Momotarō
Momotarō adalah cerita rakyat Jepang yang mengisahkan
anak laki-laki super kuat bernama Momotarō yang pergi
membasmi raksasa. Diberi nama Momotarō karena ia
dilahirkan dari dalam buah persik (momo), sedangkan
"Tarō" adalah nama yang umum bagi laki-laki di Jepang.
Dari nenek, Momotarō mendapat bekal kue kibidango. Di
perjalanan, anjing, monyet, dan burung pegar ikut
bergabung sebagai pengikut Momotarō karena diberi kue.
Ringkasan cerita
Di zaman dulu kala, hiduplah seorang kakek dan nenek
yang tidak punya anak. Ketika nenek sedang mencuci di
sungai, sebutir buah persik yang besar sekali datang
dihanyutkan air dari hulu sungai. Buah persik itu
dibawanya pulang ke rumah untuk dimakan bersama
kakek. Dipotongnya buah persik itu, tapi dari dalamnya
keluar seorang anak laki-laki. Anak itu diberi nama
Momotarō, dan dibesarkan kakek dan nenek seperti anak
sendiri. Momotarō tumbuh sebagai anak yang kuat dan
mengutarakan niatnya untuk membasmi raksasa. Pada
waktu itu memang di desa sering muncul para raksasa
yang menyusahkan orang-orang desa. Momotarō
berangkat membasmi raksasa dengan membawa bekal
kue kibidango. Di tengah perjalanan menuju pulau
raksasa, Momotarō secara berturut-turut bertemu dengan
anjing, monyet, dan burung pegar. Setelah menerima kue
dari Momotarō, anjing, monyet, dan burung pegar mau
menjadi pengikutnya. Di pulau raksasa, Momotarō
bertarung melawan raksasa dengan dibantu anjing,
monyet, dan burung pegar. Momotarō menang dan pulang
membawa harta milik raksasa.
Urashima Tarō
Urashima Tarō adalah legenda Jepang tentang seorang
nelayan bernama Urashima Tarō. Ia diundang ke Istana
Laut (Istana Ryūgū) setelah menyelamatkan seekor
penyu.
Dalam catatan sejarah Provinsi Tango (Tango no kuni
fudoki) terdapat cerita berjudul Urashima no ko, tapi
menceritakan tentang delapan bidadari yang turun dari
langit. Selain itu, kisah Urashima Tarō disebut dalam
Nihon Shoki dan Man'yōshū. Cerita yang sekarang dikenal
orang adalah versi Otogizōshi asal zaman Muromachi.
Seperti lazimnya cerita rakyat, berbagai daerah di Jepang
masing-masing memiliki cerita versi sendiri tentang
Urashima Tarō.
Kehidupan Urashima Tarō di Istana Laut seperti
diceritakan dalam Otogizōshi dianggap tidak cocok untuk
anak-anak, sehingga dipotong ketika dijadikan cerita anak.
Pada tahun 1910, Kementerian Pendidikan Jepang
memasukkan cerita Urashima Tarō ke dalam buku teks
resmi bagi murid kelas 2 sekolah dasar, dan terus
bertahan dalam buku teks selama 40 tahun.
Jalan cerita
Versi Otogizōshi
Di Provinsi Tango, hidup seorang nelayan bernama
Urashima Tarō. Pada suatu hari, ia pergi memancing
namun yang terkail adalah seekor penyu. Tarō melepas
penyu tersebut kembali ke laut setelah teringat, "penyu
katanya bisa hidup hingga 10.000 tahun, kasihan kalau
dibunuh." Beberapa hari kemudian, seorang wanita
mendekati pantai dengan mendayung sendiri perahunya.
Seorang tetua meminta Tarō untuk menyambut wanita
yang ternyata adalah pelayan seorang putri. Sebagai
ucapan terima kasih atas penyu yang telah ditolong, Tarō
diundang pergi ke Istana Laut. Ditemani pelayan sang putri,
Tarō naik perahu menuju ke Istana Laut. Setibanya di
sana, Tarō disambut sang putri, dan hidup bersamanya
selama 3 tahun. Namun, Tarō ingin pulang karena cemas
dengan ayah dan ibu yang ditinggalkan di kampung
halaman. Sang putri akhirnya mengaku bahwa dirinya
adalah penyu yang pernah ditolong Tarō. Sebagai hadiah
perpisahan, sang putri memberikan sebuah kotak
perhiasan (tamatebako). Setelah Tarō tiba di kampung
halaman, desa yang dulu ditinggalinya ternyata sudah tidak
ada lagi. Setelah bertanya ke sana ke mari, Tarō diberi
tahu bahwa di atas bukit terdapat makam Tarō dan kedua
orang tuanya. Tarō begitu sedih, dan membuka kotak dari
sang putri. Asap keluar sebanyak tiga kali dari dalam kotak.
Tarō berubah menjadi seekor burung jenjang, dan terbang
menghilang. Dalam Otogizōshi, Istana Laut tidak berada di
dasar laut, melainkan di daratan atau di pulau lain.
Versi turunan dari Otogizōshi
Seorang nelayan bernama Urashima Tarō menolong
seekor penyu yang sedang disiksa sekawanan anak-anak.
Sebagai rasa terima kasih telah ditolong, penyu mengajak
Tarō berkunjung ke Istana Laut. Dengan menunggang
penyu, Tarō pergi ke Istana Laut yang ada di dasar laut. Di
sana, Tarō bertemu putri jelita di Istana Laut yang bernama
Putri Oto. Bagaikan mimpi, Tarō ditemani Putri Oto selama
beberapa hari. Hingga akhirnya Tarō ingin pulang. Putri
Oto mencegahnya, tapi tahu usahanya akan sia-sia. Putri
Oto memberinya sebuah kotak perhiasan (tamatebako),
dan berpesan agar kotak tidak dibuka. Dengan
menunggang seekor penyu, Tarō tiba kembali di kampung
halamannya. Namun semua orang yang dikenalnya sudah
tidak ada. Tarō merasa heran, lalu membuka kotak hadiah
dari Putri Oto. Asap keluar dari dalam kotak, dan seketika
Tarō berubah menjadi seorang laki-laki yang sangat tua.
Menurut perhitungan waktu di dasar samudra, Tarō hanya
tinggal selama beberapa hari saja. Namun menurut waktu
di daratan, Tarō pergi selama 700 tahun.
Dalam cerita versi ini, nasib Tarō selanjutnya tidak
diceritakan.
Versi Man'yōshū
Dalam Man'yōshū volume 9 terdapat prosa karya
Takahashi no Mushimaro yang merupakan prototipe kisah

Urashima Tarō. Kisahnya tentang Urashima no ko dari
Mizu no e. Sepulangnya dari memancing ikan selama 7
hari, ia bertemu dengan putri dewa laut bernama Putri
Penyu. Setelah akrab, keduanya menikah dan hidup di
istana dewa laut. Setelah tinggal di sana selama 3 tahun,
ia ingin pulang memberitahukan kabar bahagia tentang
pernikahannya kepada ayah dan ibunya. Sebelum
berangkat, sang putri memberinya sebuah kotak yang
disebut tamatebako. Setibanya di kampung halaman,
desa, penduduk desa, dan rumah yang dulu ditinggalinya
sudah tidak ada. Ia berpikir kalau kotak hadiah dari putri
dibuka, semuanya akan kembali seperti semula. Ketika
kotak dibuka, asap keluar, dan seketika rambutnya
menjadi beruban semua. Urashima no ko sudah menjadi
laki-laki yang sangat tua dan meninggal.
Kintarō
Kintaro adalah tokoh cerita rakyat Jepang berupa anak
laki-laki bertenaga superkuat. Ia digambarkan sebagai
anak laki-laki sehat yang memakai rompi merah
bertuliskan aksara kanji emas. Di tangannya, Kintaro
membawa kapak (masakari) yang disandarkan ke bahu. Ia
juga kadang-kadang digambarkan sedang menunggang
beruang.
Cerita Kintaro dikaitkan dengan perayaan hari anak laki-
laki di Jepang. Kintaro dijadikan tema boneka bulan lima
(gogatsu ningyō) yang dipajang untuk merayakan Hari
Anak-anak. Orang tua yang memajang boneka Kintaro
berharap anak laki-lakinya tumbuh sehat, kuat, dan berani
seperti Kintaro. Selain itu, Kintaro sering digambarkan
menunggang ikan koi pada koinobori.
Cerita Kintaro konon berasal dari kisah masa kecil seorang
samurai bernama Sakata Kintoki dari zaman Heian.
Menurut legenda, ibunya adalah seorang Yama-uba
(wanita dari gunung, atau yamamba) yang hamil akibat
perbuatan dewa petir Raijin. Kisah lain mengatakan,
ibunya melahirkan bayi Kintaro dari hasil hubungannya
dengan seekor naga merah.
Menurut catatan Kuil Kintaro di kota Oyama, Shizuoka,
Kintaro konon lahir bulan 5 tahun 965. Ibunya bernama
Yaegiri, putri dari ahli ukir bernama Jūbei yang bekerja di
Kyoto. Kintaro adalah anaknya dengan pekerja istana
bernama Sakata Kurando. Setelah mengandung, Yaegiri
pulang ke kampung halaman untuk melahirkan Kintaro.
Namun setelah itu, Yaegiri tidak lagi kembali ke Kyoto
karena ayah Kintaro sudah meninggal dunia.
Kintaro dibesarkan ibunya di kampung halamannya di
Gunung Ashigara. Kintaro tumbuh sebagai anak yang
kuat, namun ramah dan berbakti kepada ibunya. Setelah
besar, Kintaro bergulat sumo melawan beruang di Gunung
Ashigara.
Kintaro bertemu dengan Minamoto no Yorimitsu di puncak
Gunung Ashigara pada 28 April 976. Yorimitsu menjadikan
Kintaro sebagai pengikutnya setelah mengetahui kekuatan
•
fisik Kintaro yang luar biasa. Setelah namanya diganti
menjadi Sakata Kintoki, ia bertugas di Kyoto, dan menjadi
salah satu dari 4 pengawal Yorimitsu yang disebut
kelompok Shitennō. Ketiga rekannya yang lain adalah
Watanabe no Tsuna, Urabe no Suetake, dan Usui
Sadamitsu. Kelompok Shitennō disebut dalam literatur
klasik Konjaku Monogatari yang terbit sekitar 100 tahun
setelah wafatnya Minamoto no Yorimitsu. Ketiga rekannya
bisa dipastikan memang benar pernah ada, tapi Sakata
Kintoki tidak pernah bisa dibuktikan keberadaannya.
Pada 28 April 990, Kintoki berhasil mengusir oni bernama
Shuten Dōji yang tinggal di Gunung Ōe, Provinsi Tamba
(sekarang kota Fukuchiyama, Prefektur Kyoto). Shuten Dōji
perlu disingkirkan karena masuk ke kota membuat
kekacauan. Sewaktu menghadapi Shuten Dōji, Yorimitsu
bersama keempat pengawalnya (termasuk Kintoki)
menyamar sebagai biksu Yamabushi. Shuten Dōji
ditaklukkan dengan sake yang dicampur obat tidur.
Pada 11 Januari 1012, Sakata Kintoki, 55 tahun, meninggal
dunia di Mimasaka (sekarang kota Shōō, Prefektur
Okayama) akibat panas tinggi. Pada waktu itu, Kintoki
sedang dalam perjalanan menuju Kyushu untuk menumpas
pemberontak. Penduduk setempat menjadikannya
panutan, dan mendirikan sebuah kuil untuknya (sekarang
disebut Kuil Kurigara).
Kitsune
Kitsune adalah sebutan untuk binatang rubah dalam
bahasa Jepang. Dalam cerita rakyat Jepang, rubah sering
ditampilkan dalam berbagai cerita sebagai makhluk cerdas
dengan kemampuan sihirnya yang semakin sempurna
sejalan dengan semakin bijak dan semakin tua rubah
tersebut. Selain itu, rubah mampu berubah bentuk menjadi
manusia. Dalam legenda, rubah sering diceritakan sebagai
penjaga yang setia, teman, kekasih, atau istri, walaupun
sering terdapat kisah rubah menipu manusia.
Di zaman Jepang kuno, rubah dan manusia hidup saling
berdekatan sehingga legenda tentang kitsune muncul dari
persahabatan antara manusia dan rubah. Dalam
kepercayaan Shinto, kitsune disebut Inari yang bertugas
sebagai pembawa pesan dari Kami. Semakin banyak ekor
yang dimiliki kitsune (kitsune bisa memiliki sampai 9 ekor),
maka semakin tua, semakin bijak, dan semakin kuat pula
kitsune tersebut. Sebagian orang memberi persembahan
untuk kitsune karena dianggap memiliki kekuatan gaib.
Asal-usul
Mitos kitsune sering menjadi bahan perdebatan, karena
seluruhnya mungkin berasal dari sumber asing atau bisa
juga merupakan konsep asli Jepang yang berkembang di
abad ke-5 SM. Sebagian mitos tentang rubah di Jepang
bisa ditelusur hingga ke cerita rakyat Tiongkok, Korea, atau
India. Cerita paling tua tentang kitsune berasal dari
Konjaku Monogatari yang berisi koleksi cerita Jepang,
India, dan Tiongkok yang berasal dari abad ke-11. Cerita
rakyat Tiongkok mengisahkan makhluk huli jing (arwah
rubah) yang mirip kitsune dan bisa memiliki ekor hingga
sembilan. Di Korea, makhluk yang disebut kumiho (rubah
berekor sembilan) merupakan makhluk mistik yang telah
berumur lebih dari seribu tahun. Rubah di Tiongkok dan
Korea digambarkan berbeda dengan rubah di Jepang.
Tidak seperti di Jepang, rubah kumiho di Korea selalu
digambarkan sebagai makhluk jahat. Walaupun demikian,
ilmuwan seperti Ugo A. Casal berpendapat bahwa
persamaan dalam cerita tentang rubah menunjukkan
bahwa mitos kitsune berasal kitab India seperti
Hitopadesha yang menyebar ke Tiongkok dan Korea,
hingga akhirnya sampai ke Jepang.
Sebaliknya, ahli cerita rakyat Jepang, Nozaki Kiyoshi,
berargumentasi bahwa kitsune sudah dianggap sebagai
sahabat orang Jepang sejak abad ke-4, dan unsur-unsur
yang diimpor dari Tiongkok dan Korea hanyalah sifat-sifat
jelek kitsune. Nozaki menyatakan bahwa dalam naskah
Nihon Ryakki asal abad ke-16, terdapat cerita tentang
rubah dan manusia yang hidup berdampingan di zaman
kuno Jepang, sehingga menurut Nozaki merupakan latar
belakang timbulnya legenda asli Jepang tentang kitsune.
Peneliti Inari bernama Karen Smyers berpendapat bahwa
ide rubah sebagai penggoda manusia, serta hubungan
mitos rubah dengan agama Buddha diperkenalkan ke
dalam cerita rakyat Jepang melalui cerita serupa asal
Tiongkok, namun Smyers mengatakan beberapa cerita
berisi unsur-unsur cerita yang khas Jepang.
Etimologi
Di Jepang terdapat dua subspesies rubah merah: rubah
Hokkaido (Vulpes vulpes schrencki), dan rubah merah
Jepang (Vulpes vulpes japonica).
Menurut Nozaki, kata "kitsune" berasal dari onomatope.
Kata "kitsune" berasal dari suara salakan rubah yang
menurut pendengaran orang Jepang berbunyi "kitsu",
sedangkan akhiran "ne" digunakan untuk menunjukkan
rasa kasih sayang. Asal-usul kata kitsune juga digunakan
Nozaki untuk menunjukkan bukti lebih lanjut bahwa kisah
rubah baik hati dalam cerita rakyat Jepang adalah produk
dalam negeri dan bukan kisah impor.[3] Bunyi "kitsu"
sebagai suara rubah menyalak sudah tidak dikenal orang
di zaman sekarang. Dalam bahasa Jepang modern, suara
rubah ditulis sebagai "kon kon" atau "gon gon".
Asal-usul nama "kitsune" dikisahkan dalam dongeng tertua
yang hingga sekarang masih sering diceritakan orang, tapi
mengandung penjelasan etimologi yang sekarang
dianggap tidak benar. Berbeda dengan sebagian besar
dongeng yang menceritakan kitsune bisa berubah wujud
menjadi wanita dan menikah dengan manusia, dongeng
berikut ini tidak berakhir tragis.
Pria bernama Ono asal Mino (menurut legenda kuno
Jepang tahun 545), menghabiskan musim demi musim
berkhayal tentang wanita cantik yang sesuai dengan
seleranya. Di suatu senja, Ono bertemu dengan wanita
idealnya di padang rumput yang luas, dan mereka berdua
akhirnya menikah. Bersamaan dengan kelahiran putra
pertama mereka, anjing yang dipelihara Ono juga
melahirkan. Anak anjing yang dilahirkan tumbuh sebagai
anjing yang semakin hari semakin galak terhadap istri Ono.
Permohonan sang istri untuk membunuh anjing galak
tersebut ditolak Ono. Pada akhirnya di suatu hari, si anjing
galak tersebut menyerang istri Ono dengan ganas. Istri
Ono begitu ketakutan hingga berubah bentuk menjadi
rubah, meloncat pagar dan kabur.
"Istriku, kau mungkin seekor rubah," begitu Ono
memanggil-manggil istrinya agar pulang, "tapi kau tetap ibu
dari anakku dan aku cinta padamu. Pulanglah bila kau
berkenan, aku selalu menunggumu."
Sang istri akhirnya pulang ke rumah di setiap senja, dan
tidur di pelukan Ono.
Istilah "kitsune" merupakan sebutan untuk siluman rubah
yang pulang ke rumah suami sebagai wanita di senja hari,
tapi pergi di pagi hari sebagai rubah. Dalam bahasa
Jepang kuno, kata "kitsu-ne" berarti "datang dan tidur",
sedangkan kata "ki-tsune" berarti "selalu datang".
Deskripsi
Kitsune dipercaya memiliki kecerdasan super, kekuatan
sihir, dan panjang umur. Sebagai sejenis yōkai atau
makhluk halus, "kitsune" sering dijelaskan sebagai "arwah
rubah" tapi bukan hantu, dan bentuk fisiknya tidak berbeda
dengan rubah biasa. Semua rubah yang panjang umur juga
dipercaya memiliki kemampuan supranatural.[5]
Kitsune digolongkan menjadi dua kelompok besar.
Kelompok zenko yang terdiri dari rubah baik hati yang
bersifat kedewaan (sering disebut rubah Inari), dan
kelompok rubah padang rumput (yako) yang suka
mempermainkan manusia dan bahkan bersifat jahat.Tradisi
berbagai daerah di Jepang juga masih mengelompokkan
kitsune lebih jauh lagi. Arwah rubah tak kasat mata yang
disebut ninko misalnya, hanya bisa dilihat manusia yang
sedang kerasukan ninko. Tradisi lain mengelompokkan
kitsune ke dalam salah satu dari 13 jenis kitsune
berdasarkan kemampuan supranatural yang dimiliki.
Secara fisik, kitsune dipercaya bisa memiliki hingga 9 ekor.
Jumlah ekor yang semakin banyak biasanya menunjukkan
rubah yang makin tua tapi semakin kuat. Beberapa cerita
rakyat bahkan mengatakan ekor rubah hanya tumbuh kalau
rubah tersebut sudah berumur 1.000 tahun.
Dalam cerita rakyat, kitsune sering digambarkan berekor
satu, lima, tujuh, atau sembilan.Ketika kitsune
mendapatkan ekornya yang ke-9, bulu kitsune menjadi
berwarna putih atau emas. Kitsune jenis ini disebut kyūbi
no kitsune (kitsune berekor sembilan) dan memiliki
kemampuan untuk mendengar dan melihat segala
peristiwa yang terjadi di dunia. Dongeng lain
menggambarkan mereka sebagai makhluk super bijak dan
serba tahu.
Kitsune bisa berubah wujud menjadi manusia dan
kemampuan ini baru didapat setelah kitsune mencapai usia
tertentu (biasanya 100 tahun), walaupun beberapa cerita
mengatakan 50 tahun. Siluman rubah harus meletakkan
sejenis tanaman alang-alang yang tumbuh di dekat air,
daun yang lebar, atau tengkorak di atas kepalanya
sebagai syarat perubahan wujud.[17] Rubah bisa berubah
wujud menjadi wanita cantik, anak perempuan, atau lelaki
tua. Perubahan wujud ini tidak dibatasi umur atau jenis
kelamin rubah, [5] dan kitsune dapat menjadi kembaran dari
sosok orang tertentu. Rubah sangat terkenal dengan
kemampuan berubah wujud sebagai wanita cantik. Di
abad pertengahan, orang Jepang percaya kalau ada
wanita yang sedang berada sendirian di saat senja atau
malam hari kemungkinan adalah seekor rubah.
Dalam beberapa cerita, kitsune memiliki kesulitan dalam
menyembunyikan ekornya ketika sedang menyamar
menjadi manusia. Kitsune sering ketahuan sedang
mencari-cari ekornya, mungkin kalau rubah sedang mabuk
atau kurang hati-hati. Kelemahan ini bisa digunakan untuk
memastikan manusia yang sedang dilihat adalah siluman
kitsune.
Berbagai variasi cerita mengisahkan kitsune sebagai
makhluk yang masih mempertahankan ciri-ciri khas rubah,
seperti tubuh yang bermantelkan bulu-bulu halus,
bayangan siluman kitsune yang sama seperti bayangan
rubah, atau siluman kitsune yang terlihat sebagai rubah
ketika sedang berkaca. Istilah "kitsune-gao" (muka kitsune)
digunakan di Jepang untuk menyebut wanita yang
berwajah sempit, mata yang berdekatan, alis mata yang
tipis, dan tulang pipi yang tinggi. Di zaman dulu, wanita
bermuka kitsune-gao dianggap cantik, dan dipercaya
sebagai rubah yang sedang berubah wujud sebagai wanita
dalam beberapa dongeng. Kitsune takut dan sangat benci
pada anjing, bahkan ketika sedang berubah wujud sebagai
manusia. Sebagian kitsune bahkan gemetaran kalau
melihat anjing, kembali berubah wujud menjadi rubah dan
lari pontang-panting. Orang yang taat dan berbakti
kabarnya gampang mengenali siluman rubah.
Salah satu cerita rakyat mengisahkan ketidaksempurnaan
perubahan wujud seekor kitsune yang sedang menjadi
manusia bernama Koan. Menurut cerita, Koan yang bijak
dan memiliki kekuatan sihir sedang mau mandi di rumah
salah seorang muridnya. Air mandi ternyata dimasak
terlalu panas, dan kaki Koan melepuh ketika masuk ke bak
mandi. "Koan yang sedang kesakitan, lari keluar dari
kamar mandi telanjang. Orang-orang di rumah yang
melihatnya terkejut. Sekujur badan Koan ternyata
ditumbuhi bulu seperti mantel, berikut ekor dari seekor
rubah. Koan lalu berubah wujud di hadapan murid-
muridnya menjadi seekor rubah tua dan melarikan diri."
Kemampuan supranatural lain yang dimiliki kitsune, antara
lain: mulut dan ekor yang bisa mengeluarkan api atau petir
(dikenal sebagai kitsune-bi yang secara harafiah berarti
"api kitsune"), membuat manusia kerasukan, memberi
pesan di dalam mimpi orang agar melakukan sesuatu,
terbang, tak kasat mata, dan menciptakan ilusi yang begitu
mendetil hingga tidak bisa dibedakan dari kenyataan.Pada
beberapa cerita, kitsune bahkan memiliki kekuatan yang
lebih besar lagi, sampai bisa mengubah ruang dan waktu,
membuat orang menjadi marah, atau berubah menjadi
bentuk-bentuk yang fantastis, seperti pohon yang sangat
tinggi atau sebagai bulan kedua di langit. Kitsune lainnya
memiliki ciri-ciri yang mengingatkan orang pada vampir
atau succubus dan memangsa roh manusia, biasanya
melalui kontak seks.
Kitsunetsuki
Istilah kitsunetsuki secara harafiah berarti kerasukan
kitsune. Korban biasanya wanita muda yang kemasukan
kitsune dari bagian kuku jari atau melalui bagian buah
dada. Pada beberapa kasus, wajah korban konon berubah
sedemikian rupa hingga menyerupai rubah. Menurut tradisi
di Jepang, kalau orang Jepang yang buta huruf sedang
kerasukan kitsune, orang tersebut bisa melek huruf untuk
sementara waktu.
Ahli cerita rakyat Lafcadio Hearn mengisahkan peristiwa
kerasukan kitsune dalam volume pertama buku karyanya
Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan:
Aneh memang kegilaan orang yang dirasuki iblis rubah.
Kadang-kadang mereka berlarian telanjang sambil
berteriak-teriak di jalanan. Kadang-kadang mereka tidur-
tiduran dengan mulut berbuih dan menyalak seperti rubah.
Dan di bagian tubuh orang yang kerasukan, terlihat
benjolan yang bergerak-gerak di bawah kulit yang
kelihatannya memiliki nyawa sendiri. Bila ditusuk dengan
jarum, benjolan tersebut langsung berpindah ke tempat
lain. Benjolan tidak bisa dicengkeram, lepas bila ditekan
dengan tangan yang kuat dan lolos dari jari-jari. Orang
yang sedang kerasukan kabarnya bisa berbicara dan
menulis bahasa yang mereka tidak kuasai sebelum
kerasukan. Mereka hanya memakan makanan yang
dipercaya disenangi rubah, seperti — tahu, aburagé,
azukimeshi, dan lain lain. Mereka juga makan banyak
sekali dan membela diri bahwa yang sedang makan itu
bukan mereka, tapi arwah rubah.
Lafcadio Hearn menambahkan bahwa orang yang sudah
terbebas dari kerasukan kitsune bakal tidak doyan lagi
makan tahu aburage, azukimeshi, atau makanan lain yang
digemari rubah.
Upacara mengusir setan dilakukan di kuil-kuil Inari untuk
membujuk kitsune agar mau keluar dari tubuh orang yang
sedang dimasukinya. Di zaman dulu, kalau usaha lemah
lembut membujuk rubah tidak berhasil atau pendeta
kebetulan tidak ada, korban kitsunetsuki dipukuli atau
dibakar sampai terluka parah agar kitsune mau keluar.
Kalau ada seorang anggota keluarga yang kerasukan,
seluruh anggota keluarga korban diasingkan oleh
masyarakat.
Di Jepang, kerasukan kitsune (kitsunetsuki) sudah
dianggap sebagai penyakit sejak zaman Heian dan
merupakan diagnosis umum untuk gejala penyakit mental
hingga di awal abad ke-20. Kerasukan digunakan sebagai
penjelasan kelakuan abnormal dari penderita. Di akhir abad
ke-19, Dr. Shunichi Shimamura mencatat beberapa gejala
penyakit yang disebabkan demam sering dianggap
sebagai kitsunetsuki.
Dalam istilah kedokteran, kerasukan kitsune merupakan
gejala penyakit mental yang khas dalam kebudayaan
Jepang. Pasien percaya dirinya sedang dirasuki rubah.[35]
Gejala kerasukan kitsune di antaranya selalu ingin makan
nasi atau kacang azuki, bengong, gelisah, dan
menghindari tatapan mata orang lain. Penyakit kerasukan
kitsune mirip tapi berbeda jauh dari lycanthropy (manusia
serigala).
Hoshi no tama
Penggambaran kitsune dan korbannya sering
mengikutsertakan benda putih yang disebut "bola bintang"
(hoshi no tama) berbentuk bulat atau seperti bawang.
Dalam dongeng, permata hoshi no tama berselimutkan api
disebut kitsune-bi (api rubah). Di dalam sebagian cerita,
hoshi no tama digambarkan sebagai mutiara atau permata
yang memiliki kekuatan sihir. Ketika sedang tidak berubah
wujud menjadi manusia atau merasuki manusia, kitsune
menggigit hoshi no tama atau membawanya di bagian
ekor. Permata merupakan simbol yang lazim ditemukan
pada Inari, dan rubah suci Inari sangat jarang
digambarkan tidak memiliki permata.
Sebagian orang percaya, sebagian kekuatan kitsune
berada di dalam permata "bola bintang" ketika kitsune
berubah wujud. Cerita lain menggambarkan mutiara
sebagai perlambang nyawa kitsune. Kitsune akan mati jika
terlalu lama terpisah dari mutiaranya. Orang yang berhasil
mengambil bola kitsune, kabarnya bisa menukar bola
tersebut dengan kekuatan sihir yang dimiliki kitsune.
Dalam dongeng abad ke-12, seorang laki-laki berhasil
mengambil bola kitsune dan mendapat imbalan ketika
mengembalikannya:
"Kau terkutuk!" maki sang rubah. "Kembalikan bolaku!"
Tapi laki-laki itu mengabaikan permohonan kitsune, hingga
kitsune berkata sambil menangis, "Baiklah, kau boleh
ambil bolaku, tapi bola tersebut bakal tidak ada gunanya
buat kau, kalau kau tidak tahu cara menggunakannya.
Bagiku, bola itu adalah segala-galanya. Aku peringatkan,
kalau kau tidak mau mengembalikannya, kau bakalan jadi
musuhku selamanya. Tapi bila kau mau
mengembalikannya, aku akan terus mendampingimu
bagaikan dewa pelindung." Nyawa laki-laki tersebut
kemudian diselamatkan sang rubah yang membantunya
melawan gerombolan bandit.
Penggambaran
Pelayan Inari
Dalam kepercayaan Shinto, kitsune sering dikaitkan
dengan Inari. Hubungan antara Inari dan kitsune makin
memperkuat kedudukan kitsune dalam dunia supranatural.
Kitsune mulanya merupakan pembawa pesan yang
bertugas bagi dewa Inari, tapi garis pemisah antara Inari
dan kitsune makin kabur sehingga Inari digambarkan
sebagai seekor rubah. Kuil Shinto yang memuliakan Inari
disebut kuil Inari, tempat orang memberikan sesajen.
Kitsune kabarnya suka sekali makan potongan tahu goreng
aburage. Kitsune makan aburage yang biasa diletakkan di
atas masakan mi Jepang yang disebut Kitsune Udon dan
Kitsune Soba. Sejenis sushi yang dimasukkan di dalam
kantong dari aburage disebut Inari-zushi. Ahli cerita rakyat
sering berspekulasi tentang keberadaan kepercayaan
rubah yang lain, karena rubah sejak dulu sudah dipuja
sebagai Kami.
Kitsune di kuil Inari berwarna putih yang merupakan warna
pertanda baik. Mereka dipercaya memiliki kekuatan untuk
menangkal iblis, dan kadang-kadang bertugas sebagai
pelindung arwah. Selain berjaga-jaga di kuil Inari, kitsune
diminta agar melindungi penduduk setempat dari rubah liar
(''nogitsune) yang suka membuat keonaran. Sama seperti
kitsune berwarna putih, kitsune berwarna hitam dan kitsune
berekor sembilan juga dianggap pertanda baik.
Menurut kepercayaan yang berasal dari feng shui, rubah
memiliki kekuatan luar biasa melawan iblis, sehingga
patung kitsune konon bisa mengusir hawa kimon atau
energi yang mengalir arah timur laut. Kuil Inari seperti kuil
Fushimi Inari di Kyoto sering memiliki koleksi patung
kitsune yang banyak sekali.
Penipu
Kitsune sering digambarkan sebagai penipu dengan motif
yang bervariasi, mulai dari sekadar ingin berbuat nakal
hingga merugikan manusia. Kitsune dikisahkan senang
mempermainkan samurai yang sombong, saudagar rakus,
dan rakyat biasa yang suka pamer. Kitsune yang lebih
kejam konon suka mengerjai pedagang miskin, petani, dan
biksu yang saleh. Korban kitsune biasa laki-laki, sedangkan
perempuan hanya bisa kerasukan kitsune. Kitsune
misalnya, dipercaya menggunakan bola api kitsune-bi
sewaktu membantu pelancong yang tersesat. Taktik lain
kitsune adalah mengelabui korban dengan ilusi dan tipuan
mata. Kitsune memperdaya manusia dengan maksud
merayu, mencuri makanan, memberi pelajaran untuk orang
yang sombong, atau membalas dendam sesudah
dicederai.
Permainan tradisional kitsune-ken merupakan salah satu
jenis permainan Batu-Gunting-Kertas dengan tiga bentuk
telapak tangan dan jari-jari yang melambangkan rubah,
pemburu, dan kepala kampung. Pemburu kalah dari kepala
kampung, dan sebaliknya pemburu menang atas rubah,
tapi rubah bisa memperdaya kepala kampung.
Kitsune digambarkan suka membuat onar ditambah
reputasi suka membalas dendam. Akibatnya, orang
berusaha mengungkap motif tersembunyi di balik tindakan
rubah. Toyotomi Hideyoshi pernah menulis surat kepada
Inari. Di dalam suratnya, Hideyoshi melaporkan keonaran
yang dibuat salah seekor rubah terhadap para pelayan,
dan memohon agar rubah-rubah diselidiki dan
ditindaklanjuti. Kalau insiden ini tidak ditanggapi, Hideyoshi
mengancam akan memburu semua rubah yang ada.
Tamamo-no-Mae, kitsune yang sering ditampilkan dalam
noh dan kyogen. Lukisan ukiyo-e karya Yoshitoshi.
Kitsune dikenal suka menepati janji dan berusaha keras
untuk bisa membalas budi. Kitsune kadang-kadang
membuat onar seperti yang dikisahkan sebuah cerita asal
abad ke-12. Ancaman pemilik rumah untuk membinasakan
semua rubah berhasil meyakinkan kawanan rubah untuk
mengubah kelakuan. Kepala keluarga kawanan rubah
hadir dalam mimpi pemilik rumah untuk mohon
pengampunan dari pemilik rumah, sekaligus berjanji untuk
berkelakuan baik dan membalas budi dengan menjadi
pelindung keluarga.
Sebagian kitsune menggunakan sihir untuk
menguntungkan manusia yang dianggap teman atau
majikan. Sebagai golongan Yōkai, ia tidak memiliki tata
krama seperti manusia. Kitsune bisa mencuri uang dari
rumah tetangga untuk diberikan kepada majikan, atau
mencuri uang majikan sendiri. Di zaman dulu, pemilik
rumah yang memelihara kitsune selalu dicurigai tetangga.
Dalam cerita rakyat sering dikisahkan tentang pembayaran
atas barang atau jasa yang dilakukan kitsune. Kitsune bisa
menipu penglihatan orang yang menerima pembayaran
dari kitsune dengan sihir. Emas, uang, atau batu permata
yang diterima dari kitsune sebenarnya hanya kertas bekas,
daun-daunan, cabang dan ranting, batu, atau benda-
benda sejenis. Hadiah yang benar-benar diberikan kitsune
kepada manusia biasanya berupa benda-benda yang tak
berwujud, seperti perlindungan, pengetahuan, dan umur
panjang.
Istri dan kekasih
Kitsune sering digambarkan sebagai wanita penggoda
dalam cerita yang melibatkan laki-laki muda. Walaupun
kitsune berperan sebagai wanita penggoda, cerita
biasanya bersifat romantis.Dalam cerita, laki-laki sering
menikahi wanita cantik yang merahasiakan bahwa dirinya
adalah seekor rubah. Ketika rahasia terbongkar, sang istri
terpaksa meninggalkan suami. Pada sebagian cerita, laki-
laki yang menikahi siluman rubah bagaikan bangun dari
mimpi, kebingungan, berada jauh dari rumah, dan harus
kembali ke rumah yang ditinggalinya dulu dengan
membawa malu.
Beberapa cerita mengisahkan siluman rubah yang
dijadikan istri melahirkan anak manusia. Anak-anak yang
dilahirkan memiliki kemampuan fisik dan bakat
supranatural melebihi orang biasa. Bakat ini juga
diturunkan ke anak cucu bila manusia keturunan rubah
kembali melahirkan anak. Seorang ahli kosmologi
(onmyōji) Jepang bernama Abe no Seimei dikatakan
memiliki kekuatan sihir luar biasa karena keturunan
kitsune.
Kitsune sering dikisahkan menikahi sesama kitsune. Dalam
bahasa Jepang, hujan lebat yang turun tiba-tiba ketika
langit sedang cerah (hujan panas) disebut kitsune no
yomeiri atau "pernikahan kitsune". Istilah tersebut berasal
dari legenda yang mengisahkan kondisi cuaca pada saat
upacara pernikahan kitsune. Peristiwa pernikahan kitsune
dianggap sebagai pertanda baik, tapi kitsune akan marah
bila hadir tamu yang tidak diundang.
Cerita fiksi
Kitsune tampil dalam berbagai seni budaya Jepang.
Sandiwara tradisional Jepang seperti noh, kyogen,
bunraku, and kabuki sering mengisahkan legenda kitsune.
Begitu pula halnya dengan budaya kontemporer seperti
manga dan permainan video. Pengarang fiksi dari Barat
juga mulai menulis cerita yang diilhami legenda kitsune.
Penggambaran kitsune menurut orang Barat biasanya tidak
berbeda jauh dengan cerita asli kitsune.
Ibu Abe no Seimei yang bernama Kuzunoha merupakan
tokoh kitsune yang dikenal luas dalam seni teater
tradisional Jepang. Kuzunoha ditampilkan dalam cerita
sandiwara bunraku dan kabuki Ashiya Dōman Ōuchi
Kagami (Kaca di Ashiya Dōman and Ōuchi) yang terdiri
dari lima bagian. Bagian ke-4 yang berjudul Kuzunoha atau
Rubah dari Hutan Shinoda sering dipentaskan secara
terpisah. Bagian ini menceritakan terbongkarnya rahasia
Kuzunoha sebagai siluman rubah dan adegan saat harus
meninggalkan suami dan anaknya.
Tamamo-no-Mae adalah tokoh fiksi yang menjadi tema
drama noh berjudul Sesshoseki (Batu Kematian), dan
sandiwara kabuki/kyogen berjudul Tamamonomae
(Penyihir Rubah yang Cantik). Tamamo-no-Mae berbuat
banyak kejahatan di India, Tiongkok, dan Jepang, tapi
rahasianya terbongkar dan tewas. Arwahnya menjadi
sesshoseki (batu kematian). Arwah Tamamo-no-Mae
akhirnya dibebaskan biksu bernama Gennō.
Genkurō adalah seekor kitsune dikenal berbakti kepada
orangtua. Dalam cerita bunraku dan kabuki berjudul
Yoshitsune Sembon Zakura (Yoshitsune dan Seribu Pohon
Sakura), kekasih Yoshitsune yang bernama Putri Shizuka
memiliki tsuzumi (gendang kecil) yang dibuat dari kulit
rubah orangtua Genkurō. Dalam penyamarannya sebagai
Satō Tadanobu, Genkurō berhasil menyelamatkan Putri
Shizuka dari Minamoto no Yoritomo. Namun identitas
Genkurō sebagai siluman rubah terbongkar karena Satō
Tadanobu yang asli muncul. Genkurō mengatakan suara
kedua orangtuanya terdengar setiap kali gendang tsuzumi
yang dimiliki Shizuka dipukul. Yoshitsune dan Shizuka
akhirnya memberikan tsuzumi tersebut kepada Genkurō.
Sebagai imbalannya, Genkurō memberi perlindungan sihir
untuk Yoshitsune
Ghosts, Demons and Spirits in Japanese Lore
Belief in ghosts, demons and spirits has been deep-rooted
in Japanese folklore throughout history. It is entwined with
mythology and superstition derived from Japanese Shinto,
as well as Buddhism and Taoism brought to Japan from
China and India. Stories and legends, combined with
mythology, have been collected over the years by various
cultures of the world, both past and present. Folklore has
evolved in order to explain or rationalize various natural
events. Inexplicable phenomena arouse a fear in
humankind, because there is no way for us to anticipate
them or to understand their origins.
The mystery of death is a phenomena that does not offer a
rational explanation to various cultures. Death is an
intruder. Death is the change from one state to another,
the reunion of body with earth, of soul with spirit. Humans,
throughout the ages, have seldom been able to believe or
to understand the finality of death. For this reason fables
and legends have evolved around the spirits of the dead.
The Japanese believe that they are surrounded by spirits
all the time. According to the Japanese Shinto faith, after
death a human being becomes a spirit, sometimes a deity.
It is believed that eight million deities inhabit the heavens
and the earth - the mountains, the forests, the seas, and
the very air that is breathed. Traditions tell us that these
deities have two souls: one gentle (nigi-mi-tama), and the
other violent (ara-mi-tama).
Buddhism, which was introduced into Japan in the sixth
century CE, added a new dimension to the belief in spirits
and other supernatural forces. The Buddhist belief in the
world of the living, the world of the dead, and the ‘Pure
Land of Buddha’ (Jodo)1 achieved a new meaning. The
way a man behaved during his lifetime determined whether
he would go to the world of the dead or the ‘Pure Land’.
Those driven to the nether-world found it to be a hell in all
its vileness.
The Japanese believe that after death a spirit is angry and
impure. Many rituals are performed for seven years to
purify and pacify the soul. In this way the person becomes
a spirit. According to belief, a spirit wanders between the
land of the living and the world of shadows. For this
reason, prayers are offered to insure passage to the Land
of the Dead.
Ghosts (Yurei)
If the soul of the dead is not purified, it can return to the
land of the living in the guise of a ghost. Also, if a dead
person is not delivered, through prayer, from personal
emotions such as jealousy, envy or anger, the spirit can
return in a ghostly guise. The ghost haunts the place
where it lived and persecutes those responsible for his or
her bitter fate. The ghost will remain until released from its
suffering through the good offices of a living person who
prays that the soul of the dead may ascend.
During the Heian era (794-1185) it was believed that
ghostly spirits floated above the living causing disease,
plague and hunger. In the Kamakura era (1185-1333) a
belief was reinforced that spirits turned into small animals,
such as raccoons and foxes, that led people astray.
Household objects, when a hundred years old, could
become deities in the Muromachi period (1336-1573).
These venerable objects were thought to possess special
powers and were treated with care and respect. And in the
Momoyama (1573-1600) and the Edo periods (1603-1868)
there was a belief that if a man died of disease or in an
epidemic, he turned into a monstrous demon.
The despotic feudal regime which prevailed during the Edo
period, combined with natural disasters that occurred at
that time, added to the lore of evil and vengeful spirits and
ghosts. At the close of the Edo era, edicts were passed
forbidding the display of theatrical performances with the
theme of frightening ghostly spirits, for fear of undermining
the government.
Most creatures in stories of unfortunate spirits were
women. They were vengeful ghosts, and the greater the
misery endured by the woman during her lifetime, the more
threatening her ghostly spirits would be after her death.
Cruelty to women is a recurring theme in Japanese lore
and legend.
Ghost stories were dramatized for puppet theaters in the
early1700’s. Ghost stories then began to be enacted in
various theaters including Sumizu theater of Osaka and
Nakamura-za theater in Edo.
Vengeful spirits became the central theme in the Kabuki
theater at the end of the 18th century. Murder was
presented on the stage in all its gory details, and female
ghosts were distinctly portrayed. The scenes of crime and
bloodshed presented were shocking and intended to
arouse suspense and fear. Surprisingly, these plays were
quite popular, and print artists reproduced many scenes of
these Kabuki productions. An example of this theme is in
one of the plays enacted at the Kabuki theater called the
‘The Rock That Weeps at Night.”
“At Tokaido, on the road between Tokyo and Kyoto, there is
a famous rock known as ‘The Rocks that Weeps at Night’.
Lore tells of a pregnant woman travelling along this road at
night to meet her husband. Bandits accosted her and she
was barbarously murdered. Her blood spilled onto the rock,
which became the habitation of her ghost. Legend has it
that the rock weeps at night.”2
Japanese Demons
Demons in Japanese lore wander between the living and
the dead. Sometimes demons do good deeds in the world,
and sometimes they wreck havoc. Demons have
supernatural powers; but they also have the magical ability
to affect natural phenomena. According to Japanese belief,
some demons are the root of all disasters, both natural and
man-made.
Japanese demons are not altogether evil but are also
tricksters and enjoy playing practical jokes. In the Edo
period they began to depict the demons with humour,
especially in Netsuke figures. This was a way in which the
people equated the demons with the upper classes; also
this was a way to mock the heavy-handed feudal rule.
Ceremonies, known as the ‘Oni-Yari’ or ‘Tsuina’, are
performed to exorcise demons. These rites are usually
conducted at the last night of the year in the Emperor’s
Palace: The ritual is comprised of people throwing roasted
soy beans in the four directions and calling out, “Enter,
good fortune, demons depart!” The fear of pain causes the
demons to run away.
The Oni
In folklore there are also tales of supernatural creatures
called the ‘Oni’. Artists depict the ‘Oni’ with horns and
wearing tiger skins. They have no neck, but a crest of hair
and a big mouth; their fingers are clawed, and their arms
elevated to the shoulders. These artistic renditions of
demons not only represent the supernatural, but also
embodiments of the evil facets of human nature. The earth
‘Oni’, according to Buddhist belief, are responsible for
disease and epidemics (they are dressed in red). The ‘Oni’
of hell (red or green bodies) hunt for sinners and taking
them by chariot to Emma-Hoo, the god of hell. There are
invisible demons among the ‘Oni’ whose presence can be
detected because they sing or whistle. The ‘Oni’ who are
women are those transformed into demons after death by
jealousy or violent grief. The Buddhist ‘Oni’ demons did not
always represent the forces of evil.In Buddhist lore there
are tales of monks who after death became ‘Oni’ in order
to protect temples from potential disasters. The belief in
the ‘Oni’, reached its zenith in the 18th and 19th centuries.
Tengu - The Mountain Demon
Another prominent demon in Japanese folklore is the
‘Tengu’, a mythological being living in mountain forests.
Artistic depictions of the ‘Tengu’ range from stumpy,
bearded creatures to beings with great lumpy noses.
According to lore, anyone entering the territory of the
‘Tengu’ unwittingly can fall into strange and unpleasant
situations. The ‘Tengu’ can, in a flash, transform
themselves into ugly little men, women and children; then
they maliciously tease people with all sorts of nasty tricks.
As quickly as they appear, just as quickly they vanish.
Some ancient beliefs depicted the ‘Tengu’ as creatures of
war and conflict. Sometimes their actions in legends are
hypocritical. Artists depicted them with a bird’s head on a
human body with spreading wings and clawed feet. Until
the 14th century, evil legends were told about the ‘Tengu’;
but gradually they evolved into both good and bad beings.
Many tales were told of the ‘Tengu’ overcoming evil. In the
Buddhist belief they became guides for monks in
understanding the Dharma tenets and sacred rites, and
also protected Buddhist shrines.In the 18th and 19th
centuries they were revered as mountain deities- tributes
were offered to them. The woodcutters and huntsmen
offered tributes to the ‘Tengu’ deities in order to receive
success in their work.
Those that were less respectful found themselves in all
sorts of trouble. The belief in the ‘Tengu’ continued until the
beginning of the 20th century. Today ceremonial festivals
are held in their honour. Tales are still being told of them in
modern Japan. In some areas, woodsmen still offer rice
cakes to the ‘Tengu’ before starting their work.
ANIMALS WITH SUPERNATURAL POWERS
According to legend certain animals are created with
supernatural powers. They can transform themselves into
anything they desire, and can even acquire other magical
abilities. The Japanese raccoon (tanuki) and the fox
(kitsune) are the most popular animals attributed with
magical powers. They have similar roles in folklore. They
are pictured as mischievous rogues who often get
themselves into trouble. They can, at times, be frightening
creatures, and at other moments be capable of making a
negative situation positive. Sometimes they are treated as
godly figures and become cultural heroes. The ‘tanuki’ is
sometimes seen as a witch, a cannibal monk, or a one-
eyed demon who murders his victims with thunder,
lightning or earthquakes.
The ‘tanuki’ is a small hairy animal, and it is believed that
he can transform into a frightening creature. Sometimes he
is depicted humourously, having a gigantic scrotum which
he drags behind him or wears it as a kimono. In some
Netsuke figures the ‘tanuki’ appears as a Buddhist monk
dressed in robes and banging on his scrotum as if it were a
temple drum. “There is a fable that tells of an incident by
the abbot of the Morinji Temple. He bought a tea-kettle and
instructed one of the monks to clean it. Suddenly a voice
spoke from the kettle, ‘Ow that hurts, please be more
gentle.’ When the abbot wanted to boil some water, out
popped the tail, legs and arms of a ‘tanuki’ and the vessel
started to run about the room. It dumbfounded the poor
abbot and he tried to catch the kettle, but it eluded him.”
The fox (kitsune) is frequently a subject in Netsuke
figurines. Many strange and uncanny qualities are
attributed to the fox. The‘kitsune’ have the ability to change
their shape, but their faces remain fox-like. In folklore, foxes
pretend to be humans in order to lead men astray.
A black fox is good luck, a white fox calamity; three foxes
together portend disaster. Buddhist legend tells of 'kitsune’
who disguise themselves as nuns, and wear traditional
robes (depicted in Netsuke figurines). Fables tell how the
fox likes to appear as women. Stories tell that while the
‘kitsune’ is in such a guise, he goes about tricking and
misleading men into seduction. When the seduced come to
the realisation of the true identity of their supposed love,
the fox disappears. Legends tell of how ‘Kitsune’ can
hypnotize people and lead them into perilous situations. To
do this, according to the tales, they illuminate the path
leading to such disasters, and this illumination is known as
a ‘foxflare’ (kitsune bi).
Dragons and Snakes
In Japanese legend there are tales that depict snakes and
dragons with supernatural powers. In ancient Japan the
people believed in the snake-god ‘Orochi’, who lived on the
very top of mountains. The Buddhist religion told of the
dragon-god ‘Ryu’ who ruled the clouds, the rain, and the
water. There was the dragon ‘Yasha’, one of the demon-
gods who protected Buddhism. All these deities have wide
mouths, sharp fangs, pointed horns, and all-seeing eyes.
In Japanese folklore there are tales told of people who
turned into snakes after death because of their evil ways
and their miserly habits. A male becomes a serpent
because his desires are not satisfied in life. A female
snake appears as an attractive woman who marries a
human: if rejected by her lover, her jealously will cause
disaster. Women are often associated with snakes
because of tales told of them being fierce and possessive
towards their lovers. Children born of the union of a snake
with a human may either appear as a serpent or as a
human with snake-like qualities. They appear in the
dreams of their family and friends, asking them to pray for
the release of their souls from their snake-like bodies. The
relative either reads a Buddhist sutra or recites special
prayers. Then the soul is saved and the snake-body is
shed. Some people are reborn in the guise of snakes after
death when they wish to avenge wrongful deeds. The
avenger’s ghost in Japanese lore is usually considered
heroic. Snakes were not always thought of as symbols of
evil, but also of love with no bounds. “Long ago in Keicho
era, there lived a beautiful girl in Senju in the province of
Musashi. A bachelor called Yaichiro fell in love with her
and sent her many missives of love to her; but she did not
respond. Yaichiro died of sorrow, and the girl married
someone else. On the morning after the wedding, the
couple didn’t emerge from their room. When the bride’s
mother entered, she found the bridegroom dead, and a
snake crawling out of one of the bride’s eyes. The villagers
believed that the snake was none other than the
heartbroken Yaichiro.”
Serpents and dragons are also associated with nature.
Natural disasters, especially floods, are linked to them. It is
believed that after storms they are washed out of their
dens and come into the open. This is why they are
believed to be producers of storms and surrounders of
waters- both water-controlling and water-granting. There
are four types of dragons in Japanese mythology: the
heavenly dragons who guard the palace of the gods, the
spiritual dragons who bring the blessed rain, the earth
dragons who determine the course of rivers, and the
dragons who are the guardians of all earthly treasures. In
many paintings, artists depict the dragon as the ruler of the
waters, the ocean and the rain.
Immortals and Heroes
The notion of immortality told in Japanese folklore is
derived from Chinese Taoism based on the ideas of the
philosopher Lao-Tsu in the fourth century BC. Even though
Taoism never became an official religion in Japan, the
Taoist creed appears in their literature and art. Those who
achieved immortality could fly, walk on clouds, and pass
through water unharmed. They were considered guardians
of Taoism and protectors of humankind. The peach4 is the
symbol of immortality and many netsuke figurines are
depicted with this fruit. Immortals are also depicted carrying
a three-legged frog, or pictured riding on a giant carp 5 or a
horse. The most famous of the immortals are the ‘Sennin’,
the eight Taoist immortals. They are seen in art and
netsuke figures breathing out their souls via their breath,
wearing the robes of Taoist sages, or carrying gourds
Subjugating a demon is a favourite theme in the famous
tales of warrior heroes. The legend of the ‘Four Samurai of
Minamoto no Yorimitsu’ conquering monsters and demons
in their citadel is a well-loved theme. Another favourite is
‘The Warrior Watanabe no Tsuna’ fighting the Demoness of
Rashomon.Another prominent fighter of demons is ‘Shoki’,
the exorcist of devils and evil spirits. He was a giant of a
man with great strength. ‘Shoki’ is usually depicted in art
striding from left to right after a unseen demon. He is
usually coloured red, because it is believed that this colour
has the power to ward off misfortune. In the Kansei era
(1789-1800), long banners (nobori) were hung outside
houses inhabited by small children. These banners were
sometimes decorated with ‘Shoki’, the exorcist, to repel
demons and evil spirits. Today in Japan they have begun to
connect ‘Shoki’ with the Boy’s festival, held on May 5th. In
the past periods, this was believed to be the day on which
demons appear, and evil spirits and ghosts bringing
misfortune. In order to avert troubles on that day,
ceremonies were conducted to drive away these poisonous
creatures.
Fables and legends sustained these beliefs through art- in
the form of drawings, paintings, prints, sculpture,
ornaments, and words. Plays with ghostly and spiritual
themes are still being performed in theaters throughout
Japan. Scenes recreate the lore and mysticism of the
spirits of the dead. The authors of such dramas combine
fact with fiction, violence and bloodshed, and the classic
tension between the tormented and the tormentor. These
productions create a sense of fear and suspense among
the audience, much to their delight. Even today, tales of
ghosts, demons and spirits are presented on television and
in cinema.
NOTES:
1) ‘Pure Land’ or paradise established by the Buddha
Amida, where existence is devoid of pain, sadness, hunger
and anxiety.
2) In the print by Utagawa Kuniyoshi (1791-1861) the
tormented ghost is depicted giving her baby son to her son.
The story was adapted by the Kabuki theater of Osaka in
which,the ghost tells her husband about her dastardly
murder; then she goes with the husband to avenge the
crime.
3) Netsuke Figurine - a small artistic figurine in bronze,
ivory, ceramic, wood or metal.

4) Peach (Taoist) - the Tree of Life in the Kun Lun
Paradise. Bestowing immortality and being the food of the
Taoist immortals. It was thought that the peaches in the
celestial orchard ripened every 3000 years.
5) Carp - an emblem of the Samurai as symbols of
courage and dignity. It also symbolizes endurance and
good fortune.
6) Gourd - symbolizes longevity. Smoke rising out of a
gourd is the setting free of the spirit from the body.
Tengu
Tengu (天狗?, "heavenly dogs") are a class of supernatural
creatures found in Japanese folklore, art, theater, and
literature. They are one of the best known yōkai (monster-
spirits) and are sometimes worshipped as Shinto kami
(revered spirits or gods). Although they take their name
from a dog-like Chinese demon (Tiangou), the tengu were
originally thought to take the forms of birds of prey, and
they are traditionally depicted with both human and avian
characteristics. They appear in the children's story 'Banner
in the sky' when the main character trips over one and falls
off the face of the mountain. The earliest tengu were
pictured with beaks, but this feature has often been
humanized as an unnaturally long nose, which today is
practically the tengu's defining characteristic in the popular
imagination.
Buddhism long held that the tengu were disruptive demons
and harbingers of war. Their image gradually softened,
however, into one of protective, if still dangerous, spirits of
the mountains and forests. Tengu are associated with the
ascetic practice known as Shugendō, and they are usually
depicted in the distinctive garb of its followers, the
yamabushi.
The tengu in art appears in a large number of shapes, but
it usually falls somewhere between a large, monstrous bird
and a wholly anthropomorphized being, often with a red
face or an unusually large or long nose. Early depictions of
tengu show them as kite-like beings who can take a
human-like form, often retaining avian wings, head or
beak. The tengu's long nose seems to have been
conceived in the 14th century, likely as a humanization of
the original bird's bill.[1] The tengu's long noses ally them
with the Shinto deity Sarutahiko, who is described in the
Japanese historical text, the Nihon Shoki, with a similar
proboscis measuring seven hand-spans in length.[2] In
village festivals the two figures are often portrayed with
identical red, phallic-nosed mask designs.[3]
Some of the earliest representations of tengu appear in
Japanese picture scrolls, such as the Tenguzōshi Emaki
( 天 狗 草 子 絵巻 ?), painted ca. 1296, which parodies high-
ranking priests by endowing them the hawk-like beaks of
tengu demons.[4] Tengu are often pictured as taking the
shape of some sort of priest. Beginning in the 13th century,
tengu came to be associated in particular with the
•
yamabushi, the mountain ascetics who practice Shugendō.
The association soon found its way into Japanese art,
where tengu are most frequently depicted in the
yamabushi's distinctive costume, which includes a small
black cap (頭襟 tokin?) and a pom-pommed sash (結袈裟
yuigesa?).
Tengu are commonly depicted holding magical hauchiwa
( 羽 団扇 ?), fans made of feathers. In folk tales, these fans
sometimes have the ability to grow or shrink a person's
nose, but usually they are attributed the power to stir up
great winds. Various other strange accessories may be
associated with tengu, such as a type of tall, one-toothed
geta sandal often called tengu-geta.
Origins
The term tengu and the characters used to write it are
borrowed from the name of a fierce demon from Chinese
folklore called tiāngoǔ. Chinese literature assigns this
creature a variety of descriptions, but most often it is a
fierce and anthropophagous canine monster that resembles
a shooting star or comet. It makes a noise like thunder and
brings war wherever it falls. One account from the Shù Yì
Jì ( 述 異 記 , "A Collection of Bizarre Stories"), written in
1791, describes a dog-like tiāngoǔ with a sharp beak and
an upright posture, but usually tiāngoǔ bear little
resemblance to their Japanese counterparts.
The 23rd chapter of the Nihon Shoki, written in 720 CE, is
generally held to contain the first recorded mention of
tengu in Japan. In this account a large shooting star
appears and is identified by a Buddhist priest as a
"heavenly dog", and much like the tiāngoǔ of China, the
star precedes a military uprising. Although the Chinese
characters for tengu are used in the text, accompanying
phonetic furigana characters give the reading as
amatsukitsune (heavenly fox). M.W. de Visser speculated
that the early Japanese tengu may represent a
conglomeration of two Chinese spirits: the tiāngoǔ and the
fox spirits called huli jing.[9]
How the tengu was transformed from a dog-meteor into a
bird-man is not clear. Some Japanese scholars have
supported the theory that the tengu's image derives from
that of the Hindu eagle deity Garuda, who was pluralized in
Buddhist scripture as one of the major races of non-human
beings. Like the tengu, the garuda are often portrayed in a
human-like form with wings and a bird's beak. The name
tengu seems to be written in place of that of the garuda in a
Japanese sutra called the Emmyō Jizō Kyō (延命地蔵経 ),
but this was likely written in the Edo period, long after the
tengu's image was established. At least one early story in
the Konjaku Monogatari describes a tengu carrying off a
dragon, which is reminiscent of the garuda's feud with the
nāga serpents. In other respects, however, the tengu's
original behavior differs markedly from that of the garuda,
which is generally friendly towards Buddhism. De Visser
has speculated that the tengu may be descended from an
ancient Shinto bird-demon which was syncretized with both
the garuda and the tiāngoǔ when Buddhism arrived in
Japan. However, he found little evidence to support this
idea.
A later version of the Kujiki, an ancient Japanese historical
text, writes the name of Amanozako, a monstrous female
deity born from the god Susanoo's spat-out ferocity, with
characters meaning tengu deity ( 天 狗 神 ). The book
describes Amanozako as a raging creature capable of
flight, with the body of a human, the head of a beast, a
long nose, long ears, and long teeth that can chew through
swords. An 18th century book called the Tengu Meigikō
(天狗名義考 ?) suggests that this goddess may be the true
predecessor of the tengu, but the date and authenticity of
the Kujiki, and of that edition in particular, remain disputed.
The Konjaku Monogatari, a collection of stories published
in the late Heian Period, contains some of the earliest tales
of tengu, already characterized as they would be for
centuries to come. These tengu are the troublesome
opponents of Buddhism, who mislead the pious with false
images of Buddha, carry off monks and drop them in
remote places, possess women in an attempt to seduce
holy men, rob temples, and endow those who worship
them with unholy power. They often disguise themselves
as priests or nuns, but their true form seems to be that of a
kite.
Throughout the 12th and 13th centuries, accounts
continued of tengu attempting to cause trouble in the
world. They were now established as the ghosts of angry,
vain, or heretical priests who had fallen on the "tengu-road"
( 天 狗 道 , tengudō). They began to possess people,
especially women and girls, and speak through their
mouths (kitsunetsuki). Still the enemies of Buddhism, the
demons also turned their attention to the royal family. The
Kojidan tells of an Empress who was possessed, and the
Ōkagami reports that Emperor Sanjō was made blind by a
tengu, the ghost of a priest who resented the throne.
One notorious tengu from the 12th century was himself the
ghost of an emperor. The Hōgen Monogatari tells the story
of Emperor Sutoku, who was forced by his father to
abandon the throne. When he later raised the Hōgen
Rebellion to take back the country from Emperor Go-
Shirakawa, he was defeated and exiled to Sanuki Province
on Shikoku. According to legend he died in torment, having
sworn to haunt the nation of Japan as a great demon, and
thus became a fearsome tengu with long nails and eyes
like a kite's.
In stories from the 13th century, tengu began to abduct
young boys as well as the priests they had always
targeted. The boys were often returned, while the priests
would be found tied to the tops of trees or other high
places. All of the tengu's victims, however, would come
back in a state of near death or madness, sometimes after
having been tricked into eating animal dung.
The tengu of this period were often conceived of as the
ghosts of the arrogant, and as a result the creatures have
become strongly associated with vanity and pride. Today
the Japanese expression tengu ni naru, literally, "he is
turning into a tengu", is still used to describe a conceited
person.
In the Genpei Jōsuiki, written in the late Kamakura period,
a god appears to Go-Shirakawa and gives a detailed
account of tengu ghosts. He says that they fall onto the
tengu road because, as Buddhists, they cannot go to Hell,
yet as people with bad principles, they also cannot go to
Heaven. He describes the appearance of different types of
tengu: the ghosts of priests, nuns, ordinary men, and
ordinary women, all of whom in life possessed excessive
pride. The god introduces the notion that not all tengu are
equal; knowledgeable men become daitengu (大天狗, great
tengu?), but ignorant ones become kotengu (小天狗, small
tengu?).
The philosopher Hayashi Razan lists the greatest of these
daitengu as Sōjōbō of Kurama, Tarōbō of Atago, and Jirōbō
of Hira. The demons of Kurama and Atago are among the
most famous tengu. A section of the Tengu Meigikō, later
quoted by Inoue Enryō, lists the daitengu in this order:
• Sōjōbō (僧正坊?) of Mount Kurama
• Tarōbō (太郎坊?) of Mount Atago
• Jirōbō (二郎坊?) of the Hira Mountains
• Sanjakubō (三尺坊?) of Mount Akiba
• Ryūhōbō (笠鋒坊?) of Mount Kōmyō
• Buzenbō (豊前坊?) of Mount Hiko
• Hōkibō (伯耆坊?) of Daisen (mountain)
• Myōgibō (妙義坊?) of Mount Ueno (Ueno Park)
• Sankibō (三鬼坊?) of Itsukushima
• Zenkibō (前鬼坊?) of Mount Ōmine
• Kōtenbō (高天坊?) of Katsuragi
• Tsukuba-hōin (筑波法印?) of Hitachi Province
• Daranibō (陀羅尼坊?) of Mount Fuji
• Naigubu (内供奉?) of Mount Takao
• Sagamibō (相模坊?) of Shiramine
• Saburō (三郎?) of Mount Iizuna
• Ajari (阿闍梨?) of Higo Province
Daitengu are often pictured in a more human-like form than
their underlings, and due to their long noses, they may also
called hanatakatengu ( 鼻 高 天 狗 , tall-nosed tengu?).
Kotengu may conversely be depicted as more bird-like.
They are sometimes called karasu-tengu ( 烏 天 狗 , crow
tengu?), or koppa- orkonoha-tengu (木葉天狗, 木の葉天狗
foliage tengu?).[19] Inoue Enryō described two kinds of tengu
in his Tenguron: the great daitengu, and the small, bird-like
konoha-tengu who live in Cryptomeria trees. The konoha-
tengu are noted in a book from 1746 called the Shokoku
Rijin Dan ( 諸国里人談 ?), as bird-like creatures with wings
two meters across which were seen catching fish in the Ōi
River, but this name rarely appears in literature otherwise.
Creatures that do not fit the classic bird or yamabushi
image are sometimes called tengu. For example, tengu in
the guise of wood-spirits may be called guhin (occasionally
written kuhin) ( 狗 賓 dog guests?), but this word can also
refer to tengu with canine mouths or other features.[21] The
people of Kōchi Prefecture on Shikoku believe in a
creature called shibaten or shibatengu (シバテン, 芝天狗,
lawn tengu?), but this is a small child-like being who loves
sumō wrestling and sometimes dwells in the water, and is
generally considered one of the many kinds of kappa.[22]
Another water-dwelling tengu is the kawatengu ( 川 天 狗 ,
river tengu?) of the Greater Tokyo Area. This creature is
rarely seen, but it is believed to create strange fireballs and
be a nuisance to fishermen.
Protective spirits and deities
The Shasekishū, a book of Buddhist parables from the
Kamakura period, makes a point of distinguishing between
good and bad tengu. The book explains that the former are
in command of the latter and are the protectors, not
opponents, of Buddhism - although the flaw of pride or
ambition has caused them to fall onto the demon road,
they remain the same basically good, dharma-abiding
persons they were in life.[24]
The tengu's unpleasant image continued to erode in the
17th century. Some stories now presented them as much
less malicious, protecting and blessing Buddhist
institutions rather than menacing them or setting them on
fire. According to a legend in the 18th-century Kaidan
Toshiotoko ( 怪 談 登 志 男 ?), a tengu took the form of a
yamabushi and faithfully served the abbot of a Zen
monastery until the man guessed his attendant's true form.
The tengu's wings and huge nose then reappeared. The
tengu requested a piece of wisdom from his master and
left, but he continued, unseen, to provide the monastery
with miraculous aid.[25]
In the 18th and 19th centuries, tengu came to be feared as
the vigilant protectors of certain forests. In the 1764
collection of strange stories Sanshu Kidan (三州奇談 ?), a
tale tells of a man who wanders into a deep valley while
gathering leaves, only to be faced with a sudden and
ferocious hailstorm. A group of peasants later tell him that
he was in the valley where the guhin live, and anyone who
takes a single leaf from that place will surely die. In the
Sōzan Chomon Kishū (想山著聞奇集 ?), written in 1849, the
author describes the customs of the wood-cutters of Mino
Province, who used a sort of rice cake called kuhin-mochi
to placate the tengu, who would otherwise perpetrate all
sorts of mischief. In other provinces a special kind of fish
called okoze was offered to the tengu by woodsmen and
hunters, in exchange for a successful day's work.[26] The
people of Ishikawa Prefecture have until recently believed
that the tengu loathe mackerel, and have used this fish as
a charm against kidnappings and hauntings by the
mischievous spirits. [27]
Tengu are worshipped as beneficial kami (gods or revered
spirits) in various Japanese religious cults. For example,
the tengu Saburō of Izuna is worshipped on that mountain
and various others as Izuna Gongen ( 飯 綱 権 現 ,
incarnation of Izuna?), one of the primary deities in the
Izuna Shugen cult, which also has ties to fox sorcery and
the Dakini of Tantric Buddhism. Izuna Gongen is depicted
as a beaked, winged figure with snakes wrapped around
his limbs, surrounded by a halo of flame, riding on the back
of a fox and brandishing a sword. Worshippers of tengu on
other sacred mountains have adopted similar images for
their deities, such as Sanjakubō (三尺坊?) or Akiba Gongen
( 秋 葉 権 現 ?) of Akiba and Dōryō Gongen ( 道 了 権 現 ?) of
Saijō-ji Temple in Odawara.[28]
In popular folk tales
Tengu appear frequently in the orally-transmitted tales
collected by Japanese folklorists. As these stories are often
humorous, they tend to portray tengu as ridiculous
creatures who are easily tricked or confused by humans.
Some common folk tales in which tengu appear include:
• "The Tengu's Magic Cloak" ( 天 狗 の 隠 れ み の
Tengu no Kakuremino?): A boy looks through an
ordinary piece of bamboo and pretends he can see
distant places. A tengu, overwhelmed by curiosity,
offers to trade it for a magic straw cloak that
renders the wearer invisible. Having duped the
tengu, the boy continues his mischief while wearing
the cloak.
• "The Old Man's Lump Removed" ( 瘤 取 り 爺 さ ん
Kobu-tori Jiisan?): An old man has a lump or tumor
on his face. In the mountains he encounters a band
of tengu making merry and joins their dancing. He
pleases them so much that they take the lump off
his face, thinking that he will want it back and join
them the next night. An unpleasant neighbor, who
also has a lump, hears of the old man's good
fortune and attempts to repeat it. The tengu,
however, simply give him the first lump in addition
to his own, either to keep their bargain, or because
they are disgusted by his bad dancing.[30]
• "The Tengu's Fan" ( 天 狗 の 羽 団 扇 Tengu no
Hauchiwa?) A scoundrel obtains a tengu's magic
fan, which can shrink or grow noses. He secretly
uses this item to grotesquely extend the nose of a
rich man's daughter, and then shrinks it again in
exchange for her hand in marriage. Later he
accidentally fans himself while he dozes, and his
nose grows so long it reaches heaven, resulting in
painful misfortune for him.[31]
• "The Tengu's Gourd" ( 天 狗 の 瓢 箪 "Tengu no
Hyōtan"?): A gambler meets a tengu, who asks him
what he is most frightened of. The gambler lies,
claiming that he is terrified of gold or mochi. The
tengu answers truthfully that he is frightened of a
kind of plant or some other mundane item. The
tengu, thinking he is playing a cruel trick, then
causes money or rice cakes to rain down on the
gambler. The gambler is of course delighted and
proceeds to scare the tengu away with the thing he
fears most. The gambler then obtains the tengu's
 magic gourd (or another treasured item) that was
left behind.
• A tengu bothers a woodcutter, showing off his
supernatural abilities by guessing everything the
man is thinking. The woodcutter swings his axe,
and a splinter of wood hits the tengu on the nose.
The tengu flees in terror, exclaiming that humans
are dangerous creatures who can do things
without thinking about them.
Martial arts
Ushiwaka-maru training with the tengu of Mount Kurama,
by Kunitsuna Utagawa. This subject is very common in
ukiyo-e.
During the 14th century, the tengu began to trouble the
world outside of the Buddhist clergy, and like their ominous
ancestors the tiāngoǔ, the tengu became creatures
associated with war.[34] Legends eventually ascribed to
them great knowledge in the art of skilled combat.
This reputation seems to have its origins in a legend
surrounding the famous warrior Minamoto no Yoshitsune.
When Yoshitsune was a young boy going by the name of
Ushiwaka-maru, his father, Yoshitomo, was assassinated
by the Taira clan. Taira no Kiyomori, head of the Taira,
allowed the child to survive on the grounds that he be
exiled to the temple on Mount Kurama and become a
monk. But one day in the Sōjō-ga-dani Valley, Ushiwaka
encountered the mountain's tengu, Sōjōbō. This spirit
taught the boy the art of swordsmanship so that he might
bring vengeance on the Taira.
Originally the actions of this tengu were portrayed as
another attempt by demons to throw the world into chaos
and war, but as Yoshitsune's renown as a legendary
warrior increased, his monstrous teacher came to be
depicted in a much more sympathetic and honorable light.
In one of the most famous renditions of the story, the Noh
play Kurama Tengu, Ushiwaka is the only person from his
temple who does not give up an outing in disgust at the
sight of a strange yamabushi. Sōjōbō thus befriends the
boy and teaches him out of sympathy for his plight.
Two stories from the 19th century continue this theme: In
the Sōzan Chomon Kishū, a boy is carried off by a tengu
and spends three years with the creature. He comes home
with a magic gun that never misses a shot. A story from
Inaba Province, related by Inoue Enryō, tells of a girl with
poor manual dexterity who is suddenly possessed by a
tengu. The spirit wishes to rekindle the declining art of
swordsmanship in the world. Soon a young samurai
appears to whom the tengu has appeared in a dream, and
the possessed girl instructs him as an expert swordsman.
[37]
Some rumors surrounding the ninja indicate that they
were also instructed by the tengu.[38]
Modern fiction
Profoundly entrenched in the Japanese imagination for
centuries, tengu continue to be popular subjects in modern
fiction, both in Japan and increasingly in other countries.
They often appear among the many characters and
creatures featured in Japanese cinema, animation, comics,
and video games. It also has been a creature long-found in
the computer game Angband (which is primarily based on
the works of J. R. R. Tolkien, but has borrowed creatures
from many different genres). In the game it is an evil demon
capable of teleporting itself next to your character or
teleporting your character next to it.
Graham Masterton's horror novel Tengu tells of a
conspiracy by a secret Japanese society to avenge the
American bombing of Hiroshima by producing invincible
warriors possessed by the Tengu. It includes details of
some of the mythology and rituals surrounding the Tengu.
Kojiki
Kojiki (古事記 ?, "Record of Ancient Matters") is the oldest
extant chronicle in Japan, dating from the early 8th century
and composed by Ō no Yasumaro by Imperial request. The
Kojiki is a collection of myths concerning the origin of the
islands of Japan, and the Kami. Along with the Nihon
Shoki, the myths contained in the Kojiki are part of the
inspiration behind Shinto practices and myths, including the
misogi purification ritual.[1]
Structure
The Kojiki contains various songs/poems. While the
historical records and myths are written in a form of
Chinese with a heavy admixture of Japanese elements, the
songs are written with Chinese characters used to convey
sounds only. This special use of Chinese characters is
called Man'yōgana, a knowledge of which is critical to
understanding these songs. These songs are in the dialect
of the Yamato area from about 7th century to 8th century
AD, a language called Jōdai Nihongo (lit. "upper age
Japanese"). In English, this is most commonly called Old
Japanese.
The Kojiki is divided into three parts: Kamitsumaki (lit.
"upper roll"), Nakatsumaki (lit. "middle roll") and
Shimotsumaki (lit. "lower roll").
The "Kamitsumaki" includes the preface and is focused on
the deities of creation and the births of various deities.
The "Nakatsumaki" begins with the story of Emperor
Jimmu, the first Emperor, and his conquest of Japan, and
ends with the 15th Emperor, Emperor Ōjin. Many of the
stories it contains are mythological, and the allegedly
historical information in them is highly suspect. For
unknown reasons, the 2nd to 9th Emperors are listed but
their achievements are largely missing. Recent studies
support the view that these emperors were invented to
push Jimmu's reign further back to the year 660 BC.
The "Shimotsumaki" covers the 16th to 33rd Emperors
and, unlike previous volumes, has very limited references
to the interactions with deities which are so prominent in
the first and second volumes. Information on the 24th to
33rd Emperors are largely missing as well.
In History
In the Edo period, Motoori Norinaga studied the Kojiki
intensively, the results of which were published in his
Kojiki-den ("Kojiki commentary"). It was first claimed in the
Edo period that the Kojiki may have been forged later than
it was supposed to have been written.
The first and best-known English translation of the Kojiki
was made by the renowned Japanologist Basil Hall
Chamberlain. More recently, a translation by Donald L.
Philippi was published by University of Tokyo Press in
June 1977 (ISBN 0-86008-320-9).
Manuscripts
There are two major branches of Kojiki manuscripts: Ise
and Urabe. The extant Urabe branch consists of 36
existing manuscripts all based on the 1522 copies by
Urabe Kanenaga. The Ise branch may be subdivided into
the Shinpukuji ( 真 福 寺 本 ?) manuscript of 1371-1372 and
the Dōka ( 道 果 本 ?) manuscripts. The Dōka sub-branch
consists of:
• the Dōka ( 道 果 本 ) manuscript of 1381; only the
?
first half of the first volume remains
• the Dōshō (道祥本 ?) manuscript of 1424; only the
first volume remains, and there are many defects
• the Shun'yu ( 春 瑜 本 ?) manuscript of 1426; one
volume
The Shinpukuji manuscript (1371–1372) is the oldest
existing manuscript. While divided into the Ise branch, it is
actually a mixture of the two branches. The monk Ken'yu
based his copy on Ōnakatomi Sadayo's copy. In 1266,
Sadayo copied volumes one and three, but did not have
access to the second volume. Finally, in 1282, he obtained
access the second volume through a Urabe-branch
manuscript that he used to transcribe.
Nihon Shoki
The Nihon Shoki ( 日 本 書 紀 ?), sometimes translated as
The Chronicles of Japan, is the second oldest book of
classical Japanese history. It is more elaborate and
detailed than the Kojiki, the oldest, and has proven to be
an important tool for historians and archaeologists as it
includes the most complete extant historical record of
ancient Japan. The Nihon Shoki was finished in 720 under
the editorial supervision of Prince Toneri and with the
assistance of Ō no Yasumaro[1]. The book is also called the
Nihongi (日本紀 lit. Japanese Chronicles?).
Like the Kojiki, the Nihon Shoki begins with a series of
myths, but continues its account through to events of the
8th century. It is believed to record accurately the latter
reigns of Emperor Tenji, Emperor Temmu and Empress
Jitō. The Nihon Shoki focuses on the merits of the virtuous
rulers as well as the errors of the bad rulers. It describes
episodes from mythological eras and diplomatic contacts
with other countries. The Nihon Shoki was written in
classical Chinese, as was common for official documents at
that time. The Kojiki, on the other hand, is written in a
combination of Chinese and phonetic transcription of
Japanese (primarily for names and songs). The Nihon
Shoki also contains numerous transliteration notes telling
the reader how words were pronounced in Japanese.
Collectively, the stories in this book and the Kojiki are
referred to as the Kiki stories.[2]
One of the stories that first appear in the Nihon Shoki is the
tale of Urashima Tarō, which has been identified as the
earliest example of a story involving time travel.[3]
Chapters
• Chapter 01: (First chapter of myths) Kami no Yo
no Kami no maki.
• Chapter 02: (Second chapter of myths) Kami no
Yo no Shimo no maki.
• Chapter 03: (Emperor Jimmu) Kamuyamato
Iwarebiko no Sumeramikoto.
• Chapter 04:
o (Emperor Suizei) Kamu Nunakawamimi no
Sumeramikoto.
o (Emperor Annei) Shikitsuhiko Tamatemi no
Sumeramikoto.
o (Emperor Itoku) Ōyamato Hikosukitomo no
Sumeramikoto.
o (Emperor Kōshō) Mimatsuhiko Sukitomo
no Sumeramikoto.
o (Emperor Koan) Yamato Tarashihiko Kuni
Oshihito no Sumeramikoto.
o (Emperor Kōrei) Ōyamato Nekohiko Futoni
no Sumramikoto.
o (Emperor Kōgen) Ōyamato Nekohiko
Kunikuru no Sumramikoto.
o (Emperor Kaika) Wakayamato Nekohiko
Ōbibi no Sumeramikoto.
• Chapter 05: (Emperor Sujin) Mimaki Iribiko Iniye
no Sumeramikoto.
• Chapter 06: (Emperor Suinin) Ikume Iribiko Isachi
no Sumeramikoto.
• Chapter 07:
o (Emperor Keiko) Ōtarashihiko Oshirowake
no Sumeramikoto.
o (Emperor Seimu) Waka Tarashihiko no
Sumeramikoto.
• Chapter 08: (Emperor Chūai) Tarashi Nakatsuhiko
no Sumeramikoto.
• Chapter 09: (Empress Jingū) Okinaga
Tarashihime no Mikoto.
• Chapter 10: (Emperor Ōjin) Homuda no
Sumeramikoto.
• Chapter 11: (Emperor Nintoku) Ōsasagi no
Sumeramikoto.
• Chapter 12:
o (Emperor Richu) Izahowake
Sumeramikoto.
o (Emperor Hanzei) Mitsuhawake no
Sumeramikoto.
• Chapter 13:
o (Emperor Ingyo) Oasazuma Wakugo no
Sukune no Sumeramikoto.
o (Emperor Anko) Anaho no Sumeramikoto.
• Chapter 14: (Emperor Yūryaku) Ōhatsuse no
Waka Takeru no Sumeramikoto.
• Chapter 15:
o (Emperor Seinei) Shiraka no Take
Hirokuni Oshi Waka Yamato Neko no
Sumeramikoto.
o (Emperor Kenzo) Woke no Sumeramikoto.
o (Emperor Ninken) Oke no Sumeramikoto.
• Chapter 16: (Emperor Buretsu) Ohatsuse no
Waka Sasagi no Sumeramikoto.
• Chapter 17: (Emperor Keitai) Ōdo no
Sumeramikoto.
• Chapter 18:
o (Emperor Ankan) Hirokuni Oshi Take
Kanahi no Sumeramikoto.
o (Emperor Senka) Take Ohirokuni Oshi
Tate no Sumeramikoto.
• Chapter 19: (Emperor Kimmei) Amekuni
Oshiharaki Hironiwa no Sumeramikoto.
• Chapter 20: (Emperor Bidatsu) Nunakakura no
Futo Tamashiki no Sumeramikoto.
• Chapter 21:
o (Emperor Yomei) Tachibana no Toyohi no
Sumeramikoto.
o (Emperor Sushun) Hatsusebe
Sumeramikoto.
• Chapter 22: (Empress Suiko) Toyomike Kashikiya
Hime no Sumeramikoto.
• Chapter 23: (Emperor Jomei) Okinaga Tarashi
Hihironuka no Sumeramikoto.
• Chapter 24: (Empress Kogyoku) Ame Toyotakara
Ikashi Hitarashi no Hime no Sumeramikoto.
• Chapter 25: (Emperor Kōtoku) Ame Yorozu
Toyohi no Sumeramikoto.
• Chapter 26: (Empress Saimei) Ame Toyotakara
Ikashi Hitarashi no Hime no Sumeramikoto.
• Chapter 27: (Emperor Tenji) Ame Mikoto
Hirakasuwake no Sumeramikoto.
• Chapter 28: (Emperor Temmu, first chapter) Ama
no Nunakahara Oki no Mahito no Sumeramikoto,
Kami no maki.
• Chapter 29: (Emperor Temmu, second chapter)
Ama no Nunakahara Oki no Mahito no
Sumeramikoto, Shimo no maki.
• Chapter 30: (Empress Jito) Takamanohara Hirono
Hime no Sumeramikoto.
Process of compilation
Shoku Nihongi notes that "先是一品舍人親王奉勅修日本
紀。至是功成奏上。紀卅卷系圖一卷" in the part of May,
720. It means "Up to that time, Prince Toneri had been
no compiling Nihongi on the orders of the emperor; he
completed it, submitting 30 volumes of history and one
volume of genealogy". The volume of genealogy is no
longer extant.
Contributors
The process of compilation is usually studied by stylistic
analysis of each chapter. Although written in classical
Chinese, some sections use styles characteristic of
Japanese editors, while others seem to be written by native
speakers of Chinese. According to recent studies, most of
the chapters after #14 (Emperor Yūryaku chronicle) were
contributed by native Chinese, except for Chapters 22 and
23 (the Suiko and Jomei chronicle). Also, as Chapter 13
ends with the phrase "see details of the incident in the
chronicle of Ōhastuse (Yūryaku) Emperor" referring to the
assassination of Emperor Ankō, it is assumed that this
chapter was written after the compilation of subsequent
chapters. Some believe Chapter 14 was the first to be
completed.
References
The Nihon Shoki is said to be based on older documents,
specifically on the records that had been continuously kept
in the Yamato court since the sixth century. It also includes
documents and folklore submitted by clans serving the
court. Prior to Nihon Shoki, there were Tennōki and Kokki
compiled by Prince Shōtoku and Soga no Umako, but as
they were stored in Soga's residence, they were burned at
the time of the Isshi Incident.
no
The work's contributors refer to various sources which do
not exist today. Among those sources, three Baekje
documents(Kudara-ki,etc) are cited mainly for the purpose
of recording diplomatic affairs.[4]
Records possibly written in Baekje may have been the
basis for the quotations in the Nihon Shoki. But textual
criticism shows that scholars fleeing the destruction of the
Baekje to Yamato wrote these histories and the authors of
the Nihon Shoki heavily relied upon those sources.[5] This
must be taken into account in relation to statements
referring to old historic rivalries between the ancient Korean
kingdoms of Silla, Goguryeo, and Baekje. The use of
Baekje's place names in Nihon Shoki is another piece of
evidence that shows the history used Baekje documents.
Some other sources are cited anonymously as aru fumi (一
書; other document), in order to keep alternative records for
specific incidents.
Exaggeration of reign lengths
Most scholars agree that the purported founding date of
Japan (660 BCE) and the earliest emperors of Japan are
legendary or mythical.[6] This does not necessarily imply
that the persons referred to did not exist, merely that there
is insufficient evidence to conclude that they existed or can
be assigned to a particular period of history. It is much
more likely that they were chieftains, or local kings, and
that the polities they ruled would not have encompassed
all, or even most, of Japan.

For those monarchs, and also for the Emperors Ōjin and
Nintoku, the lengths of reign are likely to have been
exaggerated in order to make the origins of the imperial
family sufficiently ancient to satisfy numerological
expectations. It is widely believed that the epoch of 660
BCE was chosen because it is a "xīn-yǒu" year in the
sexagenary cycle, which according to Taoist beliefs was
an appropriate year for a revolution to take place. As
Taoist theory also groups together 21 sexagenary cycles
into one unit of time, it is assumed that the compilers of
Nihon Shoki assigned the year 601 (a "xīn-yǒu" year in
which Prince Shotoku's reformation took place) as a
"modern revolution" year, and consequently recorded 660
BCE, 1260 years prior to that year, as the founding epoch.

Kesshi Hachidai ("eight undocumented monarchs")

For the eight emperors of Chapter 4, only the years of birth

and reign, year of naming as Crown Prince, names of
consorts, and locations of tomb are recorded. They are
called the Kesshi Hachidai ( 欠史八代 , "Eight generations
lacking history") because no legends are associated with
them. Recent studies support the view that these emperors
were invented to push Jimmu's reign further back to the
year 660 BCE. Nihon Shoki itself somewhat elevates the
"tenth" emperor Sujin, recording that he was called the
Hatsu-Kuni-Shirasu (御肇国: first nation-ruling) emperor.