otot Based on Median
tungkai terhadap and with adjusted 0.002 1 21.47 0.967
motivasi df
Based on trimmed mean 0.002 1 22 0.966
Berdasarkan hasil perhitungan uji homogenitas varias daya ledak otot tungkai
terhadap motivasi diperoleh nilai signifikansi sebesar 0,966. Karena nilai signifikansinya
lebih dari 0,05. sehingga dapat disimpulkan bahwa varians kelompok X 1 terhadap X3
adalah homogen.
Uji Homogenitas X2 Terhadap X3

Based on Mean 0.002 1 22 0.966
Kecepatan reaksi Based on Median
terhadap motivasi and with adjusted 0.002 1 21.71 0.968
df
Based on trimmed 0.002 1 22 0.966
mean
Berdasarkan hasil perhitungan uji homogenitas varias kecepatan reaksi terhadap
motivasi diperoleh nilai signifikansi sebesar 0,966. Karena nilai signifikansinya lebih dari
0,05. sehingga dapat disimpulkan bahwa varians kelompok X 2 terhadap X3 adalah
homogen.
Kontribusi variabel daya ledak otot tungkai (X 1) terhadap kecepatan lari jarak
pendek 100 meter (Y) secara langsung adalah sebesar 0,6592 x 100% = 43,42%. Variabel
kecepatan reaksi (X2) memiliki kontribusi secara langsung sebesar 0,621 2 x 100% =
38,57%. Sementara variabel motivasi (X 3) memiliki kontribusi secara langsung sebesar
0,7642 x 100% = 58,37%. Pengaruh antara daya ledak otot tungkai, kecepatan rekasi dan
motivasi yang berkorelasi terhadap kecepatan lari jarak pendek 100 meter sebesar (0,659 x
0,621 x 0,638) x 100% = 26,10%. Total pengaruh daya ledak otot tungkai baik secara
langsung maupun secara tidak langsung terhadap kecepatan lari jarak pendek 100 meter
adalah sebesar 43,42% + 26,10% = 69.52%. Kecepatan reaksi berkontribusi secara
langsung maupun tidak langsung terhadap kecepatan lari jarak pendek 100 meter secara
keseluruhan adalah sebesar 38,57% + 26,10% = 64,67%. Sedangkan motivasi
berkontribusi secara langsung maupun tidak langsung terhadap kecepatan lari jarak pendek
100 meter secara keseluruhan adalah sebesar 53,37% + 26,10% = 79,47%.
Kontribusi variabel daya ledak otot tungkai (X 1) terhadap motivasi (X3) secara
langsung adalah sebesar 0,6252 x 100% = 39,06%. Sementara variabel kecepatan reaksi
(X2) memiliki kontribusi secara langsung sebesar 0,7822 x 100% = 61,15%. Pengaruh
antara daya ledak otot tungkai dan kecepatan rekasi yang berkorelasi terhadap motivasi
sebesar (0,625 x 0,782 x 0,675) x 100% = 32,99%. Total pengaruh daya ledak otot tungkai
baik secara langsung maupun secara tidak langsung terhadap motivasi adalah sebesar
39,06% + 32,99% = 72,05%. Sedangkan kecepatan reaksi berkontribusi secara langsung
maupun tidak langsung terhadap motivasi secara keseluruhan adalah sebesar 61,15% +
32,99% = 94,14%.
Deskripsi data dari hasil penelitian bertujuan untuk memberikan gambaran umum
mengenai penyebaran distribusi data, baik yang berupa ukuran letak distribusi frekuensi.
Harga-harga yang disajikan setelah diolah dari data mentah dengan menggunakan metode
statistik deskriptif, yaitu nilai maksimum, nilai minimum, rentang, rata-rata, simpangan
baku dan varians. Juga dengan uji persyaratan yakni uji normalitas, homogenitas, linieritas
regresi dan signifikansi regresi. Serta uji hipotesis dengan menggunakan SPSS versi 17.00
Rangkuman Hasil Perhitungan Statistik
Tabel 8. Rangkuman Dekomposisi Dari Koefisien Jalur, Pengaruh Langsung dan

Tidak Langsung, Pengaruh Total Pengaruh Daya Ledak Otot Tungkai (X1),
Kecepatan Reaksi (X2) dan Motivasi (X3) Terhadap Kecepatan Lari Jarak Pendek
100 Meter.
Pengaruh Kausal
Sisa ɛ
Pengaruh Variabel Tidak Langsung 1 Total
dan ɛ 2
Langsung Melalui
X1 terhadap Y 0,659 - - 0,659
- 0,659(0,625+0,764) - 0,915
X2 terhadap Y 0,621 - - 0,621
- 0,621(0,782+0,764) - 0,960
X3 terhadap Y 0,764 - - 0,764
X1, X2, X3 terhadap
0,638 - 0,362 1,00
Y
X1 terhadap X3 0,625 - - 0,625
X2 terhadap X3 0,782 - - 0,782
X1, X2 terhadap X3 0,675 - 0,325 1,00
KESIMPULAN
Penarikan kesimpulan dilakukan berdasarkan hasil temuan penelitian dengan variabel
eksogen terdiri dari daya ledak otot tungkai (X1), kecepatan reaksi (X2) dan motivasi (X3).
Variabel endogen terdiri dari kecepatan lari jarak pendek 100 meter (Y).
Terdapat pengaruh positif antara daya ledak otot tungkai (X 1) terhadap kecepatan lari
jarak pendek 100 meter (Y) pada atlit atletik PPLP Pekanbaru.
Terdapat pengaruh positif antara kecepatan reaksi (X 2) terhadap kecepatan lari jarak
pendek 100 meter (Y) pada atlit atletik PPLP Pekanbaru.
Terdapat pengaruh positif antara motivasi (X 3) terhadap kecepatan lari jarak pendek 100
meter (Y) pada atlit atletik PPLP Pekanbaru.
Terdapat pengaruh positif antara daya ledak otot tungkai (X 1) terhadap motivasi (X3) pada
atlit atletik PPLP Pekanbaru.
Terdapat pengaruh positif antara kecepatan reaksi (X 2) terhadap motivasi (X3) pada atlit
atletik PPLP Pekanbaru.
Terdapat pengaruh positif antara daya ledak otot tungkai (X1) terhadap kecepatan lari
jarak pendek 100 meter (Y) melalui motivasi (X3) pada atlit atletik PPLP Pekanbaru.,
Terdapat pengaruh positif antara kecepatan reaksi (X 2) terhadap kecepatan lari jarak
pendek 100 meter (Y) melalui motivasi (X3) pada atlit atletik PPLP Pekanbaru.
Dengan demikian kecepatan lari jarak pendek 100 meter dapat ditingkatkan melalui
peningkatan daya ledak otot tungkai, kecepatan reaksi dan motivasi.
4. Pelatihan
Lari Aerobik 2,4 Km Dengan Takaran Yang Sama Di Dalam Dan Di Luar
Lapangan Meningkatkan Kebugaran Jasmani Mahasiswa Fik UNIMA
PELATIHAN LARI AEROBIK 2,4 KM DENGAN TAKARAN YANG SAMA DI

DALAM DAN DI LUAR LAPANGAN MENINGKATKAN KEBUGARAN JASMANI
MAHASISWA FIK UNIMA
AEROBIC RUNNING TRAINING 2,4 KM WITH THE SAME AMOUNT INSIDE AND
OUTSIDE THE FIELD IMPROVES THE PHYSICAL FITNESS OF FIK UNIMA
STUDENTS
1
Fentje Welliam Langitan, 2Deviana Pratiwi Munthe
1,2
Fakultas Ilmu Keolahragaan, Universitas Negeri Manado, Manado, Indonesia
Email:1fenthelangitan@unima.ac.id, 2devianamunthe@unima.ac.id
ABSTRAK
Kebugaran jasmani memberikan manfaat yang besar untuk meningkatkan produktivitas kerja, apabila
dilakukan secara baik dan benar. Kebugaran jasmani akan memberikan sumbangan berarti pada kemampuan
bekerja dan aktivitas fisik. Program lari aerobik adalah program yang bertujuan untuk meningkatkan
kebugaran jasmani. Akan tetapi, cara atau metode serta lingkungan yang tepat membantu peningkatan jasmani
secara efektif dan efisien. Penelitian ini menggunakan metode eksperimen semu (Quasi Experimental)
dengan rancangan penelitian The Randomized pretest-posttest group design. Adapun tempat pelaksanaan
penelitian di Stadion/lapangan UNIMA, dengan waktu pelaksaan penelitian adalah 6 minggu, yang berlaku
pada bulan April dan Mei 2018. Teknik analisa data yang digunakan adalah uji t yang sebelumnya di dahului
oleh pengujian normalitas data dengan Kolmogorov Smirnov dan Homogenitas data dengan Levene test.
Kesimpulan penelitian adalah: Pelatihan lari aerobik 2,4 km di dalam stadion/lapangan dengan frekuensi
latihan tiga kali seminggu selama 6 minggu lebih baik meningkatkan kebugaran jasmani daripada pelatihan
lari 2,4 km di luar stadion/lapangan dengan frekuensi latihan tiga kali seminggu selama 6 minggu.
Kata Kunci: Aerobik, Kebugaran

Abstract
Physical fitness provides great benefits to increase work productivity, if done properly and correctly. Physical
fitness will contribute significantly to the ability to work and physical activity. The aerobic running program is
a program that aims to improve physical fitness. However, the method or method and the right environment
help to increase the body effectively and efficiently. This study used a quasi-experimental method with the
research design of The Randomized pretest-posttest group design. The research implementation place is at the
UNIMA Stadium / field, with a research implementation time of 6 weeks, which applies in April and May
2018. The data analysis technique used is the t test which was previously preceded by data normality testing
with Kolmogorov Smirnov and data homogeneity with Levene test. The conclusion of the study is: 2.4 km
aerobic running training in the stadium / field with a frequency of training three times a week for 6 weeks is
better to improve physical fitness than 2.4 km running training outside the stadium / field with a frequency of
training three times a week for 6 Sunday.
Keywords : Aerobics,
Fitness Introduction
Dalam kondisi membentuk manusia yang sehat, kuat fisik, dan mental dapat
ditingkatkan dengan pembinaan kesegaran jasmani melalui jenis-jenis aktivitas olahraga
yang dilakukan secara progresif dan terencana. Memiliki kebugaran jasmani yang baik
merupakan modal yang besar dalam menghadapi aktivitas kerja sehari-hari. Tentang hal ini,
para ahli fisiologi menyatakan bahwa: kebugaran jasmani adalah suatu kesanggupan atau
adaptasi terhadap beban fisik yang dihadapi tanpa meimbulkan kelelahan yang berarti
(Nala, 1986). Selanjutnya Sudarno(1990) menyatakan bahwa kebugaran jasmani adalah
suatu keadaan saat tubuh mampu menunaikan tugas hariannya dengan baik dan efisien
tanpa kelelahan yang berarti dan tubuh masih memiliki tenaga cadangan untuk mengatasi
hal-hal darurat.
Kebugaran jasmani adalah kualitas fisik seseorang di atas kondisi sehat sehingga
mampu melakukan pekerjaan atau aktivitas fisik berulang-ulang tanpa merasa lelah yang
berarti dan masih mampu mengisi waktu luangnya dengan aktivitas lainnya. kebugaran
jasmani diperoleh melalui latihan fisik atau olahraga pada berbagai komponennya, yang
dilakukan secara teratur, terarah dan berkesinambungan, dengan program dan takaran
latihan yang sesuai dengan umur, jenis kelamin, jenis pekerjaan dan kondisi
kesehatan.Kebugaran jasmani memberikan manfaat yang besar untuk meningkatkan
produktivitas kerja, apabila dilakukan secara baik dan benar. Kebugaran jasmani akan
memberikan sumbangan berarti pada kemampuan bekerja dan aktivitas fisik (PPPITOR,
1999).
Adapun unsur-unsur kebugaran jasmani terdiri dari: daya tahan Kardiovaskuler,
daya tahan otot, kelentukan, kekuatan otot, komposisi tubuh, kecepatan gerak, kelincahan,
keseimbangan, kecepatan reaksi dan koordinasi (Depkes RI, 1990). Dewasa ini, berbagai
usaha dilakukan orang untuk menjaga bahkan meningkatkan kesegaran jasmani baik lewat
sanggar-sanggar kebugaran, klub, maupun secara pribadi melakukan olahraga senam,
lari/jogging atau jalan, bersepeda, dan lain-lain. Semua usaha yang dilakukan dapat
dikatakan baik, tetapi metode atau cara yang paling baik, efektif dan efisien perlu diketahui
lewat penelitian ilmiah. Program lari aerobik adalah program yang bertujuan untuk
meningkatkan kebugaran jasmani. Akan tetapi, cara atau metode serta lingkungan yang
tepat membantu peningkatan kebugaran jasmani secara efektif dan efisien sangat perlu
dikaji dan ditemukan. Menurut Nala, 1986; pengaruh pelatihan yang teratur dan
berkesinambungan adalah: efisiensi kerja paru meningkat, efisiensi kerja jantung
meningkat, tonus otot dan pembulu darah menurun, lemak tubuh menurun, konsumsi
oksigen maksimal meningkat, mengurangi kegemukan, dan terapi terhadap penyakit-
penyakit tertentu. Manfaatnya adalah meningkatkan dan mempertahankan kebugaran,
system respirasi, kardiovaskular (paru-paru, jantung dan pembuluh darah).Pelatihan
fisik yang teratur, sistematis dan berkesinambungan yang dituangkan dalan satu program
pelatihan akan meningkatkan kemampuan fisik, tetapi tidak demikian halnya apabila
pelatihan fisik dilakukan secara sembarangan dan tidak teratur, justru mendatangkan efek
yang merusak organ tubuh manusia (Nossek, 1982). Fox dkk, 1993; menyatakan bahwa
pengaruh frekuensi pelatihan fisik sebanyak 3 kali seminggu adalah sesuai bagi pemula dan
akan menghasilkan peningkatan yang berarti tanpa menimbulkan efek kelelahan yang
berarti. Pate dkk, 1984; menyatakan bahwa pengaruh lamanya pelatihan 6-8 minggu akan
memberi efek yang cukup berarti pada pelatihan bagi atlet.
Pelatihan yang telah dijalankan dengan tekun akan tampak hasilnya (efek pelatihan)
setelah 3 minggu pelatihan, selanjutnya 6 minggu pelatihan baru diketahui kemajuan yang
dicapai. Pelatihan kebugaran jasmani dengan lari aerobik 2,4 km adalah bentuk pelatihan
yang melibatkan kelompok otot besar dalam jangka waktu lama, ritmis dan metabolismenya
menggunakan oksigen atau suasana aerobik.Untuk meningkatkan daya tahan respirasi
kardiovaskuler dianjurkan berlatih dengan lari aerobik (Cooper, 1982; Giam dan The, 1993;
Fox dan Mathews 1988; Fox 1984). Relevansi antara lari aerobic 2,4 km dengan kesegaran
jasmani adalah: untuk mengetahui kesegaran jasmani seseorang, maka lari aerobik 2,4 km
adalah salah satu instrument tes.
Method
Penelitian ini menggunakan metode eksperimen semu (Quasi Eksperimental)
dengan rancangan penelitian The Randomized pretest-posttest group design. Adapun tempat
pelaksanaan penelitian di stadion/lapangan UNIMA Tondano, dengan waktu pelaksanaan
penelitian adalah 6 minggu, yaitu berlaku pada bulan April dan Mei 2018. Sebagai populasi
dari penelitian ini adalah Mahasiswa FIK UNIMA. Dari populasi, ditarik sampel secara
acak sejumlah 22 orang berdasarkan penentuan jumlah hasil perhitungan dengan rumus
Pocock (1984) yang menggunakan data hasil penelitian pendahuluan. Jumlah sampel yang
terpilih selanjutnya dibagi dua kelompok secara acak yaitu kelompok perlakuan dan
kelompok control. Variabel yang terlibat dalam penelitian ini adalah: variable bebas yaitu
penelitian lari aerobik 2,4 km di dalam dan di luar stadion, variabel terikat yaitu kebugaran
jasmani serta variabel yang dikendalikan adalah kondisi fisik, kesehatan umum, gizi
dan aktivitas fisik. Teknik analisis data yang digunakan adalah uji t yang sebelumnya
didahului oleh pengujian normalitas data dengan Kolmogorov smirnov dan homogenitas
data dengan Levene test.
Discussion
Hasil uji normalitas data dengan menggunakan perhitungan statistic komputasi
SPPSS versi 9,0 (p < 0,05) menunjukkan bahwa data berdistribusi normal, dan karakteristik
umur, berat badan, tinggi badan dan denyut nadi istirahat dari kedua kelompok adalah
homogen.
Adapun hasil analisis data hasil tes lari aerobik 2,4 km sebelum dan sesudah
melakukan pelatihan selama enam minggu dari kedua kelompok dinyatakan dalam table
sebagai berikut:
Kelompok N Waktu Tempuh t p

Mean ± SD (menit)
Kelompok 1
Sebelum 11 11,37 ± 1,31 -0,55 0,59
Sesudah 8,55 ± 0,28 -7,53 0,00
Kelompok 2
Sebelum 11 11,70 ± 1,04 -0,55 0,59
Sesudah 10,70 ± 1,02 -7,53 0,00
Dari table di atas, dapat dibaca bahwa nilai rata-rata sebelum pelatihan pada kedua
kelompok (Kelompok 1 = 11,37 ± 1,31, dan kelompok 2 = 11,70 ± 1,04 tidak menunjukkan
perbedaan yang beramakna pada p = 0,05. Dengan demikian sebelum diberikan perlakuan
pelatihan lari aerobik 2,4 km, kebugaran jasmani mahasiswa FIK UNIMA yang terdiri dari
dua kelompok pelatihan adalah komparabel. Selanjutnya dari hasil pengolahan data,
keadaan kebugaran jasmani sesudah diberikan perlakuan pelatihan lari aerobik selama
enam bulan yang dinyatakan dalam table di atas adalah: kelompok 1 = 8,55 ± 0,28, dan
kelompok 2 = 10,70 ± 1,02. Dari angka yang diperoleh menunjukkan penurunan waktu
yang berbeda dalam arti terjadi peningkatan kecepatan menempuh jarak 2,4 km yang
berbeda dari dua kelompok. Dengan demikian, hasil ini otomatis menunjukkan perbedaan
peningkatan kebugaran jasmani yaitu p = 0,05. Oleh sebab itu, pelatihan lari aerobik 2,4 km
di dalam stadion dan pelatihan lari aerobik 2,4 km di luar stadion memberikan peningkatan
kebugaran jasmani yang berbeda.
Dari rata-rata peningkatan yang diperoleh, menunjukkan bahwa pelatihan lari aerobik 2,4
km di dalam stadion baik dalam meningkatkan kebugaran jasmani Mahasiswa FIK UNIMA
Conclusion
Berdasarkan hasil analisis data dan pembahasan, maka kesimpulan penelitian ini
adalah:
Pelatihan lari aerobik 2,4 km di dalam stadion dengan frekuensi latihan tiga kali seminggu
selama enam minggu dapat meningkatkan kebugaran jasmani.
Pelatihan lari aerobik 2,4 km di luar stadion dengan frekuensi latihan tiga kali seminggu
selama enam minggu dapat meningkatkan kebugaran jasmani.
Pelatihan lari aerobik 2,4 km di dalam stadion dengan frekuensi latihan tiga kali seminggu
selama enam minggu lebih baik meningkatkan kebugaran jasmani daripada pelatihan lari
aerobik 2,4 km di luar stadion dengan frekuensi latihan tiga kali seminggu selama enam
minggu.
5. Pengembangan Perhitungan Kapasitas Volume Oksigen Maksimal (VO2 max) Menggunakan Tes Lari 2,4 km
Berbasis Aplikasi Android
PENGEMBANGAN PENGHITUNGAN KAPASITAS VOLUME OKSIGEN

MAKSIMAL (VO2MAX) MENGGUNAKAN TES LARI 2,4 KM BERBASIS
APLIKASI ANDROID
Haikal Millah , Ari Priana2 Universitas Siliwangi1,2
1
haikal@unsil.ac.id1
ABSTRAK
Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengembangkan penghitungan kapasitas volume oksigen
maksimal menggunakan tes lari 2,4km berbasis aplikasi android. Metode dalam penelitian
ini menggunakan penelitian dan pengembangan (Research and Development). Sampel yang
diambil datanya untuk ujicoba aplikasi sebanyak 10 orang yang melakukan tes lari 2,4 km.
Hasil dari aplikasi dengan cara manual tidak berbeda. Aplikasi android ini dilengkapi fitur
tutorial yang bertujuan sebagai cara penggunaan aplikasi ini. Selain itu, terdapat menu untuk
melakukan penghitungan vo2max dan nilai tingkat kebugaran jasmani. Penetapan nilai
tingkat kebugaran jasmani ini didasarkan pada kategori umum yaitu bukan atlet. Pengguna
dapat melakukan kalkulasi penghitungan vo2max dimulai dari 1 orang saja dan ada menu
untuk menghitung sampai 10 orang secara sekaligus. Aplikasi ini dilengkapi dengan fitur
simpan data dengan menggunakan database SQLite, sehingga pengguna dapat menyimpan
data hasil tes lari 2,4 km. Dengan adanya aplikasi ini, dapat membantu para praktisi
olahraga dalam melakukan tes fisik daya tahan menggunakan tes lari 2,4 km.
Kata Kunci : Penghitungan Vo2max, Aplikasi Android, Tes Lari 2,4 KM
ABSTRACT
This study aims to develop a calculation of the maximum oxygen volume capacity using a
2.4km run test based on an android application. The method in this study uses research and
development (Research and Development). Samples taken from the data for application
trials were 10 people who did the 2.4 km run test. The results of the application manually
are no different. This android application has a tutorial feature that aims to use this
application. In addition, there is a menu for calculating vo2max and physical fitness level
values. The determination of the value of the level of physical fitness is based on the general
category of non- athletes. Users can calculate vo2max calculation starting from 1 person
and there is a menu to count up to 10 people at once. This application is equipped with a
data store feature using the SQLite database, so users can store data on the results of a 2.4
km run test. With this application, it can help sports practitioners in conducting physical
endurance tests using the 2.4 km running test.
Keywords: Vo2max Calculation, Android Application, Running Test 2.4 KM
PENDAHULUAN
Kebugaran yang bagus diidentikan dengan kapasitas volume oksigen (vo2max) yang
tinggi. Karena dengan tingkat asupan oksigen yang tinggi akan dapat membantu dalam
proses pembentukan energi dalam beraktivitas. Semakin tinggi vo2max maka semakin
menunjang terhadap durasi melakukan aktivitas. Sehingga terbentuk rantai energi yang tidak
terputus untuk menunjang aktivitas fisik yang dilakukan. Hal tersebut sesuai dengan
pendapat mengenai vo2max yang diungkapkan oleh (Astorino et al., 2019) yaitu Maximal
oxygen uptake (VO2max) is a widely used measure of cardiorespiratory fitness, aerobic
function, and overall health risk. Yang berarti bahwa vo2max merupakan tolok ukur dari
kebugaran kardiorespirasi, fungsi aerobik dan status kesehatan secara keseluruhan.
Sehingga nilai vo2max dalam menentukan kebugaran seseorang merupakan hal yang
penting. Upaya meningkatkan kualitas kebugaran (sistem kardiovaskular) dengan variabel
kapasitas volume oksigen maksimal (vo2max) sebagai indikator kebugaran sudah banyak
diteliti oleh para peneliti olahraga yang sudah dipublikasikan. Penentuan kapasitas volume
oksigen maksimal (vo2max) ditentukan dengan melalui tes fisik yang sudah dikemukakan
oleh para ahli tes dan pengukuran olahraga. Contohnya seperti yang diungkapkan oleh
(Giriwijoyo, 2017) tes lari 12 menit, lari 2,4 km, tes balke lari 15 menit. Selain tes yang
diungkapkan tersebut ada juga tes lari multi tahap.
Sebetulnya sudah dilakukan penelitian mengenai pengembangan penghitungan
kapasitas volume oksigen maksimal (VO2max) berbasis aplikasi android yang dilakukan
oleh (Gumelar, et.al, 2017), perbedaannya adalah jenis tes fisik yang menjadi pengukur
kapasitas volume oksigen maksimalnya yaitu Tes Lari 2,4km. Tes lari 2,4km ini bisa
dijadikan sebagai alat tes untuk mengukur tingkat Vo2max. Metode penghitungan kapasitas
volume oksigen maksimal (vo2max) dari hasil tes lari 2,4km tersebut dengan cara
memasukkan hasil tes berupa waktu yang didapat dalam satuan menit ke dalam rumus
vo2max setelah sampel melakukan lari 2,4km. Rumus Vo2max dari tes lari 2.4 Km yang
digunakan dalam penelitian ini bersumber pada (Burger & Stewart, 1990) yaitu VO 2 max =
85.95 - (3.079 x Run Time [minutes]). Dengan menggunakan rumus tersebut maka kita
dapat mengetahui nilai vo2max dari seseorang setelah melakukan tes lari 2.4 km. Sementara
ini nilai kapasitas vo2max dari hasil tes lari 2.4 km masih dilakukan dengan cara manual
yaitu dengan menghitung menggunakan rumus melalui penghitungan di atas kertas.
Untuk mendukung kemudahan dalam menentukan kapasitas volume oksigen
maksimal (vo2max) maka dibutuhkan sebuah teknologi yang sesuai dengan perkembangan
zaman pada saat ini. Teknologi pada saat ini sudah berkembang pesat dengan tujuan untuk
memudahkan kinerja manusia dalam menentukan makna dari sebuah fenomena atau
kejadian melalui proses pengolahan data digital. Hal ini diungkapkan juga oleh Cummings
& Janicki, (2019) teknologi dan tingkat kepentingannya di lapangan terus berubah dan
profesional TI harus mengikuti perkembangan dunia yang terus berubah untuk tetap berada
dalam suasana kompetitif. Saat ini teknologi yang sedang populer adalah smartphone,
menurut Lee, et.al (2018) smarthpone telah menjadi teknologi popular secara global dan
menjadi pengganti telepon seluler sebelumnya di beberapa negara saat ini. Dengan semakin
populernya smartphone ini maka bisa dijadikan pendekatan dalam mengembangkan sesuatu
hal menjadi lebih mudah. Untuk menjalankan sistem dalam smartphone terdapat sistem
operasi. Saat ini sistem operasi smartphone yang populer terbagi menjadi beberapa bagian
diantaranya yaitu sistem operasi IOS untuk Iphone, android yang diperuntukan bagi
pengguna smartphone android dan windows phone.
Sistem operasi android sudah banyak dipakai oleh produsen smartphone terkenal dan
sudah banyak digunakan oleh masyarakat luas. Sesuai dengan data pengguna smartphone
berdasarkan sistem operasi tahun 2018, menurut Kavinya, et.al (2018) pengguna android
lebih banyak dibandingkan dengan sistem operasi lainnya karena sistem operasi android
bersifat terbuka (open source) sehingga banyak sekali produsen smartphone menggunakan
sistem operasi ini. Berdasarkan pada data tersebut maka pendekatan melalui aplikasi android
jauh lebih mudah untuk menjangkau para pengguna. Namun penelitian ini memfokuskan
pada penghitungan kapasitas volume oksigen maksimal (vo2max) berbasis aplikasi android
sebagai sebuah solusi untuk memberikan kemudahan mengetahui nilai vo2max dan tingkat
kebugaran bagi para praktisi olahraga yang akan melakukan tes kebugaran dengan
menggunakan instrumen lari 2,4 km.
KAJIAN TEORI
Volume Oksigen Maksimal (Vo2max)
Volume oksigen maksimal (Vo2Max) menurut (Benny, 2012) adalah VO2 Max
adalah ambilan oksigen selama eksersi maksimum. VO2 Max dinyatakan dalam liter/menit.
Sedangkan menurut (Mackenzie, 2005) Vo2max adalah “VO2max is the maximum amount
of oxygen in millilitres, one can use in one minute per kilogram of body weight”. Artinya
adalah VO2 Max adalah jumlah maksimum oksigen dalam milliliter, yang dapat digunakan
dalam satu menit per kilogram berat badan. Menurut (Sudarno, 1992) Kapasitas aerobik
maksimal (Vo2max) adalah kemampuan atau kapasitas seseorang untuk menggunakan
oksigen sebanyak – banyaknya dan merupakan indikator tingkat kesegaran jasmani
seseorang. Vo2max adalah volume maksimal O2 yang diproses oleh tubuh manusia pada
saat melakukan kegiatan yang intensif. Semakin banyak oksigen yang diasup/diserap oleh
tubuh menunjukkan semakin baik kinerja otot dalam bekerja sehingga zat sisa-sisa yang
menyebabkan kelelahan jumlahnya akan semakin sedikit. Vo2max diukur dalam banyaknya
oksigen dalam liter per menit (l/min) atau banyaknya oksigen dalam mililiter per berat
badan dalam kilogram per menit (ml/kg/min). Tentu, semakin tinggi Vo2max, seorang atlet
yang bersangkutan juga akan memiliki daya tahan dan stamina yang istimewa. Jadi volume
oksigen maksimal (Vo2max) bisa didefinisikan sebagai jumlah oksigen dalam satuan
mililiter yang masuk ke dalam tubuh untuk membentuk energi yang digunakan oleh otot
selama melakukan aktivitas fisik.
Menurut (Kuntaraf & Kuntaraf, 1992) Kedayagunaan tubuh dalam menggunakan
oksigen pada saat melakukan pekerjaaan, misalnya olahraga, otot harus menghasilkan energi
satu proses dimana oksigen memegang peranan penting. Lebih banyak oksigen digunakan
berarti lebih besar kapasitas untuk menghasilkan energi dan kerja yang berarti daya tahan
anda lebih besar. Vo2max yang tinggi dapat melakukan lebih banyak pekerjaan sebelum
menjadi lelah, dibandingkan dengan mereka yang mempunyai Vo2max rendah. Semakin
sehat dan tinggi kesegaran jasmani, maka lebih banyak oksigen dalam tubuh yang dapat
diproseskan. Pada saat berlatih paru-paru didalam tubuh kita akan dapat mengambil lebih
banyak oksigen, yang berarti peredaran darah akan menjadi lebih baik. Dengan demikian
mereka yang mempunyai VO2max tinggi adalah orang yang mempunyai kesegaran jasmani,
sedangkan yang mempunyai VO2max yang rendah, tidak mempunyai kesegaran jasmani.
Untuk mengetahui kapasitas volume oksigen maksimal (VO2Max), dapat dilakukan
dengan cara melakukan sebuah tes. Tes untuk mengukur kapasitas VO2Max dapat
dilakukan di laboratorium dan menggunakan tes aktivitas fisik. Tes VO2max menggunakan
aktivitas fisik diantaranya adalah tes lari 2,4 km, lari 12 menit, lari balke 15 menit dan multi
stage fitnes test (lari multi tahap) bleep test.
Pengukuran Volume Oksigen Maksimal (Vo2max)

Salah satu pengukuran kapasitas volume oksigen maksimal adalah Tes Lari 2,4km.
Tes lari 2,4 km (1,5 mil) adalah tes lari yang sederhana untuk mengetes kebugaran aerobik,
alat yang dibutuhkan hanya stopwatch dan track lari. Tes ini adalah alternatif tes untuk tes
lari 12 menit. Asosiasi Sepak Bola Singapura telah mengadaptasikan tes lari 2,4 km sebagai
tes kebugaran yang wajib dari tahun 2013 dibandingkan bleep test. US Navy juga
menggunakan tes lari 1,5 mil sebagai bagian dari tahap persiapan tes fisik Navy. Prosedur
Pelaksanaan Tes Lari 1,5 Mil / 2,4 Km (Barbara, 2017) Administrasi tes
Tujuan : tes ini untuk mengukur kapasitas aerobik.
Alat yang dibutuhkan : Track lintasan sepanjang 400 meter dan stopwatch
Pelaksanaan tes : sasaran tes ini adalah menyelesaikan lari dalam track lintasan sepanjang
400 meter secepat mungkin dengan jumlah putaran sebanyak 6 putaran. Para peserta tes
berada di garis start, ketika ada aba-aba "Ya" stopwatch dijalankan dan para peserta mulai
berlari sesuai dengan kecepatan yang ditentukan masing-masing peserta. Meskipun jalan
saja diperbolehkan, akan tetapi hal tersebut tidak dianjurkan.
Skoring : dicatat waktu menyelesaikan lari 1,5 mil / 2,4 km.
Norma : klasifikasi tingkat kebugaran tes lari 1,5 mil /2,4 km.
Sumber : Barbara Bushman. 2017. American College Sports Medicine: Complete Guide to Fitness & Health.
Human Kinetics
Gambar 1. Norma Vo2max
Rumus penghitungan untuk VO2max tes lari 2,4 km : VO2max = (483 / time) + 3.5
=> time : satuan dalam menit. Dengan menggunakan tes kapasitas aerobik lari 2.4 km ini,
bisa diketahui kapasitas vo2max, yang sekaligus sebagai salah satu penentu tubuh kita bisa
bekerja dalam waktu yang lama. Semakin tinggi kapasitas vo2maxnya maka semakin lama
kita mampu bekerja.
Dengan adanya rumus penghitungan untuk menentukan kapasitas volume oksigen
maksimal (Vo2max) yang digunakan dalam tes lari 1,5-mile / 2,4km, maka dibutuhkan
sebuah media yang dapat memudahkan penghitungan tersebut. Oleh karena itu, pendekatan
yang paling tepat pada saat ini adalah menggunakan teknologi yang selalu dibawa oleh
masyarakat yaitu smarphone terutama yang memiliki sistem operasi android. Para pengguna
dapat menggunakan smartphone androidnya untuk mengetahui tingkat kebugaran aerobik
dengan memasukkan waktu yang ditempuh setelah melakukan lari 2.4km.
Aplikasi Android
Pengertian aplikasi android menurut (Nasruddin Safaat, 2015) android adalah
sebuah sistem operasi pada handphone yang bersifat terbuka dan berbasis pada sistem
operasi Linux. Dari pengertian tersebut maka aplikasi android merupakan sebuah sistem
operasi yang diterapkan pada telepon genggam dengan sistem operasi dasarnya berasal dari
Linux. Dikarenakan sifatnya terbuka (open source) maka android bisa digunakan oleh setiap
pabrikan telepon genggam yang ingin menerapkan sistem operasi ini pada perangkat
mereka. Android menyediakan sebuah platform terbuka bagi para pengembang aplikasi
untuk membuat aplikasi yang dibuat oleh mereka sendiri yang dapat digunakan untuk
berbagai macam telepon genggam. Awalnya, Google Inc. membeli Android Inc., pendatang
baru yang membuat peranti lunak untuk ponsel. Kemudian untuk mengembangkan Android,
dibentuklah Open Handset Alliance, konsorsium dari 34 perusahaan peranti keras, peranti
lunak, dan telekomunikasi, termasuk Google, HTC, Intel, Motorola, Qualcomm, T-Mobile,
dan Nvidia. Pada saat perilisan perdana Android, 5 November 2007, Android bersama Open
Handset Alliance menyatakan mendukung pengembangan standar terbuka pada perangkat
seluler. Di lain pihak, Google merilis kode–kode Android di bawah lisensi Apache, sebuah
lisensi perangkat lunak dan standar terbuka perangkat seluler.
Kelebihan Android
Multitasking. Android mampu membuka beberapa aplikasi sekaligus tanpa harus menutup
salah satunya.
Kemudahan dalam Notifikasi. Setiap ada SMS, Email, atau bahkan artikel terbaru dari RSS
Reader, akan selalu ada notifikasi di Home Screen Ponsel Android, tak ketinggalan Lampu
LED Indikator yang berkedip-kedip, sehingga Anda tidak akan terlewatkan satu SMS,
Email ataupun Misscall sekalipun.
Kemudahan Mengunduh Aplikasi Android lewat Google Play Store. Kalau pengguna
android mencari aplikasi ataupun games, maka sudah tersedia di Google Play Store yang
bisa didownload gratis. Ada banyak ribuan aplikasi dan games yang siap untuk di download
untuk ponsel Android.
Pilihan Ponsel yang beranekaragam. Mengenai ponsel Android, akan terasa berbeda jika
dibandingkan dengan sistem operasi iOS dari Apple, jika iOS hanya terbatas pada iPhone
dari Apple, maka Android tersedia di berbagai macam telepon genggam dari berbagai
produsen, mulai dari Sony Ericsson, Motorola, HTC sampai Samsung.
Dengan keunggulan sistem operasi android yang sangat mudah digunakan dan banyaknya
varian merk maka pendekatan teknologi smartphone android untuk digunakan dalam dunia
olahraga sangat tepat. Berkaitan dengan penelitian ini maka tes vo2max menggunakan lari
2.4km dapat ditunjang dengan teknologi android yang sudah banyak digunakan.
METODE PENELITIAN
Penelitian yang dilakukan merujuk pada metode penelitian dan pengembangan
(R&D). Dikarenakan mengembangkan sebuah penghitungan Vo2max dari penghitungan
manual ke dalam sebuah aplikasi android. Adapun Langkah-langkah penelitian
menggunakan metode R&D adalah sebagai berikut: Penelitian dan pengumpulan data
(Research and information collection); Pada penelitian dan pengumpulan data ini dilakukan
analisis kebutuhan, studi literatur, dan penelitian skala kecil. Perencanaan (Planning); Pada
tahap perencanaan dilakukan identifikasi kemampuan yang diperlukan untuk pelaksanaan
penelitian, membuat rumusan tujuan yang hendak dicapai, membuat desain atau langkah-
langkah penelitian, dan merencanakan kemungkinan pengujian di lingkup terbatas.
Pengembangan produk awal atau draft (Develop preliminary form of product);
Pengembangan produk ini meliputi penyiapan bahan ajar, proses pembelajaran, dan
instrumen evaluasi. Uji coba lapangan awal (Preliminary field testing); Ujicoba lapangan
awal atau ujicoba terbatas dilakukan pada 1-2 merk smartphone menggunakan 2-4 jenis
ukuran layar. Selama ujicoba, dilakukan observasi, wawancara, dan pengedaran angket.
Tujuannya adalah untuk mendapatkan pendapat dari subjek terhadap produk yang
dikembangkan. Merevisi produk utama (Main product revision); Revisi produk utama
dilakukan berdasarkan temuan-temuan pada ujicoba lapangan awal.
Uji coba lapangan utama (Main field testing); Ujicoba ini dilakukan pada 3-4 merk
smartphone dengan 3-5 jenis ukuran layar. Penyempurnaan produk operasional
(Operational product revision); Penyempurnaan produk operasional dilakukan berdasarkan
temuan-temuan ketika melaksanakan ujicoba lapangan utama. Uji coba lapangan
operasional (Operatinal field testing); Ujicoba ini dilakukan pada 3 kelas angkatan 2018
jurusan Pendidikan Jasmani Universitas Siliwangi dengan melibatkan 60 subjek. Pengujian
dilakukan melalui angket, wawancara, observasi, dllnya. Penyempurnaan produk akhir
(Final product revision); Penyempurnaan dilakukan berdasarkan temuan-temuan pada
ujicoba lapangan operasional. Penelitian dilakukan di lingkungan Universitas Siliwangi dari
bulan Februari sampai bulan Agustus 2019. Aplikasi android yang dikembangkan diujikan
terlebih dahulu pada 2 orang pakar. Pakar pertama adalah orang yang ahli dalam bidang
aplikasi android yaitu praktisi informatika dan pakar kedua adalah ahli dalam tes dan
pengukuran olahraga. Pengujian dilakukan dengan memberikan angket pada kedua pakar
dengan konten angket sesuai dengan keahliannya.
Berikut ini adalah desain awal aplikasi android tes lari 2,4 km sebelum diujikan pada
pakar aplikasi android.

Gambar 2 Desain Halaman Utama
Gambar 3. Desain Halaman Menu Aplikasi

Gambar 4. Desain Halaman Penggunaan Aplikasi
Gambar 5. Desain Halaman Penghitungan Vo2max Dan Tingkat Kebugaran
Software yang digunakan untuk membuat aplikasi android adalah software Basic 4
Android Versi 7.8 karena lebih mudah dalam penggunaan bahasa pemrogramannya yaitu
menggunakan bahasa visual basic. Angket juga diberikan pada pakar tes pengukuran
olahraga yang ditujukan untuk mengkaji konten yang perlu disajikan dalam aplikasi android
yang dikembangkan.
HASIL PENELITIAN
Setelah melakukan serangkaian revisi dan masukan dari pakar aplikasi android dan
tes pengukurang olahraga terdapat beberapa perubahan dari desain awal aplikasi yaitu
adanya input data untuk 1 orang, 10 orang dan ditambahkan penyimpanan data dalam
bentuk database. Aplikasi android ini dilengkapi fitur tutorial yang bertujuan sebagai cara
penggunaan aplikasi ini. Selain itu, terdapat menu untuk melakukan penghitungan vo2max
dan nilai tingkat kebugaran jasmani. Penetapan nilai tingkat kebugaran jasmani ini
didasarkan da kategori umum yaitu bukan atlet.
Tabel penentuan tingkat kebugaran dari hasil tes lari 2,4 km bersumber pada tabel
yang diungkap oleh (Barbara, 2017)
Sumber : (Barbara, 2017)
Gambar 6. Tabel Norma Vo2max terhadap Tingkat Kebugaran
Pengguna dapat melakukan kalkulasi penghitungan vo2max dimulai dari 1 orang

saja dan ada menu untuk menghitung sampai 10 orang secara sekaligus. Aplikasi ini
dilengkapi dengan fitur simpan data dengan menggunakan database SQLite, sehingga
pengguna dapat menyimpan data hasil tes lari 2,4 km.
Berikut ini adalah tampilan aplikasi yang sudah dikembangkan dari halaman utama
sampai halaman penyimpanan data.
Gambar 7. Tampilan Halaman Utama

Gambar 8. Tampilan Halaman Menu
Gambar 9. Tampilan Halaman Tutorial

Gambar 10. Tampilan Halaman Kalkulasi 1 orang
Gambar 11 Tampilan Halaman Kalkulasi 10 Orang

Gambar 12. Tampilan Halaman Simpan Data
Terdapat keterbatasan dalam aplikasi android ini, yaitu tidak dapat mengkalkulasi
data lebih dari 10 orang dalam satu kali proses data, data yang disimpan bersifat offline
artinya bahwa data hasil tes yang disimpan hanya tersimpan di smartphone yang digunakan
dan data tersebut tidak bisa diakses secara online. Selain itu, dari segi tampilan masih terlalu
kaku.
PEMBAHASAN
Olahraga harus dikembangkan sesuai dengan perkembangan di tiap zamannya, bisa
dengan menggabungkan beberapa disiplin keilmuan dengan olahraga, termasuk dalam hal
ini adalah pengembangan olahraga dengan melibatkan teknologi yang ada saat ini. Dalam
olahraga terdapat banyak sekali kajian yang dibahas seperti kepelatihan, pendidikan
jasmani, anatomi dan fisiologi olahraga, dan tes pengukuran olahraga. Cara dalam
melakukan tes dan pengukuran olahraga harus dikembangkan juga sesuai dengan
perkembangan teknologi dari tiap zamannya yang mengacu pada kemudahan, keefektifan
dan tingkat kesalahan yang rendah. Selama melakukan penelitian dalam proses ujicoba
penggunaan aplikasi, para pengguna mengapresiasi kecepatan pengolahan data aplikasi dari
mengkonversi hasil tes ke dalam pemaknaan hasil tes lari 2.4 km.
Hasil dari Tes lari 2.4 km adalah jumlah menit yang dibutuhkan untuk menempuh
jarak 2.4 km. Adapun pelaksanaan tes fisik lari 2.4 km sebagai berikut: Cooper Test
dilakukan dengan lari menempuh jarak sejauh 2.4 km di hitung dalam catatan waktu. Atlet
diberi kesempatan pemanasan selama 10 menit. Start dilakukan dengan berdiri, dan kedua
kaki di belakang garis start. Dengan aba-aba, atlet lari sesuai dengan kemampuan yg dia
mampu, dan asisten memulai stopwatch. Atlet akan diingatkan oleh asisten pencatat waktu
dan penjaga lintasan setiap akhir putaran 400 meter (SILA PERDANA & Sudijandoko,
2019). Tes lari 2.4 km ini banyak dijadikan tes penelitian seperti penelitian analisis
kebugaran jasmani suatu populasi (SILA PERDANA & Sudijandoko, 2019). Maka dengan
hadirnya aplikasi ini dapat mempercepat pengolahan data hasil tes fisik. Pengembangan tes
lari 2,4 km berbasis aplikasi android membuat para praktisi olahraga akan dengan mudah
melakukan kalkulasi dan pemaknaan data hasil tes yang sudah didapat dari hasil tes lari 2,4
km yang sudah dilakukan. Selain itu, dengan adanya fitur penyimpanan data, maka para
pengguna aplikasi dapat melihat hasil tes sebelumnya sehingga dapat menjadi sebuah
catatan dalam melakukan tes berikutnya.
SIMPULAN
Berdasarkan pada hasil dan pembahasan maka aplikasi android penghitung nilai
vo2max dan tingkat kebugaran dari tes lari 2,4 km sudah dapat digunakan oleh para praktisi
olahraga yang menggunakan smartphone android. Dengan adanya aplikasi ini, dapat
membantu para praktisi olahraga dalam melakukan tes fisik daya tahan menggunakan tes
lari 2,4 km.
Jurnal Internasional
1.Validity Of Cooper’s 12-Minute Run Test For Estimation Of Maximum Oxygen Uptake In Male
University Students
Validity of Cooper’s 12-minute run test for estimation of maximum oxygen uptake in
male university students
AUTHORS: Bandyopadhyay A in terms of VO2max in sedentary male Indian youth.
Sports and Exercise Physiology Laboratory, CITATION: Bandyopadhyay A. Validity of

Department of Physiology, University of Calcutta, cooper’s 12-minute run test for estimation of
India maximum oxygen uptake in male university
students. Biol Sport. 2015;32(1):59–63.
ABSTRACT: The present study was conducted to
validate the applicability of Cooper’s 12-minute run Received: 2014-04-10; Reviewed: 2014-05-05; Re-
test (CRT) for predicting VO2max in male submitted: 2014-06-18; Accepted: 2014-06-22;
university students of Kolkata, India, to bypass the Published: 2014-11-03.
exhaustive and complicated protocol of direct
estimation of VO2max. Eighty-eight sedentary male INTRODUCTION
university students recruited by simple random VO2max is defined as the highest attainable rate of
sampling from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata, aerobic metabo- lism during the performance of
were randomly assigned to the study group (N=58) dynamic work that exhausts the subject within
and the confirmatory group (N=30). VO2max of 5–10 min and it is internationally accepted as
each participant was determined by the direct an index of one’s cardiorespiratory fitness [1].
procedure and the indirect CRT method. The mean Besides physical parameters, other important
value of predicted VO2max (PVO2max) (42.8±4.0 determinants of VO2max include environmental
ml · kg-1 · min-1 with a range of 33.7–50.9) showed factors, working habit and health conditions. The
a significant difference with VO2max (39.8±4.0 ml method of direct estimation of
-1 -1
· kg · min with a range of 33.5–47.7) in the study cardiorespiratory fitness in terms of maximum
group. Limits of agreement between PVO2max and oxygen uptake (VO2max) is restricted to
VO2max were large enough (0.10 to 5.94 ml · kg-1 · application within a well-equipped laboratory
min-1) with poor confidence intervals indicating because of its laborious, complicated and
inapplicability of the current protocol of CRT in the difficult experimental protocol [1]. Thus, it is
studied population. The prediction norm [Y = 21.01X desirable to find a simple indirect procedure to
– 11.04 (SEE = 0.193 ml · kg-1 · min-1)] was computed evaluate VO2max, especially in field studies [2,3].
from the significant correlation (r = 0.93, P<0.001) Among various indirect protocols [1,4,5] the
between distance covered in CRT and VO2max. Queen’s College step test has been evaluated as a
Application of this norm in the confirmatory valid method in the university students of India [2,
group revealed an insignificant difference 3]. But this test is not a true field test and
between PVO2max and VO2max. The modified essentially needs some equipment, e.g. a
equation is recommended for application of CRT as a metronome, stool or 16.25-inch high stepping
valid method to evaluate the cardiorespiratory fitness platform, unavailability of which often restricts the
application of this test in the field. Another
indirect test that requires less equipment Experimental approach
would be a better option to predict VO2max A longitudinal design was adopted in the present
in the field. study to enumerate the applicability of the
Recently a couple of methods have been existing protocol (equation) of CRT in male
postulated in the In- dian context to predict university students of Kolkata, India. It was
VO2max from the percentage of body fat and speculated that the existing protocol of CRT
non-exercise based VO2max prediction would not be applicable in the present population
equation in Indian college students [6,7]. The since it was originally developed in a
20-metre multi-stage shuttle run test is a Western population. Accord- ingly the
globally used indirect method for subjects were divided into the study group and
prediction of VO2max that has been confirmatory group. The existing equation was
validated in female collegiate soccer tested on the study group and a new population-
players of Washington [8]. A 3-minute specific equation was computed using
walking distance has been standardised with VO2max as the dependent parameter and
respect to gender, age and body composition distance covered in CRT as the independent
in Japanese adults [9]. Develop- ment of a parameter. The applicability of the newly
field test specifically for rowers has been developed equation was validated in the
suggested by Huntsman et al. [10] to restrict confirmatory group by using Bland and
use of equipment. Marsh [11] tried to assess Altman’s method of limit of agreement analysis.
the validity of the American College of Repeatability of the modified equation was also
Sports Medicine’s (ACSM’s) submaximal checked in both the groups.
treadmill running test in predicting VO2max
in moderately well-trained men of 18-34 Study population
years of age. It is clear from these recent Eighty-eight healthy sedentary male students
reports that indirect protocols for VO 2max of the same socioeconomic background
prediction should use inexpensive having mean age, body height and body mass of
instruments as minimally as possible and the 22.8±1.7 years, 167.7±4.2 cm and 58.3±4.0
protocol must be validated in the specific kg, respectively, were selected for the study
population before its implementation. Among by simple random sampling from the post-
the different indirect field tests for prediction graduate section of the University of
of VO2max, Cooper’s 12-minute run test Calcutta, Kolkata, West Bengal, India. The
(CRT) is a popular one and requires only a sample size was calculated using PS- Power
measuring tape to determine the distance and Sample Size Calculation version 3.0.43
covered in 12 min. But this test was [12]. The power and the confidence
enumerated and standardised in a Western interval were set at 80 and 95%, respec-
population and application of this test in tively. They were randomly separated into the
the Indian context has not yet been study group (n=58) on which the existing
explored. Therefore, the present study was experimental protocol of CRT was tested and
aimed at assessing the suit- ability for confirmatory group (n=30) on which the
application of a true field test, i.e., Cooper’s modified equation was validated. The entire
12-minute run test (CRT), to predict experimental protocol was well explained to
VO2max in sedentary male university stu- all the participants to allay apprehension and
dents of Kolkata, West Bengal, India. written informed consent was obtained from
them. They took a light breakfast 2-3 hours and the following equation was used to
before the test and refrained from any predict the VO2max [14] :
energetic physical activity for that period. VO2max (ml· kg-1 · min-1) = (22.351 x distance
The participants had no history of any covered in kilometres)
major disease and undertook no physical - 11.288
conditioning programme except some
recreational sports. The whole experiment Direct measurement of maximum oxygen
was performed during September 2012 to uptake capacity (VO2max) [2]
February 2013 at a room temperature Muller’s magnetic brake bicycle ergometer
varying from 26 to 29°C and at a relative (Model of Max Plank Institute of Ergology,
humidity ranging between 72 and 83%. Germany) was used for the study. All the subjects
Human Ethical Clearance was obtained first performed a submaximal exercise at 75 W
from the Human Ethics Committee, intensity for a duration of 5 minutes.
Department of Physiology, University of Immediately after performing the submaximal
Calcutta. exercise, the intensity was increased to the first
incremental intensity of 155 W and thereafter
Experimental design the intensity was increased by 25 W every 3
Maximum oxygen uptake of each subject min until the subject stopped due to exhaustion. In
was determined by both indirect and direct the present study, the oxygen uptake was
methods, at an interval of 4 days, by cross- considered maximum when peak heart rate was
over design in which the direct procedure greater than 180 beats · min-1 and also by
was followed by the indirect one in half levelling off, i.e., when no further increase in
the subjects whereas the indirect one was oxygen uptake took place despite further increase
followed by the direct one in the other half in intensity, or the increase in oxygen uptake
of the subjects to avoid any possibility of was less than 100 mL · min-1 in response to the
bias. Subjects were asked to take rest at next higher intensity for repeated tests followed
least for half an hour prior to the exercise, at an interval of 4 days [2,3,13].
so that pulmonary ventilation and pulse A low-resistance, high-velocity Collin’s Triple “J
rate could come down to a steady state Type” plastic valve was used for the collection of
[2,3,13]. expired gas by the open circuit method [2,3,13].
The valve was connected with the Douglas Bag
Prediction of maximum oxygen uptake (150 L) and the expired gas was collected at the
capacity (PVO2max) by CRT [14] last minute of final intensity of exercise. Gas
Subjects ran on a 400-metre round track was also collected at the second minute of the
for a total duration of 12 min. They were exhausting (final) work load if signs of severe
highly motivated to run as many laps as exhaustion supervened. No gas collection was made
possible. The total number of laps was in the first minute of the work load. The volume of
counted and the finishing point was expired gas was measured in a wet gasometer
marked. Total distance (in metres) (Toshniwal, Germany, CAT. No. CG05.10) and
covered in 12 min was calculated by the aliquots of gas samples were analyzed in a
multiplying the number of complete laps Scholander micro-gas analyser following the
with 400 plus the distance covered (in standard procedure [15]. The peak heart rate was
metres) in the final incomplete lap. The recorded manually from the time taken for 10
distance in metres was converted into km carotid pulsations immediately following the
cessation of exhaustive exercise [2,3,13]. FIG. 1. Plot of difference between PVO2max and VO2max values
against their directly measured values of VO2max in the study group.
Statistical analysis
The paired t-test was used to compute the
significance of difference between mean values
of VO2max and PVO2max. Pearson’s product
moment correlation was conducted to test the
relationship between directly measured values
of VO2max and distance covered in CRT. The
linear regression statistic was applied to
compute the linear regression equation for
indirect prediction of VO2max or PVO2max
(dependent variable) from the distance covered
in CRT (independent variable). The Bland and
Altman approach for limit of agreement
analysis [16] was adopted to test the
applicability of the new method.
RESULTS
A significant difference was found between
VO2max and PVO2max in the study group
(as shown in Figure 1). VO2max showed a
significant correlation with the distance
covered in Cooper’s test and accordingly the
regression equation was computed for
prediction of VO2max (as shown in Figure
2). Necessary analyses were conducted to
authenticate the applicability of this newly
derived equation in the studied population
(as shown in Figure 3 and Figure 4).
FIG. 2. Relationship between VO2max and distance covered in CRT
in the study group.
FIG. 3. Plot of difference between PVO2max and

VO2max values against their directly measured
values of VO2max after application of the modified
equation in the male study group and confirmatory
group.
FIG. 4. Repeated measures of VO2max by
using the modified equation.
DISCUSSION variation of less than 5% in 62 participants, 5–9% in 14
The VO2max value obtained in the present study corroborated participants, 10–14% in 8 participants and 15–19% in 4
the earlier report from this laboratory in the same population [2]. participants from their respective directly measured value of
That study was also conducted to enumerate the applicability of VO2max. Application of Bland and Altman’s analysis between
another indirect protocol of VO2max prediction, i.e., the Queen’s directly measured VO2max and indirectly predicted VO2max
College Step Test. In the context of the available literature the from the newly derived equation revealed substantially small
present study is very significant since it modifies an indirect limits of agreement (-0.31 to 2.09 ml · kg-1 · min-1) in the
protocol that predicts cardiorespiratory fitness from distance studied population (as shown in Figure 3).
covered in 12 min in young Indian males. Oxygen uptake is Repeatability of the modified equation in the studied population was
one of the reliable predictors of metabolic indices [17]. A tested in the same population according to the guidelines of Bland and
study in Korean workers indicated that the use of a non-exercise Altman [10]. It was observed that the mean difference between
regression model can predict the work-related physical activity in repeated measures of VO2max (determined by both the direct method
terms of cardiorespiratory fitness [18]. It was also hypothesized and the indirect modified method) was insignificantly different
that the particular form of work load not only represents the from zero (Figure 4). According to the definition of
physical work load quite accurately but also contributes to in- “repeatability coefficient” [24], it is expected that 95% of
creases in VO2max [19]. Oxygen uptake is also influenced differences would be less than two standard deviations (±2SDs),
by life style, addiction, dietary practice and exercise habit which has been met in the present investigation. The standard
[20,21,22,23]. The PVO2max value (42.8+4.0 ml · kg-1 · deviations between repeated measures of each method separately
min-1 with a range of 33.7–50.9) showed a significant were computed and the standard deviations of differences between
difference with VO2max (39.8+ 4.0 ml · kg-1 · min-1 with a the means for each method were also computed to determine the
range of 33.5–47.7) in the study group. Analysis of data by the repeatability coefficients for the direct method and indirectly modified
Bland and Altman [16] method of limit of agreement revealed method [15]. The mean differences of repeated measures were
that the limits of agreement between PVO 2max and VO2max 0.0032 ml · kg-1 · min-1 and 0.0048 ml · kg-1 · min-1 for the
were large enough (0.10 to 5.94 ml · kg-1 · min-1) with poor modified equation and the direct method, respectively. The
confidence intervals (as shown in Figure 1), indicating inap- corresponding values of repeatability coefficients were ±0.0465 ml ·
plicability of the current protocol of CRT in this particular kg-1 · min-1 and ±0.0363 ml · kg-1 · min-1, respectively.
population. Moreover, a significant (P<0.001) difference
between PVO2max and VO2max indicated that it would not be CONCLUSIONS
justified to accept the prediction of maximum oxygen uptake in From the present observation it may be concluded that the pres-
the studied population by applying CRT as suggested by Cooper ently derived or modified equations would predict VO2max in
[16]. However, the distance covered in CRT showed a the studied population more accurately than the existing original
significant correlation (r = 0.93, P<0.001) with directly equation. Therefore the newly derived norm is recommended for
measured VO2max. On the basis of such a highly significant application of Cooper’s 12-minute run test as a valid method for
correlation, the prediction equation Y = 21.01X – 11.04 correct, accurate and precise evaluation of cardiorespiratory fitness
(SEE = 0.193 ml · kg-1 · min-1) was computed (Figure 2) from in terms of VO2max in male sedentary university students of
the data obtained in the current study for more accurate and Kolkata, West Bengal, India.
reliable assessment of VO2max in the young males of Kolkata,
West Bengal, India. The standard errors of regression Acknowledgements
coefficient and constant were 2.736 Author is indebted to University Grants Commission, New
and 1.505, respectively. Delhi, India for financial assistance to conduct the study. Authors
Application of the newly derived equation in the confirmatory are also grateful to the subjects who had participated in this
group revealed an insignificant difference between study.
PVO2max (39.7+ 3.7 ml· kg-1 · min-1) and VO2max (39.3+4.5 ml·
kg-1 · min-1). Moreover, the standard error of estimate of the Conflict of interests: the author declared no conflict of
regression norm was substantially small (SEE = 0.193 ml · kg-1 · interests regarding the publication of this
min-1). Prediction of VO2max from this new equation showed manuscript.
2. Body Temperature And Dehydration Rate In Adolescents Undergoing The Cooper’s 12-Minute Run Test
http://dx.doi.org/10.17784/mtprehabjournal.2017.15.512
Body temperature and dehydration rate in adolescents undergoing the

Cooper’s 12-minute run test
William Alves Lima(1), Yara Bezerra(1), Viviane Soares(1), Iransé Oliveira Silva(1), Grassyara Pinho Tolentino(1), Jairo Teixeira Júnior(1),
Margareth Faria(1), Patrícia Espíndola Mota Venâncio(1).
ABSTRACT
Background: During the practice of any physical exercises is produced heat. About 30% of this heat
is transformed into work and the other 70%, distributed to the body, thus increasing the body
temperature of the individual. Objective: to identify changes in body temperature and hydration of
adolescents classified as physically actives or inactives. Methods: This is a cross-sectional,
quantitative, descriptive study with 40 students (13-17 years old) from a private school in Anápolis-GO.
The tympanic and forehead body temperature and body mass were measured. The urine produced was
then collected and the hydration state was estimated before and after the 12-minute run test, which
was used to calculate the VO2max. After checking the normality of the data, the paired “t” test was
performed to compare the pre and post-run data and a “t” test for independent samples to compare the
groups denominated: active and inactive. Results: there was no significant difference in relation to the
temperature pre-and post-test of the Cooper protocol in active and inactive individuals, but the active
group had a higher central temperature. The active group presented a greater reduction of body mass
and a worse state of dehydration, evaluated by the urine color, and also by the calculation of the rate
of sweating. Finally, although both groups received the classification of “weak” regarding aerobic
capacity, the active group was significantly superior to the inactive group. Conclusion: the group of
actives adolescents presented higher central body temperature, with a higher rate of sweating, due to
their greater physical effort (better test performance) and their better training, which can lead to a
better body cooling system.
Keywords: Physical Fitness; Thermoregulation; Hydration.
INTRODUCTION and thermoregulation related to the changes that
Physical fitness is conceptualized as the ability to occur during the practice of strenuous physical
perform activities of your daily life without too exercises. Thereby, the present study aims to
much fatigue(1). It is composed of physiological and identify changes in body temperature and hydration
psychosocial variables which help to balance the in adolescents classified as physically active or
well-being and lifestyle of the individuals, since a inactive.
person with a good physical aptitude is more likely
to be healthy in the development of hypokinetic METHODOLOGY
diseases(2,3). This is a cross-sectional, quantitative, descriptive
In order to maintain or improve physical fitness, it study. The convenience sample consisted of 40
is necessary to practice physical exercises. That is, adolescent students aged 13 to 17 years old, from a
systematized activities aimed at improving health(4). private school in the city of Anápolis-GO. The study
One of the physiological factors that limits good used the standards for conducting research on
performance in physical exercises and improvement humans, resolution nº 466 of December 12, 2012 of
of physical fitness is thermoregulation, defined as the National Health Council and was approved by
the physiological capacity that the body maintains the Research Ethics Committee of the Centro
at ideal temperature(5). The ideal body temperature Universitário de Anápolis – UniEVANGÉLICA,
should remain between 36.1°C-37°C. The practice protocol number 2.147.331.
of physical activities is one of the variables that The invitation was made to the adolescents, sending
remove the body from homeostasis, causing this the necessary documents to the parents and minors.
temperature to reach up to 41ºC(6). After they signing the free and informed form the
During the practice of any physical exercises is tests were started. In this way, the volunteer received
produced heat. About 30% of this heat is a folder explaining how the tests would be like and
transformed into work and the other 70%, how they should behave before, during and after the
distributed to the body, thus increasing the body test. There were also directives regarding the type of
temperature of the individual. To occur the clothing and footwear.
reduction in body temperature it is necessary to use Then, was measured the body mass through a
one of the means for heat loss. Among these, we Filizola
have convection, conduction, radiation and (Filizola LTDA, Recife, PE, Brazil) stadiometer (10).
evaporation. The most used and efficient is the The body mass was measured as soon as the
evaporation(6), in addition to these means, the blood individual arrived (after the first collection of urine)
flow also controls the loss of heat, as the measure and raised in the scale again about 15 minutes after
of the central heat increases and this blood flow is the end of the run, shortly after the second collection
diverted to the skin(7). However, among the of urine. On average, there was a time interval of 58
aforementioned means, evaporation is the most minutes between the first and second weighing.
efficient way for heat loss. This occurs when the The comparison of pre and post effort body mass
sweat glands transfer the “water” to the exogenous can be used to verify rapid changes in the hydration
environment (without the loss of cytoplasm or of people submitted to a systematic effort (11). This
organelles) so that this water evaporates and carries methodology is based on the estimation that 1 gram
with it the heat of the body surface(8). The study of of lost body mass equals 1 ml of lost liquid(12).
Gaspar et al.(9) demonstrates that triathlon athletes For the estimation of VO2max. was applied the 12-
show a drop in yield because they have a high
minute running test proposed by Cooper(13),
production rate of sweating and poor water
measuring the distance traveled in this period of
replenishment.
time. This test was performed on an
From this premise, it is of great importance a good
athletic track, counting the number of laps in the
hydration for the practice of systematized physical
established perimeter with known distance. The
activities.
measurements of the perimeter, and the distance of
Thus, it is necessary to study the aerobic capacity
the incomplete turns were measured with a 50m
(Brasfort) (Brasfort LTDA, São Paulo, SP, Brazil) = [initial body mass (kg) + water ingestion (L)] –
line. All measurements were made by a single [final body mass al (kg) + urinary volume (kg)] /
evaluator accompanied by the annotator. time (min) x 60.
In order to quantify the volume of water ingested, For the analysis of the data the volunteers were
volunteers were asked about the doses of separated into two groups: Actives- those who
water/infusions/teas and industrialized beverages made up the school’s Handball or Basketball team;
consumed daily. The water counted via Inactives - those who did not participate in
questionnaire was designated for the purposes of the physical education and were not included in
analysis as ingested water. A food recall was not another practice of systematized physical activity.
quantified to estimate the percentage of liquid per The descriptive analysis of the data was presented
food, eaten in the volunteers’ regular diet. It was through mean, standard deviation, simple frequency
also asked about the use of dietary supplements and and percentage. The Shapiro-wilk test was
medicines. performed through which the normality of the data
For the day of the run test they were asked to was verified. A paired T-test was then performed
maintain their natural routine of fluid ingestion. On to compare pre and post test and a t-test for
the day agreed for the run test, as the volunteers independent samples to compare between groups.
arrived, they completed the anamnesis and the water SPSS 20.0 software was used, adopting a level of
ingestion questionnaire, were weighed and had their significance of p≤0.05.
body temperature measured through a G-Tech 
digital clinical thermometer with infrared sensor, RESULTS
being this one used to measure the internal As a result of the application of the questionnaire,
temperature of the ear and the forehead, before and 53.8% of the sample consumed 500mL-1000mL of
after the run test. The ambient temperature on the water per day (Table 1), and the European Food
day of the test was at 26ºC at 9am (time that the run Security Agency(17) recommended the ingestion of
was started), with relative air humidity being at 2.5 L/day of water for male adolescents and 2 L/day
58%. These conditions were measured with a for females, thus demonstrating that the sample was
Thermo Hygrometer ICEL model HT-208. not hydrating correctly. Soon after, the ingestion of
Urine was collected in a sterilized Erlenmeyer, soft drinks/teas was quantified and was obtained that
with a capacity of up to 500 mL, as soon as the 79.5% of the evaluated ones did not ingest any of
volunteer completed the anamnesis (about 8:30 the analyzed drinks. It was also identified that
am). At this point he was invited to drink a glass of 89.7% of those evaluated did not drink any sports
250 ml of water. After the race, the volunteer drinks (isotonic), since, if consumed in excess, they
waited in the shadow for about 15 minutes to can make it difficult to lose weight, increase blood
promote a return to calm and, then, the urine was pressure and overload the kidneys. Thus, analyzing
collected again. It had to be a minimum volume of the results, it can be noticed that the sample studied
50 mL, and during this time the volunteers did not performs little ingestion of any type of liquid.
hydrate. After each collection the urine was When comparing the water ingestion between active
compared to a colorimetric scale for the and inactive groups it was possible to verify that the
determination of the levels of hydration developed active group consumes about 300 mL more water per
by Armstrong et al.(14). day than the inactive group (data not shown in
The percentage of dehydration was calculated from Table), which is relatively small this difference ,
the difference between the body mass pre and post- although statistically significant. The ingestion of so
exercise: Percentage of dehydration = [(Difference little water refers to the concern with the ingestion
between initial and final body mass (in kg)) – of dietary supplements. However, only five
urinary volume after training (in L))] / initial body individuals (all in the active group) reported using
mass (kg) x 100(15). The rate of sweating, expressed food supplements (two reported using creatine,
in L/hour of exercise, was calculated from the another two whey protein, and 1 reported using
equation proposed by Horswill (16): rate of sweating maltodextrin). Regarding medication use, only one
individual reported regular use of antihistamine forehead temperature in the two groups analyzed,
(inactive group) and another two (active group) but this difference was not significant.
reported being treated with roacutan (data not When compared to the temperature between the two
shown in table). groups, the active group presented, in a significant
The difference in physical condition between the so- way, a greater tympanic heating, both in the pre and
called active and inactive groups is explicit (Table post test. The same did not occur to the forehead
2) by identifying that the actives ran an average of temperature in any of the analyzed moments.
389m more than the inactive ones in the same 12- On the other hand, when the dissipation of the heat
minute period. This represents almost an extra lap produced by the production of sweat was analyzed,
on the track. However, both groups present a bad was obtained the data of the pre and post-run
aerobic condition. It is only possible to point out that body mass. With this it is possible to notice that
the VO2max. of the active group is 25.81% higher the body mass of the inactive group reduced on
than the inactive group. Table 2 also shows the average 100g, while that of the active group
difference between active and inactive individuals reduced 360g, on average, being this significant
regarding body temperature. Thus, it can be reduction only for the active group. This
observed that the temperature averages of the Pre and indicates that heat dissipation through sweating
Post run test were not significantly different, even does not actually promote a significant reduction in
though there was a different physical condition body mass, but with a significant difference
between the groups. However, the tympanic between active and inactive, in which the active
temperature was visually lower when compared to group produced about three and a half times more
sweat.
Table 1- Descriptive Analysis of the “Quantification of Daily Ingestion of Liquids” questionnaire.
Water Ingestion Soft drinks and teas Ingestion Sports Drink Ingestion
≤200 ml 12.80% None 79.50% None 89.7%*

200 - 500 ml 12.80% One cup 0% ≤200 ml 7.70%
500 -1000 ml 53.80% Two cups 12.80% 200-500 ml 2.60%
1000- 1500 ml 17.90% Three cups 2.60% ≥500 ml 0%
≥1500 ml 2.60% Four cups 5.10% ≥1000ml 0%
TOTAL 100% TOTAL 100% TOTAL 100%
Note: *statistic significance
Table 2- Comparative analysis of variables between trained and untrained individuals.

Variables INACTIVES (n=23) ACTIVES (n=17)
o
Pre-tympanic temperature ( C) 33.49 ± 3.78 35.92 ± 0.49 †
Post-tympanic temperature (oC) 33.8 ± 3.40 35.35 ± 1.53 †
o
Pre-forehead temperature ( C) 36.03 ± 0.69 36.00 ± 0.67
Post-forehead temperature (oC) 36.1 ± 1.07 36.08 ± 0.99
Pre-body mass (kg) 65.20 ± 13.40 64.10*± 9.49
Post-body mass (kg) 65.10 ± 13.41 63.74 ± 9.22 †
Pre-urine 1.17*± 2.39 3.31*± 2.71 †
Post-urine 3.60 ± 2.20 5.00 ± 2.42 †
Distance traveled (m) 1616.9 ± 333.18 2005.9 ± 243.12 †
VO2max (mL/kg/min.) 24.86 ± 7.43 33.51 ± 5.40 †
Note: n= number of subjects per group; * represents a significant difference between pre and post test; † represents a significant difference between the active and inactive groups.
DISCUSSION dehydration percentage of triathletes. However, the actives
The studied sample has as one of the negative factors a low dehydrated
water consumption, both between active and inactive. The 10% of the said triathletes dehydrated, whereas the inactive
interesting fact is that they have stated that they do not did not reach 2% of said dehydration rate. This express the
compensate for this inadequate water ingestion with the low intensity of the effort they produced. In order to avoid
consumption of soft drinks and other industrialized drinks, a misinterpretation of the data presented above, the rate of
since these can favor the development of chronic diseases sweating was calculated, in which it was detected that for
and also lead to a reduction in physical performance (18). the inactive group it was 1,275 L/h and 1,405 L/h for the
Adequate water consumption is essential for a number of active group, which is in agreement with the cited results
natural biological reactions in the human body. Water per Vechiato and Costa(15). This shows that the weight lost
ingestion may be inversely related to the volume of sugary is irrelevant when taking into account the amount of urine
drinks and other fluid ingress(19). Water still has a key role in produced.
facilitating the transport of substances into the kidneys so In another study related to hydration and aerobic and
that they can be eliminated, and the low water consumption anaerobic exercises(26) have been reported significant
combined with the ingestion of protein supplements may differences between weight loss in aerobic individuals
favor the development of kidney stones(20). up to 0.8 kg, but it is evident that analyzing only the
A reduced amount of body water can still hinder the body’s reduction of body mass without the respective sweating
cooling system through sweating. It is well known that rate is contradiction.
repeated sessions of vigorous physical activities result in Analyzing the color of the urine according to the parameters
hemodilution(21) due to the expansion of plasma volume(22). indicated by Perrone and Mayer(27), the adolescents in
However, it is unclear whether moderate-intensity physical the inactive group were, in the pretest, classified as “well
activity may result in plasma volume expansion. It has hydrated” and post-test as “mild hypohydration”.
recently been discovered that strenuous physical exercise Meanwhile, active group components presented “mild
training expands not only blood plasma but also water hypohydration” and progressed to “moderate
within the exercised muscles(23). This indicates that hypohydration” with the test. According to Alvira et al. (28),
stimulating the regular practice of moderate to high intensity adolescents usually present themselves with insufficient
physical activities may induce a greater water ingestion, hydration, especially those that are insufficiently active.
converting individuals to a better hydration profile. This underscores the importance of an educational process
As the active group produced a better performance in the on adequate hydration and how much regular physical
run, its central temperature (tympanic temperature), activity can favor the need to hydrate.
consequently increased more, which led to a greater production By culminating in aerobic capacity, Bergamasco et al. (29)
of sweat, causing a greater reduction of body mass, due to measured the VO2max. in handball university athletes and
dehydration and, a most representative darkening of urine. obtained, as a result, that of the 10 athletes analyzed, the
As the ear temperature represents more central temperatures average for
relative to the carotid blood that bathes the hypothalamus and the VO2máx was 23.88 mL/kg/min., which was in agreement
the temperature of the forehead represents the peripheral with the very low VO2máx detected in the present study.
temperature, which is the one deviated to eliminate the heat
However, the volunteers of the active group presented
produced by the practice of physical exercises (24,25), and it is
better results (33.41 mL/kg/min) than those cited in the
natural that those who have tried harder, raise the central
present study. But regardless of this, there is an emerging
temperature higher, while the peripheral temperature is more
need for training to improve the VO2máx. in order to
susceptible to climatic influences.
Vechiato and Costa(15) evaluated the percentage of achieve
dehydration of triathlon athletes, which resulted in a reduction a better sports performance and also to ensure a better
in the percentage of body mass of the individuals, and the health development, both in the motor system and in the
mean loss of 2.2 ± 0.7%, placing these individuals in a state improvement of the cardiorespiratory system.
of minimal dehydration. In the present study, the loss was
only 0.04% between the inactive and 0.23% for the active, CONCLUSION
which characterizes that the 12 minutes test did not generate Through the research, it was concluded that the active
any type of shock in its state of hydration. However, it must individuals present significantly higher internal
take into consideration that the evidence analyzed by temperature, with a greater reduction of body mass after
Vechiato and Costa(15) had an average duration of 78 the test, resulting in a greater percentage of dehydration
minutes. As the duration of effort in the present study was and a higher rate of sweating. Finally, although both groups
only 15.4% of that study, it was expected that those present a bad aerobic condition the active group denotes a
evaluated in the present study presented at least 15% of the higher aerobic capacity.
3. Match Running Performance During Fixture Congestion in Elite Soccer: Research Issues and
Future Directions
Match Running Performance During Fixture Congestion in Elite Soccer:

Research Issues and Future Directions
Christopher Carling • Warren Gregson •
Alan McCall • Alexandre Moreira •

Del P. Wong • Paul S. Bradley
Published online: 19 February 2015

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015
Abstract are critically addressed using findings from the

It has been proposed that match congestion in current scientific literature, while gaps in the
elite soccer results in residual fatigue and current body of knowledge and future directions
underperformance in ensuing competition due to for research are highlighted.
insufficient recovery time. In this article, matters
relating to match congestion and running Introduction
performance in elite soccer competition are In contemporary elite soccer, players should be
discussed. We suggest a need to determine the able to compete in up to 50 matches per season
extent to which elite players are, in reality, and participate in a match every 4 days over a five-
exposed to periods of match congestion and hence match period [1]. Periods of fixture congestion
to potential declines in performance. Despite occur in elite soccer, notably for top- level teams
evidence of exercise-induced muscle damage that compete for domestic league champi-
combined with a decline in physical performance onships and cups in addition to European
up to 72 h post-match, research using time– competitions. An accumulation of matches over a
motion analyses suggests that running short period potentially results in residual fatigue
performance represented by distances covered is and underperformance due to insufficient time for
unaffected over periods of match congestion. We physical recovery whilst also increasing the
recommend analysis of alternative movement propensity of injury [2]. Effective player manage-
variables including accelerations, decelerations ment and monitoring by coaching and medical
and turns that are taxing metabolically and staff over intensified competitive schedules is
contribute greatly to muscle damage. Moreover, a unquestionably important. However, the extent
holistic approach combining subjective ratings to which players are in reality exposed to periods
with biochemical, hormonal and immunological of fixture congestion and to a subsequent risk of a
responses to exercise would be pertinent, decline in ensuing match performance is unclear.
especially in players frequently exposed to match Research across various playing standards
congestion. Contem- porary practitioners typically demonstrates the occurrence of muscle soreness
implement various post- match recovery during the post-match period, which is indicative
treatments during dense schedules in an attempt to of exercise-induced micro- trauma and a
accelerate recovery and ensure that subsequent concomitant elevation in muscle damage [3].
running performance is not unduly affected. These morphological changes within muscles are
However, empirical evidence to support their accompanied by marked declines in field-test
efficacy in maintaining running performance is measures of anaerobic performance as well as
lacking and we recommend controlled repeated high-speed running performance for up
intervention studies using match simulations in an to 72 h post-match [4–8]. In theory, these
attempt to verify their effectiveness. These points declines would negatively impact on ensuing
competitive physical performance if the time
delay between successive matches was short. Coverage of elite player rotation strategies during
Yet several time–motion analysis studies the season and specifically during periods of
conducted on elite senior soccer competition fixture congestion has been neglected in the
have shown that external workload represented literature. Information is necessary to identify
by distance covered at various running speeds was how frequently individual players actually
unaffected over a congested period [2, 9–15]. participate in and complete matches in their
Despite the physiological trauma and entirety over short and/or prolonged congested
accumulative fatigue potentially induced by periods. An investigation of an elite soccer team
successive matches, it would seem players during a prolonged period of match congestion
recover sufficiently and cope ‘physically’ over a (eight matches in 26 days) reported a single
congested period. However, recent research outfield player who completed every match while
suggests a need to modify current time–motion six players took part in every match as either
study designs and metrics to determine starters or sub- stitutes [10]. In three separate
whether declines in running performance congested periods (six matches in 18 days) across
actually the same season, only four players in an elite team
occur during congested competition periods [16, participated in every match [15]. Finally, analysis
17]. of 22 elite English teams who played three
Practitioners working incontemporary elite soccer matches in 5 days yielded complete datasets for
typically implement post-match recovery 16 outfield players [11].
modalities (e.g., cold-water immersion, massage, The apparent limited extent to which individual
compression garments) during dense fixture players repeatedly completed entire matches
schedules in an attempt to accelerate recovery and across congested periods raises doubts about the
ensure that performance in subsequent com- real-world magnitude of the issue of match
petition is not unduly compromised [18]. Several congestion and questions the value of the existing
authors have suggested that such treatments aided time–motion research in this area. The majority of
in maintaining match running performance during clubs purely participate in domestic competitions
congested periods [2, 9, 10, 14, 15]. However, but typically still use a selection of reserve players
limited empirical evidence currently exists to for cup competitions. Teams participating in
support the efficacy of post-match recovery European competition are also known to field
modalities for attenuating potential decrements in reserve players for both domestic and European
running performance across consecutive matches cups. When combined with the possibility of early
played within a tight timeframe. In this article, we elimination from cup competitions, these factors
discuss the extent of the problem of exposure to can ensure that some teams and players are rarely
fixture congestion on competitive running confronted by match congestion, especially over
performance. Suggestions are also made regarding prolonged periods. A potentially greater concern
both modifications to research design in time– for clubs in this case is ensuring that regularly
motion studies and the need for experimental non-selected players maintain match fitness and
work to support the efficacy of post-match motivation!
recovery treatments on subsequent match running It would seem from the limited number of players
performance during periods of fixture congestion. completing matches in the research mentioned
These points are critically addressed using earlier that coaching practitioners recognise the
information from the current scientific literature. need to rotate players. However, it must be
Likewise, gaps in the current body of knowledge recognised that rotation can also be forced due to
and future directions for research are time-loss injury, illness and player suspen- sions
highlighted. [10]. Unfortunately, no factual information
Is Fixture Congestion Actually a Concern? is
currently available describing the reasons behind study and typically in later papers include total
player selection policies during congested fixture distance and distance covered across a range of
periods. Com- plementary information from running speeds at arbitrarily predefined speed
interviews conducted with coaching practitioners thresholds, frequency of and mean recovery time
regarding player selection criteria would be between high-speed efforts, and peak running
pertinent (e.g., choice based on subjective opin- speed [2, 9–13]. However, doubts have recently
ions, physiological/physical monitoring been cast [20] on the practical utility of these met-
training/match- play data, prior number of rics and, notably, assessments of changes in
matches played for their club and/or national simplistic measures such as distances covered that
team, tactics). are commonly used in an attempt to identify the
Concerns with Time–Motion Analysis Research occurrence of declines in physical performance.
Study Design Yet, at the time of writing, the latest published
Inferential statistical analyses of data derived research in this area has also primarily employed
from time– motion analyses generally analyses of distances covered [14, 15].
demonstrate that match-to- match measures of Furthermore, only two studies, again mainly using
running performance in elite senior players do not distances covered, have investigated whether
vary statistically, even when successive matches match-related fatigue evolves across intensified
are separated by minimal recovery time (Table 1). competition periods by examining declines across
For example, no statistically significant changes halves [10, 12], while only one has examined
in running performance were reported during both changes related to playing position [14].
short (e.g., three matches in 5–7 days) [9, 11] and Another key issue when attempting to interpret
longer periods of congestion (e.g., eight matches the effects of fixture congestion is the ‘natural’
in 26 days) [10, 15]. According to these variation in running activities, notably at high
apparently stable match running activity profiles, speeds across successive matches and the
one could assume that elite players are simply competitive season [21]. The large variability in
able to maintain physical performance across high-speed running is mediated through the in-
congested schedules. Partly supporting this latter herent demands of match-play that are influenced
point are findings from a study of an Italian team by a myriad of performance-related and
competing at the highest level domes- tically [19]. contextual factors that have not yet been
Tests conducted following match-play showed accounted for in the aforementioned literature on
that players fully recovered their physical fixture congestion. Factors include team for-
capacities 48 h following competition. While mation and tactics, time spent in ball possession,
larger-scale research is required, these findings effective playing time, individual fitness
suggest that elite players recover quicker than characteristics, and contextual issues such as
other ages and standards (up to 72 h) and in result and playing environment [20]. Self-
theory are able to perform at ‘normal’ levels if the regulation or ‘pacing’ of physical efforts has also
delay between games is 48 h or greater. been suggested as a means employed by elite
Alternatively, it could be that the time–motion players to mod- ulate and adequately respond to
measures previously employed are potentially match demands during periods of fixture
lacking sensitivity or are simply invalid for congestion [10–12], although using time– motion
determining whether ‘fatigue’ actually occurs. data alone to determine if a pacing strategy is
The first study investigating the influence of adopted is unfeasible [22]. Collectively, these
successive matches over a short time period on factors make it difficult to interpret inter-match
running performance in elite senior players was changes in player running activity that may be
conducted on data collected from the 2005–2006 associated with fatigue.
season [11]. Match running performance metrics The inclusion of percentage coefficient of
used for inter-match comparisons in this first variation (% CV) values and confidence intervals
would have provided an idea of variability for
time–motion data previously collected during
periods of fixture congestion. For example, a
repeated-measures analysis of variance test
revealed that high-speed running activity in an
elite team as a whole for a series of eight
matches played over a 26-day period revealed
no significant differences across matches [10].
For the same data, a % CV value of *30 % was
reported, whereas a substantially lower % CV
of *10 % was obtained for data collected in
matches played across the entire season in the
same team. This larger match-to-match
variability could have masked any ‘real’
changes in running performance across the
congested period. The magnitude of the %
CV can inform whether a real change in
performance has occurred rather than this
being at- tributable to ‘normal’ between-match
variation [21]. In- deed, there is a need
generally for consensus between practitioners
and researchers on what changes in running
performance can be considered ‘meaningful’ [20]
and, for the present purposes, potential declines
in running activity related to match congestion.
In future studies, systematic inclusion of
effect-size values would provide practical
interpretation of the magnitude of the
differences across consecutive matches. For
example, no statistical difference in mean
high-speed
Table 1 Summary of time–motion analysis studies investigating match running performance during periods of fixture congestion in elite senior soccer
608
13
References Sample Research design Match running performance measures Main findings
Dupont Players from an 52 matches. 1 vs. 2 matches per week Total distance, high-speed distance ([19.1–24.0 km/ Running measures were unaffected by the
et al. [2] elite Scottish h), sprint distance ([24.0 km/h) and number of sprints number of matches per week
soccer team (n
= 32)
Carling and Players from an 3 successive domestic League and/or UEFA Europa Overall distance covered, distance run at high speeds No differences across consecutive matches were
Dupont [9] elite French League matches played in B7 days (C14.4 km/h) and distance in individual possession observed for any of the running variables
soccer team (n
= 7)
Carling Players from an
et al. [10] elite French 6 domestic Ligue 1 and 2 UEFA Europa League Overall distance covered and distance run at light The overall distance covered and in light
soccer team (n matches played successively over a 26-day period. intensity (0.0–11.0 km/h), low intensity (11.1– intensities varied across the congested fixture
= 26) Data were also compared with that for matches before 14.0 km/h), moderate intensity (14.1–19.0 km/h) and period (both p \ 0.001), while distance
(n = 9) and after (n = 13) the prolonged period of high speeds ([19.1 km/h) covered in high-speed running was unchanged.
fixture congestion The overall distance covered and distance run in
high-speed exercise across match halves were
unaffected. Performance overall in all physical
activity measures did not differ to that of the
opponents, but the total distance covered (p \
0.001) and that in low-
(p \ 0.001) and high-speed running
(p \ 0.040) varied in individual matches
Odetoyinbo Players from 4 3 successive matches in 5 days Total distance run and distance covered in walking Total distance and that at high speeds did not
et al. [11] UK elite soccer (0.2–1.9 m/s), jogging (2.0–3.9 m/s), running vary over 3 matches. High-speed distance
teams (n = 16) (4.0–5.4 m/s), high-speed running (5.5–6.9 m/s) and sprinting (C7.0 m/s), and mean speed and peak speed varied (p \ 0.05) according to ball possession
2 successive matches with 3 days between matches Total distance covered and distances run in walking/
Players from jogging (0.0–11.0 km/h), low speed (11.1–14.0 km/ h), moderate speed (14.1–19.0 km/h), high-speed ([19.1–
Rey et al. an elite 23.0 km/h) and maximal speed ([23.1 km/ h), and frequency of high-speed efforts, recovery time, mean Running activity profiles were unaffected by the
[12] Spanish team speed and peak speed short time delay between matches
(n = 42) 27 matches. 1 vs. 2 matches per week Total distance covered and distances run in walking/
jogging (0.0–11.0 km/h), low speed
Players from an (11.1–14.0 km/h), moderate speed (14.1–19.0 km/ h), high-speed ([19.1–23.0 km/h) and maximal speed
elite Spanish ([23.1 km/h)
Lago-Pen˜as soccer team (n = Running measures were unaffected by the number
et al. [13] 172) of matches per week
Djaoui et al. Players from an 4 successive congested periods (2 matches per week) Total distance covered, total distance covered at light Running activity was unchanged across the
[14] elite French separated by international breaks compared with (\12 km/h), sustained cruising ([18–21 km/h), congested fixture periods
team (n = 16) habitual 1 match per week high ([21–23 km/h), very high ([23–25 km/h),
sub-maximal ([25–27 km/h) and maximal ([27
C. Carling et al.
km/h) intensities
running distance was reported in the same players across three matches
played in B7 days (2,667 ± 200 vs. 2,629 ± 398 vs. 2,414 ± 145 m)
[9]. Yet, the effect-size values for matches 1 and 2 versus match 3
km/hwere affected across the were -0.72 and -1.45 suggesting moderate and large declines,
running activity nor technical
Main findings
respectively [23]. In addition to the complexities of data interpretation

due to match-to-match variability, there are additional methodological
issues that require consideration. For example, several published
fixture periods
papers have collected data from a single club setting, thereby only
reflecting performance of the team in question. Although small-scale
case study research that addresses specific performance-related ques-
12.1–18.0
(moderate-intensity running) and [21.0 km/h

km/h (low-intensity running), 18.1–21.0 km/h
performance
tions is important [24], larger-scale investigations (more match

different
congested
categories of running intensity: 0.0–12.0
Neither
observations, players and teams) are necessary to enable detection of

(walking and light-intensity running),
more meaningful changes and gener- alised trends given the highly
Total distance and that covered in
variable nature of match performance metrics [21]. The analysis of a

Match running performance
single team is also problematic in that several studies on match conges-

tion have been unable to verify changes in performance across playing
positions and/or in individual players. As mentioned earlier, these low
sample sizes can be linked to player rotation, time-loss injuries, illnesses
and suspen- sions. To partly counter this problem, one study included
(high-speed)
measures
time–motion data from players who had participated in a minimum of 75

min of play [15]. However, the lack of information on the final 15 min
of matches, in which there can be substantial reductions in running
activity [20], might have influenced the findings and contributed to the
3 separate congested fixture periods over a season.
consisted of 6 consecutive matches separated by 3
reported lack of match-to-match changes in running performance.

an elite Each congested period (2 matches per week)
Future Directions for Time–Motion Analysis Research

Methodological improvements, notably in terms of the variables analysed
and the general approach to research designs, are recommended if future
investigations into the effects of match congestion on player performance
are to be more meaningful. These points and prospective avenues of
research are discussed in turn.
Research design
UEFA Union of European Football Associations
Additional Running Performance-Related Analyses

As mentioned earlier, time–motion analyses tend to monitor changes in
(n = 16) days
measures of distances covered, notably at high speeds using arbitrarily

Players from
French team
predefined speed thresholds. However, players differ greatly in the speed
Sample
at which they begin to run at high speeds. Accounting for physiological
Table 1 continued
capacity to individualise the high-speed threshold could provide a more

valid and sensitive method for quantifying match-to-match changes in
Dellal et al.
References
activity [25], especially as fixture congestion has been linked to impaired

[15]
intermittent field-test running muscle damage [16, 17]. For instance, the
performance [8]. A combi- nation of frequency of rapid accelerations
players’ anaerobic threshold, maximal performed per minute markedly declined
aerobic speed and maximal sprinting at the end of a congested period in elite
speed characteristics are considered youth players (five matches in 72 h) [16].
necessary to individualise and improve In contrast, neither total distance covered
interpretation of time–motion data [26]. nor that at high speeds varied. In elite
In reality, however, there are practical players, a holistic approach was
challenges to administering this undertaken by linking time– motion data
individualised approach and unfortu- with post-match fatigue obtained using
nately it does not account for the high ratings of perceived exertion, creatine
metabolic cost of typical utility kinase concentrations and physical test
movements [25]. Metabolic power estima- performance sampled over a 72-h period
tions adjust data to incorporate the following match-play [17]. Large
additional energy cost of acceleration and magnitude correlations (r [ 0.50) were
deceleration activities [27]. Although no reported between the number of short
studies have yet been conducted, these sprints performed and perceived post-
measures could be a valid means for match muscle soreness (48 and 72 h) as
interpreting changes in performance and well as the number of rapid changes in
subsequently individualising recovery direction and decrements in jump
strategies according to a more accurate performance (24 h).
account of the match loads imposed on
players [28]. Indeed, recent research using A Holistic Approach to Research into
global positioning systems (10 Hz the Effects of Match Congestion
sampling) in elite players has shown that
the distance covered in rapid ac- We suggest that the aforementioned
celeration/deceleration phases is measures of running activities should be
potentially more sensitive than high-speed part of a more holistic approach to
distance alone in detecting variations in quantify and aid interpretation of potential
match running performance [29]. changes in match performance across
However, the results from this study congested periods. The inclusion of
should be interpreted with caution due to skill-related data (e.g., frequency and
ongoing concerns regarding the validity completion rates in technical actions) is
and accuracy of the GPS technology for necessary; however, only two studies to
measuring such activities [30]. date have reported such information
Recent research conducted in elite youth [9, 15]. Similarly, only one report has
and senior soccer match-play has considered match performance prior to,
nevertheless investigated these alternative during and following periods of fixture
movement variables that are taxing congestion [10]. This information would
metabolically and contribute greatly to provide additional evidence on the
effects of fixture congestion in identification of and subsequent targeted
comparison to ‘habitual’ performance. research to track only individuals who
Interpretations of data should also attempt are regularly exposed to match
to account for the number of games congestion through national team
already played, travel time to matches and obligations and mid-week European
the potentially confounding effects of competition might be more pertinent and
time delay between successive matches practically easier to implement. This
(e.g., 2 vs. 3 days). Inclusion of a detailed latter suggestion is important and
temporal breakdown of running activities confirms that information is necessary to
rather than simply ‘global’ measures identify how frequently the same
performed over the entire course of individuals actually participate in and
matches (e.g., total distance covered over complete matches in their entirety over
90 min) could provide more accurate both short and/or prolonged congested
insights. For example, is there a tendency periods.
for underperformance in running and/or
skill-related actions at the start of play
and/or in the final 15 min in the third Post-Match Recovery Strategies and
match played over a 5-day period? Any Match Running Performance
holistic approach must also take into
consideration the aforementioned A review has critically examined the
performance-related and contextual post-match recovery strategies employed
factors recognised as affecting match- in contemporary elite soccer [18]. The
play performance. aim of these strategies is to reduce the
In addition, while no definitive marker magnitude of fatigue and muscle damage
exists for monitoring biochemical, following competition, and therefore
hormonal and immunological responses accelerating recovery time. Yet,
to exercise [31], there is still potential for discussion on the efficacy of the recovery
research merging this information with regimens used between matches on
external workload information derived running performance in subsequent
from time–motion analyses. First-hand competition was omitted [18].
ac- counts from the players themselves Researchers have nevertheless claimed
providing subjective ratings of perceived that these regimens may have contributed
exertion, muscle soreness, wellness and to the maintenance of match running
sleep quality could also aid interpretation performance reported during congested
of variations in match performance. periods [2, 9, 10, 14, 15]. However, it
While the time and cost of developing, would seem that some of these strategies
implementing, managing and are commonly used by practitioners in an
subsequently interpreting data derived ad hoc nature despite little scientific
from any holistic monitoring approach evidence being available on the
might be high, we suggest that underlying mechanisms and, particularly
for the purpose of this paper, on the No associations were observed between
actual outcomes in competition to the overall number of treatments received
validate and support their or the number of cold-water treatments
implementation. alone and any of the running performance
variables across the three matches. The
Are There any Proven Benefits of authors concluded that adherence to
Post-Match Recovery Strategies on post-match recovery treatments did not
Ensuing Match Performance? aid players in sustaining running
performance during short periods of
Recovery strategies such as hydration, match congestion. However, no
diet and sleep are widely considered to be information was provided on the effects
effective strategies for aiding recovery in (e.g., beneficial/harmful) of the recovery
elite soccer players [18] and athletes intervention determined by analysis of the
generally [32]. In contemporary elite smallest ‘worthwhile’ change in match
soccer, additional recovery strategies such performance indices [23]. Indeed, there
as hydrotherapy, compression garments, is evidence that some practices (e.g.,
massage and electrical stimulation are active recovery, cold-water immersion)
routinely implemented following can be detrimental to recovery in elite
competition and training. Yet definitive athletic populations [18, 32]. It is also
empirical evidence of the direct effects of difficult to draw definite conclusions (due
isolated or combinations of these post- to the varying effectiveness previously
match recovery strategies on reported for the treatments) as some
counteracting fatigue and, most players in the above study may or may not
importantly, maintaining subsequent have chosen to participate in more than
competitive performance over periods of one treatment type. Research on elite
match congestion, is currently lacking. senior Australian Rules Football [34]
To our knowledge, only one study has demonstrated that post-match recovery
attempted to investigate the effect of strategies were not positively associated
post-match recovery strategies commonly with match performance (determined
used in contemporary elite senior soccer subjectively via ratings given by coaching
on running performance during congested staff). In contrast, perceptual recovery
periods [33]. This study evaluated the among players was enhanced post-match
effects of adherence to post-match re- following the treatments. Finally, research
covery treatments including exposure to conducted in elite youth soccer players
cold-water immersion (10 min at 10 °C), has reported that post-match recovery
lower-limb compression garments (30 min interventions (e.g., sauna, cold-water
duration) and sports massage (petrissage immersion, jacuzzi) were beneficial in
technique for 45–60 min) on running attenuating decrements in running
performance during three successive performance, notably high-speed activity
matches played with 48–72 h recovery. across consecutive matches played within
a tight timeframe [35, 36]. However, the evidence-based recovery practices in elite
large inter-individual differences in the soccer. In addition, the timing of
responses to the treatment suggest that not participation in post-match recovery
all players benefited from post-match procedures must be considered (e.g.,
recovery interventions to the same extent immediately after play and/or morning
[35]. after). In water immersion therapy alone,
practitioners must consider water
Concerns with Conducting Research temperature (e.g., same/contrasting),
on the Benefits of Post-Match Recovery delay between therapies, and full or
Strategies partial immersion of the body [37].
Finally, there are potentially
The aforementioned lack of studies confounding lifestyle factors that are
addressing this issue is in our opinion difficult to control, such as compliance
mainly related to the problems com- with recommended rehydra- tion and
monly encountered in conducting nutrition guidelines to ensure restoration
controlled intervention studies in elite of fluids/ energy stores as well as the
soccer settings and the large variability quantity and quality of sleep between
inherent in match performance metrics. matches.
Difficulties are due to the scheduling of
matches/training sessions, gain- ing Future Directions for Research
access to first-team players and because
the use of control versus intervention Despite the current lack of evidence
groups in which only a single population regarding the effectiveness of post-
benefits from an intervention is generally match recovery interventions, research
unfeasible at the elite level. will no doubt continue to explore the
Furthermore, the transfer of quantifiable relationship between recovery and
outcomes after any form of ‘sports competitive performance. Controlled ex-
science’ intervention into meaningful perimental simulations of match-play
changes in match running performance activity [38] to reproduce the
remains a challenge in elite soccer. The intermittent–endurance demands of
interpretation process of any competition have received little attention
worthwhile change in performance is and might be an alternative research
generally arbitrary as this is linked to the avenue to verify post-match fatigue
noisy data due to the unpredictable nature kinetics and their response to different
of play and the nu- merous external recovery strategies. Ran- domised
factors that dictate running performance controlled, crossover experimental
[20, 21]. designs using match simulations that
Issues surrounding study design also resemble typical competitive schedules
warrant discussion, especially in the are necessary to examine the influence of
absence of a clear set of guidelines for different recovery interventions (single
and combinations of treatments) on the As part of the contemporary preparation
accumulation of fatigue and muscle process for elite soccer, running
damage. Current studies only tend to performance is frequently monitored
analyse the ‘effects’ after a single using time–motion analyses of match-play
competitive match and multiple instances in an attempt to determine how players
of performance are necessary [8]. cope physically during periods of fixture
Verification of whether the magnitude of congestion. In this article, we
neuromuscular and biochemical responses recommended a need for factual
from match to match varies across short- information on player participation and
versus long-term periods of fixture rotation to identify the extent to which
congestion is necessary. Varying the players are actually exposed to fixture
content and intensity of successive congestion. Quantification of the number
simulations using time–motion data of oc- casions in which players compete
derived from actual analyses of match- in successive matches with a minimum
play would also aid replication of real- 48 h or less recovery would be a useful
world competition circumstances. starting point, especially as regards the
Match simulations should also incorporate necessity for post- match recovery
directional changes, accelerations and interventions. Changes in the design of
decelerations, and jumps to increase timemotion studies, notably using a more
ecological validity. Indeed, a 90-min holistic approach to monitoring and
intermittent treadmill protocol simulating larger sample sizes, are also
match-play did not affect peak isometric recommended. While challenging, such an
force production, vertical jump, or single approach would certainly aid
or repeated sprint performance interpretation of the potential deleterious
immediately after or throughout the effects of fixture congestion on match-
ensuing 72 h [39]. This finding was at- to-match performance. Finally,
tributed in part to the non-inclusion of practitioners commonly employ various
these locomotor actions. In addition, recovery modalities in an attempt to
simulations including these actions would enhance recovery between successive
relate better to the physical tests matches. Yet, scientific evidence available
commonly used to determine the physical to support their effectiveness in
impact of competition on the post- match maintaining running performance during
recovery time course. Measures related to fixture congestion is scarce and reflects to
muscle damage and force-generating some extent the limitations inherent in
capacity such as maximal voluntary conducting studies of this nature. We
contraction, jump height and short sprint nevertheless recommend that additional
speed are often employed. experimental investigations, notably using
controlled match-play simulations, are
Conclusion attempted.
Acknowledgments The authors have no funding was obtained for the preparation
potential conflicts of in- terest and no of this article.
4. An Investigation into the Measurement Level of Maximum Volume of Oxygen (VO2
Max) Consumption Using Cooper 12-Minutes Run-Test
An Investigation into the Measurement Level of Maximum Volume of Oxygen (VO2
Max) Consumption Using Cooper 12-Minutes Run-Test
Bebeley Samuel Joseph (PhD Scholar)
Abstract
This study was carried out to investigate the measurement level of maximum
volume of oxygen (VO2 max) rate for a continued period of four weeks (one month)
amongst randomly selected Bo Commercial Junior Secondary School (JSS I, II and III)
pupils in the Bo Municipality, Sierra Leone. The significance of the study is to measure
and compare the VO2 max of both boys and girls at the three different strata i.e. JSS I,
II & III using cooper-12-minutes-run test. A total of thirty (30) pupils (15 boys and 15
girls) were randomly selected at the three levels (JSS I, II & III), with age ranging from
ten to seventeen (10-17) years. The Pearson Product Moment Correlation (PPMC)
Coefficient, Dependent and Independent t-tests were used to compare the results of the
study. The results were tested at (p ≤ 0.05) level of significance. Analysis of results
from weeks one, two, three and four shows both significant and insignificant differences
between the measured values of VO 2 max rate of boys and that of girls (JSS I, II & III)
at the beginning and at the end of the exercise which is recorded as r values [(i.e. r
values ranging from r = 0.0000 to r = 0.7442) when compared with the c value (i.e. c
value = 0.8783)] as shown in tables I, II, III and IV; and as t values [(i.e. t values
ranging from t = 10.249 to t = 3.728) when compared with the dependent and
independent c values (c = 2.776 and c-value = 2.306)] as shown in tables V, VI, VII,
VIII, IX, X, XI and XII. Conclusively therefore, the major findings in this study shows
that pupils (boys and girls) were experiencing quick fatigue at the beginning of the
exercise which affected the low rate of their VO 2 max calculation greatly but they had
to overcome the fatigue as the session continued into the subsequent weeks thereby
improving their rate. In recommendation, the most effective approach to improving
VO2 max rate in pupils is by applying the endurance high intensity interval training
(HIIT) during practical session in schools.
Introduction Department of Health and Human

Physical activity is important for Services, 2000; National Association for
children's current and future health Sports and Physical Education, 2004).
with current recommendations calling School-based physical education (PE) is
for at least 60 minutes of moderate to one of only five interventions strongly
vigorous physical activity at least 3 recommended as a means for increasing
times a week. (Biddle et al, 1998; U.S. physical activity by the Task Force on
Community Preventive Services describing activity levels in children
(Centre for Disease Control and because they offer structured activity
Prevention, 2001; Kahn, Ramsey, classes (physical education) and
Brownson, Heath, Howze & Powell, unstructured time (recess) (Caspersen, et
2002). al, 2000).
Cooper’s 12 minute run test (Cooper,
The recognition that physical fitness is a 1968) is a popular field test used for
major marker of health status at any age measuring aerobic fitness. This fitness
(Ortega et al., 2007), has produced a test was initially used to estimate the
wide range of studies on the influence VO2 max. Cooper found a very high
of various factors on physical fitness correlation between the maximum
levels, in particular the influence of distance one can run (or walk) in 12
body fat and physical activity (Lennox minutes and the VO2 max value, which
et al., 2008; Artero et al., 2010; measure the efficiency with which
D'Hondt et al., 2009; Dumith et al., someone can use oxygen while
2010;). Increasing both aerobic and exercising. This test is still one of the
muscular fitness is essential for basic fitness tests used by the military,
promoting health (American College of as well as many coaches, trainers and an
Sports Medicine, 2007) and should be a individual to determine cardiovascular
desirable goal in a training program fitness and track fitness over time. This
(Taanila et al., 2011). simple test also allows individuals to
compare their cardiovascular endurance
Children with high levels of motor
with others of the same age and gender.
competence are more active, more
VO2max (ormaximal oxygen
capable (Castelli et al, 2007) and spend
consumption) is simply the maximum
less time on sedentary tasks (Wrotniak
possible VO2 that a given person can
et al., 2006). On the other hand,
improvement in the motor proficiency achieve. VO2 and VO2max are
of children can also influence levels of important in the context of exercise,
habitual physical activity beyond because they are a measure of ones
school age, creating expectations of body's ability to generate ATP, and
future maintenance of active lifestyles ATP is the energy source that allows
(Sharkey, 2002; Andersen et al., 2004) your muscles to continue working while
and is thus indispensable to potential you are exercising. Therefore, by
decisions influencing the promotion of definition, a VO2 max measurement is
health (Stodden et al., 2008). Health‐ ultimately a measure of your
related fitness includes, besides others, cardiorespiratory fitness level
aerobic endurance, muscular strength, (Heyward, 2006).
and flexibility (Hands et al., 2009).
Schools also provide a resource for This study only emphasized on the
measurement of maximum volume of Instruments for measuring the
oxygen (VO2 Max) rate through parameter
Cooper 12-minutes-run test amongst Bo Instruments such as the data collection
Commercial Junior Secondary School guide sheet, measuring tape, stop watch,
(JSS) pupils ranging from JSS I, II and pen and pencil, scientific calculator and
III in the Bo Municipality, Sierra whistle were used for measuring
Leone. This study also compared the recording and calculating the required
significant difference of VO2 Max parameters. The school register was
between boys and girls with respect to used to estimate the age range of the
their age range and class level. pupils i.e. JSS I, II & III.
Test Procedures:
Material and Methods
A well scaled 400 meter track was used
Selection of participants: to conduct the Cooper 12 minutes run
test and the pupils were given a trial run
The study was performed on both 15 on the first day of the exercise to
JSS boys and 15 JSS girls. The average familiarize themselves with the nature
age of both groups of pupils were of the experiment for few minutes
ranged from 11 before the actual time of the test. After
– 17 years. Both groups of pupils the familiarization exercise, the pupils
were from the same micro were asked by the researcher to queue
socioeconomic background and were up for an experimental start. The pupils
selected for the study on the basis of were then asked individually to run as
random sampling from JSS I, II and III many laps of the 400 meter track as
sectors of Bo Commercial Secondary possible for a maximum period of 12
School, Bo, Sierra Leone respectively. minutes. At exactly
12 minutes, the whistle was sounded for Statistical Analysis: The Pearson
participants to immediately stop Product Moment Correlation (PPMC)
running. Then total distance in meters Coefficient, Dependent t-test and
covered after 12 minutes by each Independent t-test were collectively
individual pupil was then recorded. used to analyze the data obtained
Below is the formula for Cooper’s 12 through a rearranged data collection
minute run test (Copper, 1968) that was guide that was originally developed in
used to predict the VO2 max of the 1982 (recently updated in 2005) by The
pupils who participated in the exercise. Cooper Institute in Dallas, TX to
Where d12 is the total laps of the 400 measure kids’ fitness and find out
meter track covered in 12 minutes. whether there were significant
differences in VO2 max rate between
boys and girls of JSS I, II and III
according to their age range. The results
were tested at p ≤ 0.05 level of
significance.
Results:
Table I: Pearson Products Moment Correlation Coefficient (PPMCC = r), shows the scores of ten (10) JSS I pupils [boys
(x) and girls (y)] in week one VO2 max exercise using the Cooper-12-minutes aerobic run test.
Age VO2 max. for Boys (x) VO2 max. for x2 y2 Xy
Girls (y)
10-11 31.4 30.5 985.96 930.25 957.7
11-12 35.0 24.3 1225.0 590.49 850.5
12-13 35.0 28.8 1225.0 829.44 1008.0
13-14 42.1 32.3 1772.41 1043.29 1327.53
14-15 42.1 36.8 1772.41 1354.24 1549.28
*∑ 189.6 152.7 6980.78 4747.71 5693.01
* (∑x)2 = 35948.16 *(∑y)2 = 23317.29 *r = 0.7341 *c = 0.8783
Table II: Pearson Products Moment Correlation Coefficient (PPMCC = r), shows the scores of ten (10) JSS II pupils
[boys (x) and girls (y)] in week one VO2 max exercise using the cooper-12-minutes aerobic run test.
Age VO2 max. for Boys VO2 max. for Girls (y) x2 y2 Xy
(x)
11-12 36.8 22.5 1354.24 506.25 828.0
12-13 40.3 19.0 1624.09 361.0 765.7
13-14 36.8 27.0 1354.24 729.0 993.6
14-15 42.1 36.8 1772.41 1354.24 1549.28
15-16 42.1 36.8 1772.41 1354.24 1549.28
*∑ 198.1 142.1 7877.44 4304.73 5685.86
* (∑x)2 = 39243.61 *(∑y)2 = 20192.41 *r = 0.6387 *c = 0.8783
Table III: Pearson Products Moment Correlation Coefficient (PPMCC = r), shows the scores of ten (10) JSS III pupils
[boys (x) and girls (y)] in week one VO2 max exercise using the Cooper-12-minutes aerobic run test.
Age VO2 max. for Boys VO2 max. for Girls x2 y2 Xy
(x) (y)
12-13 44.8 25.2 2007.04 635.04 1128.96
13-14 52.7 35.9 2777.29 1288.81 1891.93
14-15 50.1 38.6 2510.01 1489.96 1933.86
15-16 50.1 47.4 2510.01 2246.76 2374.74
16-17 55.4 46.5 3069.16 2162.25 2576.1
*∑ 253.1 193.6 12873.51 7822.82 9905.59
* (∑x)2 = 64059.61 * (∑y)2 = 37480.96 *r = 0.7442 *c = 0.8783
Table IV: Pearson Products Moment Correlation Coefficient (PPMCC = r), shows the scores of ten (10) JSS I pupils
[boys (x) and girls (y)] in week two VO2 max exercise using the Cooper-12-minutes aerobic run test.
Age VO2 max. for Boys (x) VO2 max. for Girls (y) x2 y2 Xy
10-11 41.2 39.5 1697.44 1560.25 1627.4
11-12 39.4 39.5 1552.36 1560.25 1556.3
12-13 41.2 39.5 1697.44 1560.25 1627.4
13-14 41.2 39.5 1697.44 1560.25 1627.4
14-15 41.2 39.5 1697.44 1560.25 1627.4
*∑ 204.2 197.5 8342.12 7801.25 8065.9
* (∑x)2 = 41697.64 *(∑y)2 = 39006.25 *r = 0.0000 *c = 0.8783
Table V: Dependent T-test (t) shows the scores of ten (10) JSS II pupils [boys (x) and girls (y)] in week two VO 2 max
exercise using the Cooper-12-minutes aerobic run test.
Age VO2 max. for Boys (x) VO2 max. for Girls (y) D D2
11-12 46.5 44.7 1.8 3.24
12-13 46.5 43.9 2.6 6.76
13-14 48.3 45.6 2.7 7.29
14-15 48.3 46.5 1.8 3.24
15-16 48.3 46.5 1.8 3.24
*∑ 10.7 23.77
*(∑D)2 114.49
*t-value = 10.249 *c-value = 2.776
Table VI: Dependent T-test (t) shows the scores of ten (10) JSS III pupils [boys (x) and girls (y)] in week two VO 2 max
exercise using the Cooper-12-minutes aerobic run test
12-13 55.4 37.7 17.7 313.29
13-14 55.4 43.9 11.5 132.25
14-15 55.4 48.3 7.1 50.41
15-16 57.2 51.0 6.2 38.44
16-17 57.2 53.6 3.6 12.96
*∑ 46.1 547.35
*(∑D)2 2125.21
*t-value = 3.728 *c-value = 2.776
10-11 46.5 44.7 1.8 3.24
11-12 46.5 44.7 1.8 3.24
12-13 46.5 46.5 0.0 0.00
13-14 50.1 47.4 2.7 7.29
14-15 50.1 47.4 2.7 7.29
*∑ 9.0 21.06
*(∑D)2 81
*t-value = 3.652 *c-value = 2.776
Table VIII: Dependent T-test (t) shows the scores of ten (10) JSS II pupils [boys (x) and girls (y)] in week three VO 2 max
11-12 49.2 47.4 1.8 3.24
12-13 49.2 48.3 0.9 0.81
13-14 52.8 49.2 3.6 12.96
14-15 52.8 51.0 1.8 3.24
15-16 52.8 51.0 1.8 3.24
*∑ 9.9 23.49
*(∑D)2 98.01
*t-value = 2.093 *c-value = 2.776
Table IX: Independent T-test (t) shows the scores of ten (10) JSS III pupils [boys (x) and girls (y)] in week three VO2 max
Age (f) (x) (y) f(x) f(y) (x-X) (y-Y) (x-X)2 (y-Y)2 f(x-X)2 f(y-Y)2
12-13 12.5 55.4 43.9 692.5 548.8 -3 -7 9 49 112.5 612.5
13-14 13.5 56.3 51.8 760.1 699.3 -2.1 0.9 4.41 0.81 59.5 10.9
14-15 14.5 59.8 51.9 867.1 752.6 1.4 1.0 1.96 1.0 28.4 14.5
15-16 15.5 59.8 52.8 926.9 818.4 1.4 1.9 1.96 3.61 30.4 56.0
16-17 16.5 59.8 52.8 986.7 871.2 1.4 1.9 1.96 3.61 32.3 59.6
*∑ 72.5 4233.3 3690.3 263.1 753.5
*t-value = 4.507 *c-value = 2.306
Table X: Independent T-test (t) shows the scores of ten (10) JSS I pupils [boys (x) and girls (y)] in week four VO2 max
10-11 10.5 53.6 52.8 562.8 554.4 -2.7 -2.2 7.29 4.84 76.55 50.82
11-12 11.5 54.5 55.4 626.8 637.1 -1.8 0.4 3.24 0.16 37.26 1.84
12-13 12.5 56.3 55.4 703.8 692.5 0.0 0.4 0.0 0.16 0.0 2.0
13-14 13.5 56.3 55.4 760.1 747.9 0.0 0.4 0.0 0.16 0.0 2.16
14-15 14.5 59.8 55.4 867.1 803.3 3.5 0.4 12.25 0.16 177.63 2.32
*∑ 62.5 3520.6 3435.2 389.94 59.14
*t-value = 1.084 *c-value = 2.306
Table XI: Independent T-test (t) shows the scores of ten (10) JSS II pupils [boys (x) and girls (y)] in week four VO2 max
11-12 11.5 59.8 56.3 687.7 647.5 -2.1 -1.9 4.41 3.61 50.72 41.52
12-13 12.5 59.8 55.4 747.5 692.5 -2.1 -2.6 4.41 6.76 55.13 84.5
13-14 13.5 62.5 58.9 843.8 795.2 0.6 0.7 0.36 0.49 4.86 6.62
14-15 14.5 63.4 59.8 919.3 867.1 1.5 1.6 2.25 2.56 32.63 37.12
15-16 15.5 63.4 59.8 982.7 926.9 1.5 1.6 2.25 2.56 34.88 39.78
*∑ 67.5 4181.0 3929.2 178.22 209.44
*t-v alue = 3. 459 *c-value = 2.306
Table XII: Independent T-test (t) shows the scores of ten (10) JSS III pupils [boys (x) and girls (y)] in week four VO2 max
12-13 12.5 62.5 57.2 781.25 715.0 -8.1 -6.7 65.61 44.89 820.13 561.13
13-14 13.5 64.3 58.0 868.05 783.0 -6.3 -5.9 39.69 34.81 535.82 469.94
14-15 14.5 67.0 58.0 971.5 841.0 -3.6 -5.9 12.96 34.81 187.92 504.75
15-16 15.5 67.0 61.6 1038.5 954.8 -3.6 -1.4 12.96 16.81 200.88 260.56
16-17 16.5 67.0 61.6 1105.5 1016.4 -3.6 -1.4 12.96 16.81 213.84 277.2
*∑ 67.5 4764.8 4310.2 1958.6 2073.6
*t-valu e= *c-va lue = 2.306
1.542
Discussion of Findings at maximum oxygen uptake increases with

age up to 20 years. Hence, there is a gradual
Maximum oxygen uptake capacity (VO2 decline in maximum oxygen uptake. Hagen
max) has been widely considered to be et al. (1993) and Biswas et al. (2004) also
reliable and valid measure of cardio suggested the same view, which state that the
respiratory fitness (Das & Dhundasi, decrease of maximal volume of oxygen
2001). The result of the maximum volume uptake corresponds to the advancement of
of oxygen (VO2 max) rate in the above age. The Pearson Product Moment
investigation shows an insignificantly low Correlation (PPMC) Coefficient, Dependent
VO2 max in the beginning of the session and Independent t-tests were used to
between boys and girls as shown in tables I, compare the results of the study. The results
II and III. were tested at (p ≤ 0.05) level of
This study mainly shows that maximum significance. Analysis of results from weeks
oxygen uptake (VO2 max) is known to be one, two, three and four shows both
significance and insignificance differences
significantly correlates with age. As
suggested by Astrand and Rodhal (1986), between the measurement level of VO2 max
rate of
above, age was observed to have a
boys and that of girls (JSS I, II & III) at the
significant relationship with the VO2 max in
beginning and at the end of the exercise
both boys and girls. Biswas et al. (2004) also
which is recorded as r values [(i.e. r values
noted similar type of observation. This study
ranging from r = 0.0000 to r = 0.7442)
also found that there is a very high
when compare with the c value (i.e. c value
correlation between the distances someone
= 0.8783)] as shown in tables I, II, III and
can run in 12 minutes and their VO2 max
IV; and as t values [(i.e. t values ranging
from t = 10.249 to t = 3.728) when value. The correlation coefficient between
compared with the dependents and VO2 max and 12 minutes run distance in the
independent c values (c = 2.776 and c- above investigation shows r values range
value = 2.306)] as shown in tables V, VI, from (r = 0.0000) to (r = 0.7442), and
VII, VIII, IX, X, XI and XII. dependent and independent t values range
In the concluded investigation analysis from (t = 10.249) to (t = 3.728) in case of
both boys and girls within the age range of
10 – 17 years at JSS level. However, Conclusion: Based on the findings of the
Cooper in 1968 observed that the result of study, it concluded that high level of
correlation coefficient was 0.90 with an age physical fitness requires a high VO 2 max
range of 17 – 54 years. value. The above findings further
concluded therefore that, boys have slightly
or equal cardiorespiratory fitness level
when compared to girls due to slight
significant or insignificant levels recorded
at p ≤ 0.05 during the analyses of their VO2
max status in 12 minutes run cooper test
with regards their age bracket and class
level. The study also concluded that
significant correlation coefficient was
found between age bracket and VO 2 max
value in both boys and girls. Since oxygen
is ultimately consumed in the muscles
during exercise, it follows that the VO2
max, when measured, will vary in
accordance with the specific form of
exercise performed or a total distance
covered as in this study with the cooper 12-
minutes run test.
In addition, the major finding in this study
shows that pupils (boys and girls) were
experiencing quick fatigue at the beginning
of the exercise which affected the low rate
of their VO2 max calculation greatly but
they had to overcome the fatigue as the
session continued into the subsequent
weeks thereby improving their rate.
time on the teaching time table for Physical
Recommendations: In recommendation, the Education and also to encourage more
basic aerobic endurance training is usually professionals of Physical Education be
sufficient for children especially at junior trained and employed to teach the subject in
secondary school level. The most effective schools for children to reap the full benefits
approach to improving VO2 max is by of improved VO2 max for physical fitness
applying the endurance high intensity and sports training.
interval training (HIIT), Tabata, Izumi; Acknowledgement:The author expresses
Irisawa, Kouichi; Kouzaki, Motoki; sincere thanks and appreciation to all the
Nishimura, Kouji; Ogita, Futoshi; & pupils and staff of Bo Commercial
Miyachi, Motohiko (1997). This can be Secondary School whose immense co-
implemented in schools during Physical operation rendered this study to fruition.
Education lessons, thereby allotting enough
Conflict of Interests: The author declared
no conflict of interests regarding the
publication of this manuscript.
International Journal of Advanced Research and Publications
ISSN: 2456-9992
5. Aerobic Fitness Levels Among Undergraduate Students Of A Nigerian University Using Cooper’s 12-
Minute Walk Test
Aerobic Fitness Levels Among Undergraduate Students Of A Nigerian
University Using Cooper’s 12-Minute Walk Test
Ogundipe Akanni Oluwadare, Ogundiran Opeyemi Olufemi
Obafemi Awolowo University Teaching Hospitals Complex, Physiotherapy Department, Wesley Guild
Hospital, Ilesa, Osun state, Nigeria, +2348034715715
akannioluwadare62@gmail.com
Obafemi Awolowo University Teaching Hospitals Complex, Physiotherapy Department, Wesley Guild
Hospital, Ilesa, Osun state, Nigeria, +2348052179148
femi_diran@yahoo.com
Abstract: The objective of this study was to compare the aerobic capacity of the undergraduate students
(non-athletes) of the Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria, with the minimum normative values of
aerobic capacity in non-athletes, males and females. The sample for this research consisted of one hundred
(100) undergraduate students of the Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria, with the age between
18-25 years. A post-test only design, involving the Cooper’s 12-minute walk test was used to evaluate their
cardiorespiratory fitness. Data were collected, organized, and analyzed using both descriptive and
inferential statistics. T-tests were used in testing the null hypotheses at 0.01 level of significance. It was
evidenced that the aerobic capacity of males was higher than females. Furthermore, the mean VO2 max
values in the male and female participants were significantly lower than their respective minimum
normative values. The outcome of the study suggested a low cardiorespiratory fitness among the
undergraduate, non-athlete students of the Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria.
Key words: Aerobic capacity, Cardiorespiratory fitness, Cooper’s 12-minute walk test
Volume 2 Issue 4, April 2018 6

www.ijarp.org
ISSN: 2456-9992
1. Introduction indirectly (field tests) depending on the prevailing
Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are currently the circumstances. This study aimed at comparing the
leading cause of death globally, with 18 million aerobic capacity (VO2 max) of the undergraduate
people dying from it in 2015 [1]. These diseases students (non-athletes) of the Obafemi Awolowo
usually have an insidious development, coupled University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria, with the minimum
with a long latency period that is punctuated by normative values of aerobic capacity in male and
acute clinical presentations such as myocardial female non-athletes, using Cooper’s 12-minute walk
infarction, stroke, and heart failure [2]. One of the test.
major risk factors associated with these medical
conditions is sedentary lifestyle [3]. Presently, there 2. Methods
is a global concern about the health risks associated A post-test only design was used, with the study
with obesity due to a significant increase in its population consisting of male and female
prevalence rate over the past three decades [4]. undergraduate students of the Obafemi Awolowo
Physical activities such as; walking, jogging, University, lle-Ife, Nigeria between 18- 25 years.
running, skipping, swimming, and cycling are all The International Physical Activity Questionnaire
forms of aerobic exercises that have been found to (IPAQ) was used to select a population of two
be effective in the reduction of excessive body hundred (200) apparently healthy students that are
weight and CVDs' mortality-rate, provided they are non-athletes, within the above age range. A sample
performed regularly. Generally speaking, the of one hundred (100) participants (50 males and 50
maintenance of an optimum health is important in females) was subsequently drawn from this
the prevention of CVDs in all populations, youths population using a stratified random sampling
inclusive. Therefore, an active lifestyle is key technique. All the participants duly completed the
among youths because regular exercise participation informed consent form after the study procedure was
as a youth increases the chances of staying carefully explained to them. Ethical clearance was
physically active and healthy during adulthood [5]. obtained from the Ethics Committee of the Obafemi
Physical fitness (PF) is a complex concept meaning Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Osun state, Nigeria.
different things to different people. It can be Specific parameters such as; body mass, height, and
described as an individual attribute expressing the blood pressure were measured before the
efficiency of a varied set of bodily systems and commencement of the exercise protocol. These were
functions to perform work in a wide-ranging set of measured in kg, m, mmHg, sec, and, m respectively.
contexts [6]. PF is made up of the health and skill The measuring instruments included; bathroom
related components [7]. The health-related weighing scale, stadiometer, electronic blood
component comprises of body composition, pressure monitor, stop watch, and an inelastic tape
muscular strength, muscular endurance, measure. The BMI was calculated for each
cardiovascular endurance (aerobic capacity), and participant by dividing the body mass by the square
flexibility. Balance, agility, coordination, power, of the height. The result of the computation was
speed, and reaction time are elements making up the recorded in the nearest 0.5kg/m2. The exercise
skill-related component of PF [7]. Aerobic capacity protocol was conducted on a properly marked
refers to the maximum amount of oxygen consumed running track for accurate distance measurement,
by the body during intense exercises, in a given and a total of three different phases were completed
time frame [8]. Its importance cannot be by each participant, which were accurately timed
overemphasized because it has the greatest impact with a stop watch. these mean BMI values at
on one’s health compared to the other health-related 0.01level of significance (p-value
elements of physical fitness [9]. Aerobic capacity is = 0.95).
usually assessed by the maximal oxygen
consumption (VO2 max), which could be Table F: Independent samples T-test for VO2
determined either directly (laboratory tests) or max
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ISSN: 2456-9992
These phases included; five minutes of warm up phase, test
Mean VO Mean
2 VO2
phase (twelve minutes of walk test), and seven minutes max of in max in df t p-value
Males Females
cool-down phase. Each participant was instructed 25.67 15.02 98 5.1583 0.000001
to cover as many distance as possible during the
test phase. The distance was measured
immediately after twelve minutes of the test
phase, and this was followed by the cool-down Table C: Descriptive Analysis of the VO2 max of the
phase. The aerobic capacity (VO2 max) of each participants
participant was calculated using Cooper’s Formula;
VO2 max = (Distance covered in metres - 504.9) ÷ Participants Mean VO2 max
44.73. ±SD
50 Males 25.67± 12.61
3. Results 50 Females 15.02± 7.06
The results are presented in tables A, B, C, D, E, F, The mean VO2 max of the male participants was
G&H 25.67 ml/kg/min ± 12.61 while that of female
participants was 15.02 ml/kg/min ± 7.06. Summarily,
Table A: Descriptive Analysis of the Age and the male participants were found to be older, taller,
Height of the participants heavier, and fitter than their female counterparts.
Participants Mean Age ±SD Mean Ht ±SD Table D: Independent samples T-test for BMI
50 Males 21.61± 1.99 1.71± 13.95
50 Females 20.20± 1.88 1.62± 6.62 Mean Mean df t p-value
BMI BMI
The study involved a total of one hundred (100) in Males in
participants (50 males and 50 females). The mean Females
age of the male participants was 21.61 years ± 1.99. 24.34 24.23 98 0.0634 0.95
This value is higher than the mean age of the female Independent samples T-test was used to determine the
participants which was 20.20 years ± 1.88. The difference between the mean BMI values of the male
mean height of the male participants was and female participants (24.34 kg/m2 and 24.23 kg/m2
1.71 m ± 13.95 while that of the female participants respectively). There was no significant difference
was 1.62 m ± 6.62. between Independent samples T-test was used to
determine the difference between the mean VO2 max
Table B: Descriptive Analysis of the Weight and values of the male and female participants (25.67
BMI of the participants ml/kg/min and 15.02 ml/kg/min respectively). There
was a significant difference between these mean VO2
Participants Mean Wt ±SD Mean BMI ±SD max values at 0.01 level of significance (p-value =
50 Males 70.02± 10.10 24.34± 6.08 0.000001).
50 Females 62.84± 10.35 24.23± 4.33
Table G: One sample T-test for VO2 max in males
The mean weight of the male participants was
70.02 kg ± Mean Minimum
10.10 while that of female participants was 62.84 kg normative df t p-
± 10.35. The mean BMI of the male participants VO2 max VO2 value
was 24.34 kg/m2 ± value in
6.08 while that of the female participants was 24.23 male max value
kg/m2 ± 4.33. participa in males
nts
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ISSN: 2456-9992
25.67 35.00 49 5.1781 0.0000 observation was the fact that these mean VO2 max
04 values in the male and female participants were
significantly lower than their respective minimum
One sample T-test was used to determine the normative values (35.00 ml/kg/min & 27.00
difference between the mean VO2 max value of the ml/kg/min), because an average healthy, non-athlete
male participants (25.67 ml/kg/min) and the male should have a VO2 max value of approximately
minimum normative VO2 max value of a healthy, 35-40 ml/kg/min while that of an average healthy,
non-athlete, male (35.00 ml/kg/min). There was a non-athlete female is approximately 27-31 ml/kg/min
significant difference between these VO2 max [11-12]
values at 0.01 level of significance (p-value =
0.000004).
Table H: One sample T-test for VO2 max in females
Mean Minimum
normative df t p-
VO2 max VO2 value
value in
female max
participa value in
nts females
15.02 27.00 49 11.8728 0.0000
00
One sample T-test was used to determine the

difference between the mean VO2 max value of the
female participants (15.02 ml/kg/min) and the
minimum normative VO2 max value of a healthy,
non-athlete, female (27.00 ml/kg/min). There was a
significant difference between these VO2 max
values at 0.01 level of significance (p-value =
0.000000).
4. Discussion
The main purpose of this study was to compare the
aerobic capacity of undergraduate students (non-
athletes) of the Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-
Ife, Nigeria, with the minimum normative values of
aerobic capacity in males and females who are non-
athletes, between 18-25 years, using Cooper’s 12-
minute walk test. From the above results, it was
observed that the mean VO2 max value of the male
participants (25.67 ml/kg/min) was significantly
higher than that of the female participants (15.02
ml/kg/min). The disparity between these mean VO2
max values was expected because gender is a major
factor affecting VO2 max [10]. The most remarkable
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ISSN: 2456-9992
5. Conclusion and Recommendations

The result of the data analysis led to the rejection of the null hypotheses. The outcome of the
study suggested a low cardiorespiratory fitness among the undergraduate, non- athlete
students of the Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria. It is therefore recommended
that students should participate more in sports related activities. Furthermore, more
awareness should be created among the youths about the dangers of sedentary living. Other
related studies should focus on larger sample size for accurate generalization.

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ISSN: 2456-9992
DAFTAR PUSTAKA
Prayuda, A. Y. dan G. Firmansyah. 2017. Pengaruh latihan lari 12 menit dan lari bolak balik
terhadap peningkatan daya tahan VO2 max. JP. JOK (Jurnal Pendidikan Jasmani,
Olahraga Dan Kesehatan). 1 (1): 13-22.
Ahmad, A., Azrin, M., & Firdaus, F. 2019. Tingkat Daya Tahan Jantung Paru Pada Pusat
Pendidikan dan Latihan Pelajar Atlet Sepak Bola (PPLP) Pekanbaru Menggunakan
Metode Lari 12 Menit. Jurnal Ilmu Kedokteran (Journal of Medical Science). 13 (2):
21-26.
Henjilito, R. 2017. Pengaruh Daya Ledak Otot Tungkai, Kecepatan Reaksi dan Motivasi
terhadap Kecepatan Lari Jarak Pendek 100 Meter pada Atlet PPLP Provinsi
Riau. Journal Sport Area. 2 (1): 70-78.
Langitan, F. W. 2020. Pelatihan Lari Aerobik 2, 4 Km dengan Takaran yang Sama di dalam
dan di Luar Lapangan Meningkatkan Kebugaran Jasmani Mahasiswa Fik
Unima. PHYSICAL: Jurnal Ilmu Kesehatan Olahraga. 1 (1): 15-19.
Millah, H., & Priana, A. 2020. Pengembangan Penghitungan Kapasitas Volume Oksigen
Maksimal (Vo2max) Menggunakan Tes Lari 2, 4 KM Berbasis Aplikasi
Android. Gelanggang Olahraga: Jurnal Pendidikan Jasmani dan Olahraga. 3 (2):
156-169.
Bandyopadhyay, A. 2014. Validity of Cooper’s 12-minute run test for estimation of maximum
oxygen uptake in male university students. Biology of Sport. 32: 59 - 63.
Lima, W.A., Bezerra, Y., Soares, V., Silva, I.O., Tolentino, G.P., Teixeira, J.S., Faria, M.R.,
& Venâncio, P.E. 2017. Body temperature and dehydration rate in adolescents
undergoing the Cooper’s 12-minute run test. Manual Therapy, Posturology &
Rehabilitation Journal, 15.
Carling, C., Gregson, W., McCall, A., Moreira, A., Wong, D. P., & Bradley, P. S. 2015.
Match running performance during fixture congestion in elite soccer: research
issues and future directions. Sports Medicine. 45: 605-613.
Joseph, B. S. 2015. An investigation into the measurement level of maximum volume of

oxygen (vo2 max) consumption using cooper 12-minutes run-test. Journal of
Exercise Science and Physiotherapy. 11 (2): 65-75.
Oluwadare, O. A., & Olufemi, O. O. 2018. Aerobic fitness levels among undergraduate
students of a Nigerian university using cooper’s 12-minute walk test. International
Journal of Advanced Research and Publications. 2 (4): 6-8.

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Pengaruh Latihan Lari 12 Menit Dan Lari Bolak Balik Terhadap Peningkatan Daya Tahan Vo2 Max Anggi Yuga Prayuda, Guntur Firmansyah

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Nama : Noviana Ayu Wulandari

Anggi Yuga Prayuda1), Guntur Firmansyah2)

HASIL DAN PEMBAHASAN

Tingkat Daya Tahan Jantung Paru Pada Pusat Pendidikan dan

Afandi Ahmad1*, Miftah Azrin2, Firdaus3

Keywords: Soccer,cardiorespiratory fitness, 12-minute run test, VO2 max

Frekuensi (N) Persentase (%)

VO2 Maks Frekuensi Persentase (%)

Baik sekali 1 4,2

Lama Baik Baik Cukup Kurang Kurang Total

ISSN 2527-760X (Print) ISSN

PENGARUH DAYA LEDAK OTOT TUNGKAI, KECEPATAN REAKSI DAN

Raffly Henjilito Universitas Islam Riau

HASIL DAN PEMBAHASAN

Tabel 1. Uji Normalitas Dengan Menggunakan Uji Liliefors

Kecepatan Reaksi(X2) 0,2346

Tabel 2. Test of Homogeneity of Variance

Uji Homogenitas X2 Terhadap Y

Tabel 3. Test of Homogeneity of Variance

Berdasarkan hasil perhitungan uji homogenitas varias kecepatan reaksi terhadap

Uji Homogenitas X3 Terhadap Y

Tabel 4. Test of Homogeneity of Variance

Uji Homogenitas X1 Terhadap X3

Tabel 5. Test of Homogeneity of Variance

Uji Homogenitas X2 Terhadap X3

Tabel 6. Test of Homogeneity of Variance

Rangkuman Hasil Perhitungan Statistik

Tabel 8. Rangkuman Dekomposisi Dari Koefisien Jalur, Pengaruh Langsung dan

PELATIHAN LARI AEROBIK 2,4 KM DENGAN TAKARAN YANG SAMA DI

Kata Kunci: Aerobik, Kebugaran

Kelompok N Waktu Tempuh t p

PENGEMBANGAN PENGHITUNGAN KAPASITAS VOLUME OKSIGEN

Pengukuran Volume Oksigen Maksimal (Vo2max)

Gambar 1. Norma Vo2max

pakar aplikasi android.

Gambar 3. Desain Halaman Menu Aplikasi

Gambar 5. Desain Halaman Penghitungan Vo2max Dan Tingkat Kebugaran

Pengguna dapat melakukan kalkulasi penghitungan vo2max dimulai dari 1 orang

Gambar 7. Tampilan Halaman Utama

Gambar 9. Tampilan Halaman Tutorial

Gambar 11 Tampilan Halaman Kalkulasi 10 Orang

AUTHORS: Bandyopadhyay A in terms of VO2max in sedentary male Indian youth.

Sports and Exercise Physiology Laboratory, CITATION: Bandyopadhyay A. Validity of

in the study group.

FIG. 3. Plot of difference between PVO2max and

Body temperature and dehydration rate in adolescents undergoing the

≤200 ml 12.80% None 79.50% None 89.7%*

Table 2- Comparative analysis of variables between trained and untrained individuals.

Match Running Performance During Fixture Congestion in Elite Soccer:

Alan McCall • Alexandre Moreira •

Published online: 19 February 2015

Abstract are critically addressed using findings from the

respectively [23]. In addition to the complexities of data interpretation

(moderate-intensity running) and [21.0 km/h

tions is important [24], larger-scale investigations (more match

observations, players and teams) are necessary to enable detection of

variable nature of match performance metrics [21]. The analysis of a

single team is also problematic in that several studies on match conges-

time–motion data from players who had participated in a minimum of 75

consisted of 6 consecutive matches separated by 3

reported lack of match-to-match changes in running performance.

Future Directions for Time–Motion Analysis Research

UEFA Union of European Football Associations

t-value = 4.507 c-value = 2.306

t-value = 1.084 c-value = 2.306