TUGAS 2 GEOKIMIA

Diajukan untuk Memenuhi Salah Satu Syarat Mata Kuliah Geokimia Pada
Semester VI Program Studi Teknik Pertambangan Fakultas Teknik
Universitas Islam Bandung
Tahun Akademik 2024/2025

Disusun Oleh :

Delina Mutiara 10070121095

PROGRAM STUDI TEKNIK PERTAMBANGAN

FAKULTAS TEKNIK

UNIVERSITAS ISLAM BANDUNG

2021 M / 1445 H
 TUGAS 2 GEOKIMIA
GEOKIMIA
2024/2025

Mata Kuliah : Geokimia

Kelas :B

Nama : Delina Mutiara

NPM : 10070121095

Tanda Tangan :
Delina Mutiara 10070121095

TUGAS 2 GEOKIMIA
1. Geokimia adalah cabang ilmu geologi yang mempelajari distribusi, komposisi,
dan sifat-sifat kimia unsur-unsur dan senyawa kimia dalam batuan dan mineral
di Bumi. Ini mencakup studi tentang sifat-sifat kimia dari proses-proses
geologis seperti pembentukan gunung api, pengendapan mineral, dan
transformasi batuan.
2. Geokimia tidak hanya terkait dengan pertambangan, tetapi juga memiliki
berbagai aplikasi di bidang lain, termasuk:
a. Geologi Lingkungan untuk memahami pengaruh limbah industri atau
pencemaran lingkungan terhadap lingkungan alamiah.
b. Geokimia Air dan Sumber Daya untuk menganalisis kualitas air tanah dan
air permukaan serta mendeteksi sumber daya mineral dan energi di
dalamnya.
c. Geokimia Sedimen untuk mempelajari sejarah lingkungan dan evolusi di
masa lalu melalui analisis kimia lapisan sedimen.
d. Geokimia Planetologi untuk mempelajari komposisi kimia planet lain di Tata
Surya dan benda-benda langit lainnya.
e. Geokimia Organik untuk memahami siklus biogeokimia, termasuk peran
organisme dalam siklus unsur-unsur kimia di Bumi.
3. Kulit Bumi terdiri dari beberapa lapisan, masing-masing dengan komposisi
kimia yang berbeda. Secara umum, komposisi kimia penyusun kulit Bumi
meliputi:
a. Litosfer
Terdiri dari batuan padat dan mineral seperti silikat, oksida, dan karbonat.
b. Astenosfer
Lapisan plastis di bawah litosfer yang terdiri dari material yang sangat
panas dan termoplastis.
c. Inti
Terdiri dari inti dalam yang padat (inti dalam) yang terutama mengandung
besi dan nikel, dan inti luar yang cair yang juga mengandung besi dan nikel
dengan sedikit belerang dan oksigen.
4. Sejarah Geokimia dimulai pada abad ke-19 dengan penelitian tentang unsur-
unsur kimia di Bumi dan meteorit. Namun, disiplin ini berkembang secara
Delina Mutiara 10070121095

signifikan pada abad ke-20 dengan kemajuan teknologi analitik seperti

spektroskopi, kromatografi, dan mass spectrometry. Penemuan isotop
radioaktif juga memainkan peran penting dalam pengembangan geokimia
modern. Saat ini, geokimia terus berkembang dengan pendekatan multidisiplin
dan penggunaan teknologi canggih untuk memahami proses-proses geologi
dan kimia di Bumi dan planet lain.
5. Pertanian Celtik kuno masih terlihat sebagai bank-bank dan lynchets di banyak
lanskap di Eropa Barat Laut hingga saat ini. Namun, pengetahuan tentang
hubungan antara ladang Celtik dengan tempat tinggal para petani yang
menggarap ladang tersebut masih terbatas. Penggalian sistem ladang zaman
besi pra-Romawi di dekat Aalborg, Denmark Utara, mengungkapkan sisa-sisa
sebuah peternakan (rumah panjang) dan ladang yang tertutupi oleh pasir
angin. Lokasi ini terletak di dataran rendah pesisir Holosen akhir dengan tanah
yang sangat homogen berpasir. Ini memberikan kesempatan yang sangat baik
untuk mempelajari praktik pemupukan prasejarah dan hubungan spasial
antara ladang dan peternakan. Penggalian arkeologi, geo kimia tanah, analisis
ukuran partikel, makrofosil, dan penanggalan radiokarbon digabungkan untuk
menetapkan kronologi dan sejarah penggunaan lahan situs tersebut. Hasilnya
menunjukkan bahwa peternakan tersebut didirikan sekitar tahun 400 SM,
sementara pasir angin menutupi ladang-ladang tersebut sekitar atau sesaat
setelah tahun 200 SM. Penyelidikan tersebut mengungkapkan bekas garukan
arit yang mencakup sebagian besar area penggalian, sementara batas-batas
ladang membatasi setidaknya enam bidang. Rumah panjang terletak di antara
dua batas ladang. Analisis ukuran partikel dari lapisan bajak pasir laut
mengungkapkan bahwa materi berlekah telah ditambahkan dari area hulu
yang berdekatan, sementara bank ladang merupakan campuran dari lapisan
bajak dari dua ladang yang berdekatan. Namun, semua hasil menunjukkan
kontribusi yang terbatas dari nutrisi tanaman, pupuk, dan materi berlekah yang
mempertimbangkan pertanian selama berabad-abad. Ladang-ladang yang
digali mungkin mewakili ekspansi yang berlangsung singkat dari ladang ke
tanah lebih marginal dan alami kurang subur. Meskipun demikian, ukuran
peternakan tersebut masih sebanding dengan rumah panjang lain yang
ditemukan di desa-desa kontemporer di daerah tersebut, menunjukkan bahwa
Delina Mutiara 10070121095

tanah yang miskin nutrisi tidak selalu berarti kondisi hidup yang buruk bagi
penduduknya.
 Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 49 (2023) 104042

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jasrep

Relationship between Fields, banks and farmstead at an early Iron Age site
in Northern Denmark
Karen Povlsen a, Søren M. Kristiansen b, *
a
The Historical Museum of Northern Jutland, Algade 48, Aalborg, Denmark
b
Department of Geoscience, Aarhus University, Høegh Guldbergs Gade 2, Aarhus C, Denmark

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Ancient Celtic fields are still visible as banks and lynchets in many landscapes in Northwestern Europe today.
Celtic fields Comparably little is known about the relationship between Celtic fields and the dwellings of the people farming
Soil geochemistry these fields. Excavations of a pre-roman Iron Age field system near Aalborg, Northern Denmark, revealed the
Manuring
remains of a farmstead (longhouse) and fields covered by drift sand. The site is located on raised late Holocene
Farmstead
Iron Age
marine foreland with very homogeneous sandy soil. This provided an excellent opportunity to study prehistoric
manuring practices and spatial relationships between fields and the farmstead. Archaeological excavation, soil
geochemistry, particle size analysis, macrofossils and radiocarbon dating were combined to establish a chro­
nology and land-use history of the site. The results showed that the farmstead was established around 400 BCE,
while drift sand covered the fields around or shortly after 200 BCE. The investigation revealed ard marks
covering most of the excavated area, while field boundaries delimited at least six fields. The longhouse was
located between two field boundaries. Particle size analysis of marine sandy plough-layer revealed that earthy
material had been added from adjacent uphill areas, while a field bank was a mixture of the plough layers from
its two adjacent fields. However, all results suggested a limited input of plant nutrient, manure and earthy
material taking the century long farming into account. The excavated fields may hence represent a short lived
expansion of fields into more marginal and naturally less fertile land. The size of the farmstead was nevertheless
comparable to other longhouses found in contemporary villages in the area, suggesting that the nutrient-poor soil
did not necessarily mean poor living conditions for the inhabitants.

1. Introduction
The Celtic fields of northwestern Europe is a widespread phenome­
non emerging during the the 1st millennium BCE, and in some places
centuries earlier. In the northwestern fringes of continental Europe from
the northernmost of France to Sweden, they are primarily recognized as
remains of systems of banks and lynchets delimiting rectangular or semi
rectangular plots. Some field systems evolved into large complexes of
several hundred hectares (Arnold 2021; Arnoldussen 2018, 2021,;
Brongers 1976; Hatt 1949; Johnston 2013; Løvschal 2014). Currently
the largest known system of Celtic fields in Denmark is from Silkeborg
Vesterskov, covering >300 ha (Nielsen et al., 2019), but even here only
parts of the original layout are preserved, and no settlement has been
identified. As means of subsistence, objects of labour and structuring
elements, the field systems would have been of great importance in the
landscapes and everyday lives of people (Løvshal 2014; Nielsen et al.,
2018; Arnoldussen, 2021). The spatial and temporal relations between
habitation and prehistoric agriculture uncovered within Dutch Celtic
fields showed that house sites often are placed in positions partly
overlapping banks (Arnoldussen, 2018, 312), while the picture from
present-day Germany and Denmark remains more elusive. Hence, new
evidence into the Iron Age relationship between the field systems and
other elements of the cultural landscape is highly warranted for
expanding our understanding of the late prehistoric social structures and
associated land use.
Methods for geoarchaeological investigations of ancient fields and
settlements are constantly evolving. Recent examples include multi-
element analysis instead of single element, often phosphorus and
organic biomarker approaches in the laboratory, but also fast and cost-
efficient geochemical methods that can be used on-site, and conse­
quently what previously seemed “empty” might now reveal valuable
information (Arnoldussen and van der Linden, 2017; Cannell et al.,

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: smk@geo.au.dk (S.M. Kristiansen).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2023.104042
Received 13 December 2022; Received in revised form 17 April 2023; Accepted 7 May 2023
Available online 26 May 2023
2352-409X/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
K. Povlsen and S.M. Kristiansen Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 49 (2023) 104042

2020; Sulas et al., 2022; Walkington, 2010). Our ability to study spatial
and temporal relationships of prehistoric field sites is constantly
improving but the success relies heavily on site formation processes, as
prehistoric fields are often located at the very soil surface since aban­
donment. In the fall of 2016 a developer-led excavation at Aalborg
Barracks, north of the city of Aalborg in Northern Jutland, Denmark,
uncovered >0,5 ha of a Celtic field system that was very well-preserved
beneath wind-blown drift sand. The opportunity to excavate larger areas
of a preserved prehistoric field system is rare in Denmark. The last time a
similarly large portion of a prehistoric fields system was excavated in
northern Jutland was during the excavations in Store Vildmose in the
late 1960s and early 1970s (Nielsen 1986; 1993). Apart from the Celtic
fields the excavation in 2016 also revealed remains of a longhouse. The
past half century has seen an enormous growth in the amount of data on
settlements of the Celtic field era in Denmark (Vinter 2011, 129). Very
few sites have been found where the spatial relation between the fields
and adjacent farmsteads could be observed, while notable older cases
exist, see e.g. Becker (1972); Hatt (1938, 120-166) and Liversage et al.
(1987). The Aalborg Barracks site is situated at a late Holocene raised
marine foreland near the protected fiord Limfjorden and therefore
provides the opportunity to study the impacts of prehistoric farming
practices on a naturally nutrient-poor and very homogenous sandy
parent material.
The aim of this paper is to investigate whether, and if so, how the soil

Fig. 1. A) location of the excavated site at aalborg barracks in northern denmark (red dot) with a digital elevation model and dominant soil types around the site
shown., and b) close-up of the study area. Notice that saltwater sand is present also where the background topography map is shown. Background map. Styrelsen for
Dataforsyning og Effektivisering.

2
K. Povlsen and S.M. Kristiansen
fertility of the field system was affected by the prehistoric manuring
practices, and how the longhouse, the fields and the field banks were
spatially related.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. The field system and excavation at Aalborg Barracks
The landscape around Aalborg in Northern Jutland, Denmark, is
dominated by chalk formations forming large hills. The chalk outcrops
are often overlain by glacial deposited sand, gravel and clay from the last
Glacial. The excavated site at Aalborg Barracks (Fig. 1) is located on a
late glacial marine sandy (Yoldia-Sea) plateau on the eastern side of a
chalk hill (Bertelsen 1987). The maximum elevation of Holocene marine
deposits are 7–8 m above present-day mean sea level (DVR90). At
around 500 BCE the coastline of the east–west orientated estuary
Limfjorden was situated less than a kilometre from the excavated site as
the isostatic rebound had prevailed over sea level rise for around three
millennia (Kristiansen et al., 2020a).
The archaeological excavation covered an area of c. 0.51 ha. In the
western and northern part of the excavation area a drift sand horizon
(denoted context A19) sealed off a prehistoric plough layer from later
cultivation phases. Throughout the entire area the prehistoric plough
layer was preserved to various depths, except where modern pits, drains
Fig. 2. Excavation plan with prehistoric field boundaries shown with numbers. The longhouse A50 is seen in the eastern side of the plan. Areas covered by wind-
blown sand are hatched, modern disturbances are grey. Samples from the fields are shown with symbols. Bulk samples for geochemistry: grey boxes (sample numbers
of samples mentioned in the text are shown), optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating samples: grey diamonds, flotation samples for macrofossils: black dots,
and charcoal samples for 14C dating: black stars.
3
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 49 (2023) 104042
and sewage had been dug. Directly under this prehistoric plough layer
ard marks could be seen in most of the excavated area. Field boundaries
were recorded, delimiting at least six fields, of which, however, none
were preserved in their full extent. In the eastern side of the excavation
the remains of an Iron Age longhouse were found (Fig. 2).
During the excavation the modern plough layer, the drift sand and
the prehistoric plough layer were removed in east–west oriented
stretches approximately 10 m wide. The emerging palaeo-surface soil
and the subsoils were photo documented using georeferenced photos.
Selected sections of the profile walls were documented via photos and
drawings. Samples for geoarchaeological analysis and dating were taken
in the northwestern part of the excavation, primarily in and around a
prehistoric field bank (Fig. 2). The prehistoric plough layer was sampled
for macrofossil analysis and a few ard marks were sampled for pollen
analysis. One pollen sample was analysed. This sample showed almost
no sign of cultivation and the pollen here could very well primarily
originate from the time before the field system was established
(Sørensen 2017). The remains of the long house consisted of post holes.
These were sectioned and the profiles were drawn and photographed. In
the profiles of the post holes in the western end of the house, traces of the
holes left when the posts had been removed could be observed. These
were sampled for macrofossil analysis and 14C dating.
Kristiansen and Ljungberg (2017) studied the site with optically
stimulated luminescence (OSL) ages of the sediment exposure time, from
K. Povlsen and S.M. Kristiansen
the very top of the prehistoric plough layer (Apb) and in the wind-blown
sand above it. This suggested that the drift sand layers have been
deposited at the same time as the last tillage operations. The OSL ages
were subject to very low standard deviations and the dating of both
layers to around 200 BCE indicates that the field system was in use until
it was catastrophically buried by drift sand.
2.2. Geoarchaeological analyses
At Aalborg Barracks, ten soil samples were analysed for their content
of macro- and micronutrients in order to provide a sufficiently detailed
description of tillage and fertilising practices on the site. The scientific
analyses of the samples applied the following methods: sample pre-
processing, total-chemical extraction of soil samples, multielement
analysis, dating and multivariate statistical analysis prior to geo-
archaeological interpretation of the overall results. Studies of changes
in soil fertility need a background level as reference for the natural sit­
uation prior to the farming activities. At Aalborg Barrack, however, no
soil surface with an un-disturbed surface was found. In order to assess
the Iron Age farming impacts on the soil geochemistry at Aalborg Bar­
racks a study site at Østerild 65 km to the west (Kristiansen 2015) was
included. Here natural uncultivated Iron Age soil surfaces below com­
parable drift sand were found and the parent materials and geological
history at the Aalborg Barracks and Østerild sites are largely identical.
Comparisons of soil geochemical properties between the uncultivated
soil at Østerild and the field system at Aalborg Barracks are hence
possible with some precaution.
All soil samples were pre-processed at the Department of Geoscience,
Aarhus University. The particle size analysis was by laser diffraction,
and presentation followed the Geological Survey of Denmark and
Greenland (GEUS) standards (Fobian, 2000).
The chemical composition of the soil samples was determined by
means of analyses using both ICP-MS (Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass
Spectroscopy) and XRF (X-Ray Fluorescence) methods by the Canadian
firm AcmeLabs. Prior to ICP-MS analysis the soil samples were dissolved
in a strong 4-acid mixture. The elements in sufficiently high concentra­
tions to be measurable above detection limits, and with sufficient preci­
sion in repeated analyses, were (in alphabetical order): Al, Ba, (Bi), Ca, Ce,
Co, Cr, Cs, Cu, Dy, Er, Fe, Ga, Hf, K, La, Li, Mg, Mn, Na, Nd, Ni, P, Pb, Pr,
Rb, Sb, Sc, Sm, Sn, Sr, Th, Ti, Tl, U, V, Y, Zn and Zr, while in XRF analyses
the elements were Al2O3, CaO, FeO, K2O, MgO, Na2O, P2O3, SiO2 and TiO.
A total of 13 samples from a larger batch was analysed twice and only
elements with a Pearson correlation factor of > 0.95 has been used. The
geochemical dataset was analysed using both descriptive statistics and
Principal Component Analysis (PCA). The latter method allows a better
understanding of large multivariate datasets than descriptive statistics
alone and follows the recommendations in Esbensen et al. (2002). Prin­
cipal components (PC) higher than 2 show no clear distribution of ele­
ments on the loading plots, nor do they separate the three sampling sites
on the score plots. PCs higher than 2 are hence not discussed any further.
Mann-Whitney test was used as a nonparametric test to compare
elemental levels in the reference site (Østerild) and Aalborg Barracks. All
calculations and figures of geochemistry were made in Python 3.6 (the
Numpy, Pandas, scikit-learn and Matplotlib modules).
2.3. Radiocarbon dating
The prehistoric plough layers were dated by 14C analysis of charcoal
fragments found in the soils. Eight radiocarbon dates of charcoal sam­
ples from the longhouse (n = 5) and the field system (n = 3) were ob­
tained from the excavation and calibrated in OxCal v.4.4 (Bronk
Ramsey, 2009) against IntCal20 (Reimer et al. 2020).
4
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 49 (2023) 104042
2.4. Macrofossils
A total of 33 samples of the prehistoric plough layer were subjected
to flotation. Sample distribution can be seen in Fig. 2. In addition, eight
soil samples from post holes from the longhouse were subjected to
flotation. Due to limited finds a cursory examination of the macrofossils
was undertaken by Moesgård Museum, Aarhus, Denmark (Mehlsen
2017). The samples were examined using a stereo microscope, magni­
fication up to 40x. During the examination the number of grains, seeds,
and pieces of charcoal were estimated. The grain- and seed counts are
shown in Appendix A.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. The fields and field boundaries - archaeological evidence
The ard marks covered most of the excavated area. They mostly
showed a crisscross pattern originating from ploughing in two to four
directions. Studies of other field systems have shown that the fields were
worked numerous times during the use time of the field systems (Liv­
ersage et al. 1987, 61; Nielsen and Dalsgaard 2017, 431). Field bound­
aries were observed as either parallel ploughing of at least 80 cm width
or a slim trace of parallel ard marks which do not seem to align with the
predominant ploughing directions of the field which it delimits, see
Fig. 3. The former has been observed at other prehistoric field systems
(see Becker 1972; Nielsen 1993; Mikkelsen and Bech 2018, 143; Runge
2009, 117). At the field boundary (evidence A70) a low bank could be
observed in the profile. The bank appeared as a thickening of the pre­
historic plough layer till double thickness. The fill of the bank could not
be visually distinguished from the prehistoric plough layer at either side.
Samples for geoarchaeological analysis were taken from this bank and
from adjacent prehistoric plough zones.
At the field system of Øster Lem Hede in Jutland the formation of
field banks has been studied (Nielsen and Dalsgaard, 2017). It was found
that the banks accumulated very gradually and that the material
constituting the banks came from the fields (Nielsen and Dalsgaard
2017, 427-428). Based on his observations in Store Vildmose, Nielsen
(1993, 114-115) suggested that the field boundaries could initially have
been marked by ploughing. In the case of field boundary A70 at Aalborg
Barracks the ploughing appears to predate the bank, as the bank was
partly situated on top of the field boundary marked by the ard marks.
What had originally marked the direction of the ploughing could not be
identified. As the bank accumulated, the field edge would presumably
move inwards on the field, in this case westwards. No traces of this were
left in the sub-soil. This may be due to later ploughings being less deep
than the initial ones. The field boundary (evidence A71) just east of the
bank was not covered by the bank.
3.2. The longhouse and the fields - archaeological evidence
The three-aisled longhouse (evidence A50) was situated in the
southeastern corner of the excavation (Fig. 4). Drift sand had provided
little to no protection here and the preserved prehistoric plough layer
was only a few centimeters thick. Nevertheless, traces of six pairs of roof-
bearing posts were found, along with some of the post holes which had
supported the small poles of the outer walls and two inner walls. The
house had been approximately 4.5 m wide. No gable posts were pre­
served. The length of the house is estimated to have been approximately
14.5 m. Signs of repair could be seen next to some of the roof-bearing
posts as they had been changed or supported by extra posts. When the
house could not be repaired any more, the inhabitants had moved. The
house was torn down which is evident from the holes left by the removed
roof-bearing posts. Large fragments of a pot appeared in one of these
holes. In the west end of the house, remains of a clay floor had fallen into
K. Povlsen and S.M. Kristiansen Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 49 (2023) 104042

Fig. 3. Part of field boundary A70 (seen from south east). A white arrow at the bottom of the photo indicates the location and direction of the boundary. The
associated bank below drift sand and modern plough layer is seen in the profile in the rear. The black holes in the profile wall are from bulk samples for geochemistry
(compare to Fig. 2).

Fig. 4. Overview of the three-aisled longhouse A50 (black postholes) situated in the southeastern corner of the excavation at Aalborg Barracks. Ard marks are grey
streaks, modern disturbance areas are blue, dark spots are postholes.

the holes left by the removed posts. Five samples of charcoal and charred
grain from holes left by the roof-bearing posts dates to around 400 BCE.
In an area just around the house no ard marks were preserved.
Whether this was due to bad preservation cannot be determined. South
of the house a band of parallel ard marks were observed (evidence A86).
The band was 3.7 to 7.1 m wide. The ard marks of the band shared the
orientation of the house. The distance between the house and the
preserved part of the band was about 3.3 m. Ard marks in the western
part of the band could indicate that the band may have extended into the
house plot before or after the existence of the building. A possible
interpretation of the band is that it delimits a wet area south and west of
the band from the dry land to the north. But a similar band has not been
found along the other edges of the wet area that bordered traces of the
prehistoric fields. The ard marks in the northern side of the band share

5
K. Povlsen and S.M. Kristiansen Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 49 (2023) 104042

direction and trajectory with the southern end of a field boundary (ev­ Kristiansen and Ljungberg (2017). Here, based on two samples, the
idence A80) and may have been a part of this at some point in time. The prehistoric plough layer was last exposed to light 2230 ± 110 yr BP
band A86 was significantly wider than A80, which indicates that A86 while the drift sand was dated to 2180 ± 110 yr BP. In absolute ages this
may have had another function at least during some of the formation corresponds to 323 to 103 yr BCE, and 273 to 53 yr BC, respectively.
time. North of the house another band of parallel ard marks could be Hence, the radiocarbon ages of the Iron Age charcoal (X05, X09) in the
seen (evidence A87). The orientation of this band did not fit the orien­ prehistoric plough layers are not within the uncertainty of the OSL and
tation of the house quite as nicely as the southern band, but the differ­ up to two centuries older.
ence in orientation was only around 10◦ . The band was approximately 3 Two of the five samples from the longhouse subjected to 14C analysis
m wide and delimited a field lying north of the band. The distance be­ (X72 and X73A) appear a bit older than the rest and date to a plateau of
tween the longhouse and the band was approximately 8.5 m. The dis­ the calibration curve (536–406 cal yr BCE and 724–412 cal yr BCE,
tance between the two bands was approximately 17 m. respectively). X70A and X71 (412–382 BCE and 489–388 cal yr BCE,
Even though the orientation of the house and the bands were not respectively) are much alike to the 14C dates from the prehistoric plough
completely identical, they appear to have been a part of the same sys­ layer while X76A (389–232 cal yr BCE) appears a bit younger. Consid­
tem. The house may have coexisted with the field to the north while the ering the house type the 14C dates suggest that the longhouse was in use
southern band may be a field boundary before and/or after the time of for a few decades around 400 BCE.
the house. At the contemporaneous village mound of Nr. Hedegård, even Overall, the dating of the field system, the longhouse and the drift
small plots of land between the houses were sometimes cultivated using sand layer indicate that the longhouse and the field system are even-
the ard. Fields and houses could be in quite close coexistence. Wide aged. In this case the OSL ages are considered most reliable of the
bands of parallel ploughing have also been observed at Nr. Hedegård, field systems last functioning/burial, as the sand particles were well-
but not in connection with houses (Runge 2009, 117-119). bleached and charcoal particles in soils have the well-known “old-car­
bon” problem. The field system may have been used for a relatively short
period of time only, 200 to maximum 400 years, before the sand drift
3.3. Chronology
rendered cultivation impossible, and the farming of the buried soil
surface was abandoned. A more detailed dating of the field system is
The prehistoric topsoil is dated by three radiocarbon samples
nevertheless highly warranted. Whether cultivation of what is the
(Table 1). Two of the samples (X05, X09) from the field system reveal
present-day soil surface was continued during the later stages of the Iron
Iron Age dates (404–386; 406–384 cal yr BCE, respectively) and corre­
Age is uncertain, as later truncation and tillage has eradicated all older
sponds to the dating of the nearby longhouse, while sample X11 dated to
traces in the present-day surface soil.
the Middle Neolithic. However, no other finds at the site indicate human
activity at this point in time, and sample X11 is not discussed any
further. As comparison, optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating 3.4. Addition of earthy material and deposition of drift sand
of the very top of the prehistoric plough layer and the drift sand
immediately above (sampling locations see Fig. 2) was reported by To investigate whether the prehistoric plough layers at Aalborg
Barracks received earthy material from areas with a grain size distri­
Table 1 bution that differs from the very homogenous marine sediment particle
Details of 14C dated material from site Aalborg Barracks. size, distribution analyses was performed on three representative soil
Sample AMS Sample type and Conventional Calibrated samples bulked west of the bank (evidence X07), in the bank (X12), and
14
ID lab. position C age age east of the bank (X16), respectively (see Fig. 2). Fig. 5 shows that all
number (BP)† (cal yr BCE)‡
three samples are very well-sorted containing very little clay, 15–25%
X05 AAR- Charcoal, A- 2325 ± 25 404 (68.3%) 386 silt, and 75–85% sand, of which only 10–15% is > 250 µm. Compared to
26162 horizon, NW corner other Danish sites at which Celtic fields have been investigated, the three
of excavation
particle size distributions are more fine-grained (see e.g. Nielsen and
X09 AAR- Charcoal, top of A- 2325 ± 27 406 (68.3%) 384
26162 horizon, field west Kristiansen, 2014) while contents of both silt and coarse sand in all three
of field boundary samples is higher than normally for the underlying marine (Yoldia) sand
A70
X11 AAR- Charcoal, top of A- 4698 ± 30 3521 (18.5%) 3496
26163 horizon, in field 3451 (3.0%) 3446
boundary A70 3439 (46.8%) 3378
X70A Poz- Grain, cerealia indet. 2335 ± 30 412 (68.3%) 382
92291 fragments in
posthole, longhouse
A50
X71 Poz- Charcoal in 2355 ± 30 464 (17.2%)
92292 posthole, Alnus sp./ 436421 (51.1%)
Corylus sp., 388
longhouse A50
X72 Poz- Charcoal in 2405 ± 35 536 (2.7%) 531517
92293 posthole, Alnus sp., (65.6%)
longhouse A50 406
X73A Poz- Charcoal in 2430 ± 35 724 (7.1%) 706662
92294 posthole, Alnus sp./ (4.2%)
Corylus sp., 651544 (56.9%)
longhouse A50 412
X76A Poz- Charcoal in 2260 ± 30 389 (30.7%)
92295 posthole, Betula sp., 355281 (37.6%)
longhouse A50 232

† Calibrated ages in years BP (before present = 1950) from the 68.2% probability
distribution. Fig. 5. Grain size distribution of bulk soil samples around the field boundary
‡ The 14C ages are given in conventional radiocarbon years BCE (before common Evidence A70, respectively west of the bank (X07), in the bank (X12), and east
era) with a measuring uncertainty of one standard deviation. of the bank (X16). Sampling locations see Fig. 2.

6
K. Povlsen and S.M. Kristiansen
(Nørnberg, 1977). Earthy material with a higher content of both finer
and coarser size fractions has been added to the prehistoric plough layer,
as also supported by a <1 permille of >2 mm grains found in the bank
and plough-layers soils only (Kristiansen and Ljungberg, 2017). The
bank (X12) contains a few percent more silt and clay sized particles than
the fields as revealed by the small “shoulders” here (Fig. 5). These very
fine fractions are either brought to the bank as sods from outside the
field system by humans, or they have been caught by aeolian transport
by vegetation on the bank. The latter possibility, however, is less likely
as such fine silt and clay will suspend in the atmosphere when exposed to
wind, while the gravel can only come to the site due to human activities.
Hence, earthy material from outside the marine foreland has been added
to both the fields and the bank. However, based on the data, we cannot
estimate the percentage nor origin of the “exogenous” sod material but a
<5% of the bank soil is an estimate.
Dercon et al. (2005) came to a similar conclusion in western Jutland,
at a Scottish and a Dutch site with Celtic fields: i.e. that addition of
earthy materials was a common practice at least since before the Viking
Age. In comparison, the Iron Age fields near Øster Lem Hede (Nielsen
and Dalsgaard, 2017) did not reveal any major components of earthy
material clearly originating from outside the site/field system; however,
the soil’ parent material here was very inhomogeneous. At another
Danish site with Celtic fields on Djursland, Mikkelsen et al. (2007) found
a homogeneous texture and a higher stone and silt-plus-clay content as
the only indicators of ploughing, but also that drift sand problems were
limited during the Bronze Age cultivation phase, while a major drift sand
event covered these fields during the later Iron Age cultivation. Another
study Liversage et al. (1987) from Lodbjerg, West Jutland, found evi­
dence of both sand drift and “sedimentation” during cultivation of Celtic
fields, but also of several catastrophic events later in the cultivation
phase covering all farmed land with thick layers of drift sand. A study by
Dalsgaard (2009) at Nr. Hedegaard on the Tranders Hill (10 km south of
the Limfjord) revealed major problems with drift sand during the Iron
Age cultivation. However, deposition of drift sand was patchy here and
the prehistoric cultivation could be resumed after a shorter period with
drift sand events. Here, finer particles were also found which were not
Fig. 6. Selected anthropogenic elements found at Aalborg Barracks and a comparative site (Østerild) with similar parent material and both natural soil and Celtic
fields (Kristiansen and Ljungberg, 2017). Please notice the different y-axes for comparison.
7
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 49 (2023) 104042
present in the parent material nor the drift sand, and hence interpreted
as “added with fertilisers and waste”.
In a regional perspective the drift sand event around 200 BCE at
Aalborg Barracks may fall in a period of increased aeolian activity. For
instance, Sjöström et al. (2022) found fourteen dust events since 3400
BCE recorded in a southwestern Swedish peat sequence, of which three
dated to 480, 340, 240–130 BCE respectively. At the Danish site of
Ulbjerg Klint, also in the Limfjord area, the first drift sand event
occurred at 440 ± 250 BCE (Kristiansen et al., 2020b). Neither of these
fit into the periods of major drift sand initiations along the Danish coasts
suggested by Clemmensen et al. (2009). Odgaard (1994) found syn­
chronous timing of relatively rapid inferred change in lake and terres­
trial vegetation around 600 BCE, that may reflect changes in climate as
well as in land-use. More OSL and radiocarbon dates are needed to
establish a more precise chronological framework for the settlement
history, field bank depositional histories, and the aeolian event(s) at
Aalborg Barracks before it can be placed in a regional human-
environmental context. The low level of addition of earthy materials
from adjacent areas to the investigated prehistoric plough layer at Aal­
borg Barracks seems comparable to other Danish Celtic field sites.
3.5. Soil geochemistry and evidence of fertilisation
This part of the study compares elements which are known to be
important to plant nutrition and may have influenced the prehistoric
field fertility and anthropogenic activities (e.g., Cannell et al., 2020;
Walkington, 2010). Furthermore, similar to other recent studies of
ancient land use and urbanisation (e.g. Sulas et al., 2019) the dataset
includes elements which do not immediately play any significant role for
soil fertility, but are indicative of the parent material and of the site
formation processes after abandonment. The full geochemical dataset is
given in Kristiansen and Ljungberg (2017) while only selected elements
are reported here.
Fig. 6 shows the content of selected elements that have either been
documented in previous geoarchaeological investigations to have been
anthropogenic added/removed (e.g. Grabowski and Linderholm, 2014;
K. Povlsen and S.M. Kristiansen
Sulas et al., 2019), or which are indicative of parent material variations
(Nielsen et al. 2019). At Aalborg Barracks, the prehistoric plough layer
A-horizon is enriched with soil P relative to both the natural soil and the
Iron Age cultivated soil from Østerild (Mann-Whitney p-value < 0.01).
At Aalborg Barracks, the median and average P concentrations are 175
mg kg− 1 and 182 mg kg− 1, respectively, while the corresponding values
are 70 and 80 mg P kg− 1 for natural uncultivated soil at Østerild, and
100 and 92 mg P kg− 1 for the field system at Østerild. These levels are
comparable to other Iron Age natural surface soils reported by Nielsen
et al. (2019). The P content of natural surface soil reflects the parent
material’s natural P level and the process of plants continuously trans­
porting P from subsoil to the topsoil, where parts of it bind irreversibly
to soil particles (Blume et al., 2015). Consequently, the prehistoric
plough layers at Aalborg Barracks must have been supplemented with
earthy material/fertiliser enriched with P, and the quantities of this
must have exceeded the quantities brought to Iron Age fields at the
Østerild site. The soil P content at Aalborg Barracks is nevertheless low,
compared to the site Alstrup Krat 40 km to the south (Kristiansen et al.,
2001). Here, P concentrations reach 300–400 mg kg− 1 in field terrasses
as high as two metres, even though soil P was extracted with a less
aggressive method, which means that P concentrations are under­
estimated compared to the present study. In comparison, the village
mounds at Nr. Hedegård contained up to 4000 mg P kg− 1 (Dalsgaard,
2009) which is similar to P levels found in modern agricultural soils in
the area. However, the average soil P levels in the buried Celtic fields at
Nr. Hedegård is 400–800 mg kg− 1 with the oldest prehistoric plough
layers down to 200 mg P kg− 1 (Dalsgaard, 2009). The higher soil P levels
at Nr. Hedegaard likely reflect that cultivation of the village mounds
lasted longer and/or was more intensive, while the practise of manuring
with P rich material at Aalborg Barracks seems comparable to the early
phase at the Nr. Hedegård site.
The prehistoric fields, at Aalborg Barracks as well as in Østerild, have
significantly higher concentrations of Al, Ba, K and Rb than the natural
parent material (Fig. 6) indicating that both field systems have higher
concentrations of alkaline feldspar than the natural soil. Furthermore,
the particle size distribution analysis (Fig. 5) indicates that mineral soil,
with a higher content of silt and coarse sand than in the local marine
sand, has been added. Both clay and coarse sand are found in glacial
deposits, and these also generally have a higher content of feldspar in
the sand fraction than marine and aeolian deposits. Since the hill west of
Aalborg Barracks consist of glacial deposits it seems probable that earthy
materials, likely as sods, from this area were imported in order to in­
crease the soil fertility of the naturally infertile sandy marine soils.
Concentrations of Ca, Mg, Fe and Mn do not reveal clear patterns
indicating human enrichments (Fig. 6). Therefore, variations in the
content of these elements are mainly attributed to differences in the
parent materials and soil formation processes. The metals Cu, Pb, Sn, Th
and Zn are all found in higher concentrations in the fields at Aalborg
Barracks compared to the natural reference soil at Østerild. These metals
are found as trace elements in various silicate and sulphide minerals
(Blume et al., 2015), and since their distribution is different from the
more commonly used indicators in geology as Al, it seems that these
elements have been added to the fields by human activity. Probably as
ashes from households. Previous geo-archaeological studies have
documented that Sr had been added to Iron Age fields (e.g. Nielsen and
Kristiansen, 2014) likely through application of bone material, but Sr
shows no clear evidence of enrichment in the present study.
3.6. Principal component analysis of soil geochemistry
Fig. 7a shows the score and loadings plot of A horizons at Aalborg
Barracks and the site at Østerild for comparison (see chapter 3.5). Here,
PC1 explains 60% of the variance in the dataset, and combined, the first
five PCs explain approximately 90% of the variance. Therefore, the
following section focuses only on the first five PCs. The score plot shows
that the PCA clearly separates the two field systems on PC1, while PC2
8
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 49 (2023) 104042
especially separates the field systems from the natural soil horizons at
Østerild. The loading plot shows three groups of elements. A large group
of elements (P, Sr, Li, transition metals, base metals and rare-earth
metals) have great weight on PC1, and low to medium weight on PC2,
where some of these elements have positive weight, while others have
negative weight. Two smaller groups of elements weigh heavily at each
end of PC2 and clearly separates the field systems from the natural soil
(Fig. 7a). At the bottom of the third quadrant the elements Na, K, Rb and
Ba are found, while Ca, Fe, Mg, Mn and V are at the top of the second
quadrant. The common denominator for the metals Na, K, Rb and Ba is
that they are virtually only present in feldspar minerals that represent a
relatively smaller part of drift sand, where quartz is more abundant.
These elements are generally present in more easily degradable min­
erals, and thus found in higher concentrations in unsorted glacial de­
posits than in drift sand. In the case of Aalborg Barracks PC1 it can thus
be interpreted as related to the addition of unweathered earthy material,
and/or to the distance of transport of aeolian particles, as longer salta­
tion transport of sand particles leads to increased physical disintegration
to finer silt sized particles, and thus aeolian suspension, of the less
resistant sand particles. Higher contents of Fe and Mn are typically
related to soil redox reactions and can hence reflect site formation
processes not related to Iron Age farming, while the Mg and Ca likely are
related to trace concentrations of carbonate residues. Thus, PC2 seems to
separate cultivated and natural soil related to the degree of weathering
of primarily minerals. The analysis indicates that prehistoric cultivation
improved the availability of plant nutrients and likely also affected later
pedogenesis as also found by Kristiansen (2001).
The PCA analysis of the fields at Aalborg Barracks only (Fig. 7b)
reflects that the two fields and the bank have different geochemical
properties, as the three groups are separated on PC1. On the loading plot
Si weighs very heavily at one end of the PC1, while almost all other
elements weigh heavily at the other end. The score plot’s PC1 clearly
separates the two fields at each end and the bank inbetween. A possible
explanation is that the prehistoric plough layers of the two fields have
not been amended with the same quantity of earthy material richer in Si
from outside the very homogenous marine parent material here. Inter­
estingly, the bank plots between the two fields indicate that the bank is
made up of composite materials. An explanation involving mixing of
surface soil from both sides, and not by exogenous materials brought to
this bank only, seems very likely. This observation warrants further in­
vestigations to be taken as common practice for Celtic fields in Denmark
but the methodological approach applied here seems promising. It
supports the finding by Arnoldussen and van der Linden (2017) from the
Netherlands that a composite sediment of agricultural sediments and
added manure was incorporated into the field banks, creating these over
the course of centuries. A similar strategy for improving fertility of the
plough layer, including addition of mixed animal manure, cut sods, and
household waste, have continued until the early 19th century on
nutrient poor, sandy soil in western Denmark (Dalsgaard et al., 2000;
Gormsen, 1991).
3.7. Macrofossil and charcoal evidence of manuring
Only one fragment of a cereal grain was found in the 33 samples from
the prehistoric plough layer. All samples contained charcoal and 21 of
the 33 samples contained small amounts of charred seeds of wild plants
(maximum c. 20 seeds in a sample of 3 to 5.5 L). These are shown in
Appendix A, Supplementary Material, Table S1.1. The identified plants
were curlytop knotweed/lady’s thumb (Persicaria lapathifolia/mac­
ulosa), goosefoot (Chenopodium sp.), buttercup (Ranunculus sp.), sedge
(Carex sp.), red sorrel (Rumex acetosella), spurrey (Spergula arvensis),
grasses (Poacae sp.) and aster family (Asteraceae sp.). In addition, a few
root fragments of tuber oat-grass (Arrhenatherum elatius var. bulbosum)
were found. All the identified species are common weeds in prehistoric
arable fields, though spurrey has also been cultivated (Mehlsen, 2017: 3,
Nielsen and Dalsgaard, 2017: 430). The seeds may have been removed
K. Povlsen and S.M. Kristiansen Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 49 (2023) 104042

Fig. 7. Principal component analysis shown as scatter and score plots based on soil geochemistry of a) the Celtic fields of Aalborg Barracks and the reference site’
(Østerild) Celtic fields and natural reference soils, and b) of the fields at Aalborg Barracks only from the two fields adjacent to one bank.

from the crop, lost and charred by contact with the hearth and in turn that household waste was actively transported to the fields, though it
spread in the fields with the household waste. Alternately, the charred cannot be ruled out that other longhouses outside the excavation area
seeds could be a result of clearance of the fields by prescribed burning could have contributed macrofossils and ceramics.
either before or at the end of a fallow period. The combined charred
macrofossil evidence suggests that household waste was added and/or
3.8. Fields, landscape and land use
burning took place during clearing of the fields. Studies of charcoal in
Celtic fields in the Netherlands indicated that charred wood was
On a regional level archaeological excavations at the Tranders Hill
collected as firewood rather than representing the burning of weed/
approximately 5 km southeast of the Aalborg Barrack site have supplied
vegetation on a field (Arnoldussen and van der Linden 2017). Thus,
a relatively detailed picture of the local Iron Age settlements. There is no
household waste must have been the main contributor of charcoal to
reason to believe that settlement and land use evolved differently at
these Dutch fields. At Aalborg Barracks, ten of the samples from the
Aalborg Barracks as only the narrow, navigable fiord Limfjorden set
prehistoric plough layer contained few and small pieces of ceramics,
them apart. Through the first millennium BCE, the Tranders Hill area
similar to what is found at other Danish sites (e.g. Hatt, 1949, Mikkelsen
appears relatively densely populated and the earliest known village at
and Bech 2018, Kristiansen, 2001, Nielsen et al., 2019). A soil
Nr. Hedegård was established just before 500 BCE. During the following
improvement strategy very similar to the Dutch cases may hence have
centuries (the earliest pre-roman Iron Age) small settlements at the
been practised at Aalborg Barracks but prescribed burning of the fields
Tranders Hill concentrated into villages (Haue 2012, 292-307, Runge
cannot be excluded.
2009, 35). At this time Haue (2012, 295) suggests that settlement den­
The content of macrofossils in the samples from the post holes of the
sity was at the same level as recorded in the earliest written census
house were not significantly different from that of the samples from the
dating to the 17th century CE. The entire upland was presumably in full
prehistoric plough layer. Considering this evidence, it can be argued that
use for farming (Runge 2009, 164-165; Lund 2009, 293; Haue 2012,
the charcoal, macrofossils and ceramic fragments could have originated
294) and Celtic fields must have dominated vast areas here despite most
from demolished house(s) and spread-out by subsequent ploughing of
of them being eradicated today.
the fields. However, the ceramics fragments were only recovered in
Nielsen et al. (2018) analysed the development of three Danish Celtic
samples from the western part of the excavation, and not in the samples
field systems by studying the relations between the field boundaries.
closest to the house. Even though more samples were taken in the
They found that the initial stage of the field systems included the
western part of the excavation (Fig. 2), this pattern should be opposite if
establishment of primary boundaries marking large blocks of land and
the waste was primarily transported by ploughing. The pattern indicates
the establishment of major parcels of 0.4–2.5 ha. The major parcels

9
K. Povlsen and S.M. Kristiansen
would either be a partitioning of the large blocks defined by the primary
boundaries or an addition outside of these. Afterwards the major parcels
were divided into smaller fields and fields could be added outside the
original layout. At Skørbæk Hede in Himmerland the field system
gradually expanded into a wetter area (Nielsen et al. 2018, 395-400).
The field remnants at Aalborg Barracks may represent such an addition
to an uphill field system on the Sundby Hill, hereby expanding farming
into gradually more wet and nutrient-poor soils in the marine foreland
(Kristiansen et al., 2020a). The evidence from particle size and soil
geochemistry of added earthy material originating from glacial deposits
indicates that people cultivating the Early Iron Age fields at Aalborg
Barracks had access to areas in the hills.
At the village mound of Nr. Tranders at the Tranders Hill, Haue
(2011) observed a division of status between the individual farmsteads.
This village was founded in the early Pre-Roman Iron Age around 500
BCE and had a life span of about 600 years. From the founding onwards
there appears to persist a difference in status between farmsteads with
longhouses with four pairs of roof-bearing posts and those with six pairs
of roof-bearing posts (Haue 2011, 90-96, Haue 2012, 136-138, Haue
2022, 133-138). The house at Aalborg Barracks had six pairs, but the
length of the longhouse was comparable to a middle status group with
five pairs at Nr. Tranders. To an Early Iron Age villager of Nr. Tranders
the longhouse at Aalborg Barracks would likely have been perceived as
an average farmstead. The location of Aalborg Barracks near the then
saline fiord (Limfjorden), lagoons and frequently flooded meadows with
good grazing for livestock may have helped the economy of the farm­
stead. At around 250 BCE it appears that settlements in the Aalborg area
moved even further into the lowland areas on the marine forelands that
continued to be formed due to isostasy (Haue 2012, 294, Kristiansen
et al., 2020a).
The levels of soil P at Aalborg Barracks indicate that the manuring
practice is comparable to the early phase of the fields buried under the
Nr. Hedegård village mound (Runge, 2009). Overall, the investigations
at Aalborg Barracks indicate that the Early Iron Age farmers here
improved the soil fertility, but to a limited extent only. The farmed soils
were naturally low in nutrient and plant-available water, and this,
combined with a parent material susceptible to wind erosion once the
vegetation cover was removed, led to drift sand problems within a few
centuries after the first clearance. It seems reasonable to assume that
Early Iron Age farming including preparation of seedbeds and maybe
burning, and thus frequent exposure of susceptible sandy soil surfaces, is
strongly associated with the sand drift problems. Though, our study
cannot conclusively establish any cause-effect relationship at a regional
level as data from the upland areas to the west are insufficient.
4. Conclusion
The excavation at Aalborg Barracks showed a single farmstead
established around 400 BCE at naturally nutrient-poor sandy soils that
may have coincided with the establishment of Celtic fields here. At
around 200 BCE sand drift in the area rendered cultivation impossible.
Such a short cultivation period may explain why Early Iron Age tillage
practices only seem to have enriched the fields with plant nutrients to a
very limited extent, but it appears certain that the capacity of the soil to
provide agricultural crops with necessary nutrients was very modest,
and that, consequently, the soil fertility was limited even after centuries
of improvement. Hence, similar to other Danish Iron Age field systems
(Kristiansen, 2001, 2015; Nielsen and Kristiansen, 2014; Nielsen et al.,
2019) it is not possible to document intensive fertilisation at Aalborg
Barracks, although the combined results strongly suggest that household
waste and earthy material from adjacent areas was added to the fields.
Macrofossil analysis of samples from the fields showed charred seeds of
wild plants and only a single cereal grain, although ceramic fragments
and macrofossils were not more abundant near the longhouse relative to
the other parts of the fields. This indicates that these materials were not
primarily distributed by ploughing after the house was torn down.
10
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 49 (2023) 104042
The particle size distribution and the soil profile morphology (details
in Kristiansen & Ljungberg, 2015) indicated no or limited drift sand
activity during the cultivation period. Drift sand problems seem absent
or very limited until around 200 BCE where one catastrophic event
covered many fields and must have left waste areas of eroded land
upwind.
The PCA analysis reflected that the bank was a mixture of the two
adjacent fields, indicating that the bank consists of materials thrown
onto it from both sides, likely in a similar process as reported from the
Netherlands (Arnoldussen and van der Linden, 2017). Based on our
limited number of banks, we cannot estimate a percentage of “exoge­
nous” material added to the field system.
Two different directions of ploughing along the field boundaries
were identified. The well-known parallel bunches of ard marks and a
slimmer trace consisting of ard marks bending in and out from the field.
Both kinds could be combined along the same field boundary. The plot
where the longhouse was situated between wide bands of parallel ard
marks to the north and south. Whether this has a direct causal rela­
tionship with the longhouse could not be established.
The evidence of addition of earthy material to the investigated Celtic
fields on the raised marine foreland indicate that the farmers of Aalborg
Barracks had access to, or user rights of, the land uphill. At the time of
the establishment of the farmstead early Iron Age villages were forming
in the hills around Aalborg, the entire landscape was hence probably
already being exploited intensively. The excavated fields of Aalborg
Barracks may hence be seen as an expansion of an uphill field system
into less attractive farm-land that previously was not cropland.
Funding
The excavation and the analyses at Aalborg Barracks was developer-
led, while the preparation of this paper has been supported by Dronning
Margrethe II’s Arkæologiske Fond (grant no. 13080–13-2018) and in­
ternal funding. The archaeological excavation, the archaeological find­
ings, the elemental data and PCA, the dating and the macrofossil
analyses have separately been reported in Danish individually previ­
ously, as this is required by Danish law when working with developer-
led excavations. References to these data reports can be found below
and in the main text when appropriate.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
The data are included while other background informations can be
made availble on request.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the entire excavation team working
on the excavation project: Lone Andersen, Malene Byø, Pia Katrine
Lindholt and Brit Vibe Smidt. Special thanks to Thomas Ljungberg for
help with writing the field report, and significant help and guidance
with the geostatistical and data analysis. Kristian Dalgaard is acknowl­
edged for discussions of the site formation processes. We are grateful for
the macrofossil work done by Simone Nørgaard Mehlsen, Moesgård
Museum, Aarhus, Denmark.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2023.104042.
K. Povlsen and S.M. Kristiansen Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 49 (2023) 104042

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