Mungkin anda sering mendengar istilah TOEFL tahukah anda apa pengertiannya?

Inilah dia penjelasan dan pengertian TOEFL: Test of English as a Foreign Language disingkat TOEFL adalah ujian kemampuan berbahasa Inggris (logat Amerika) yang diperlukan untuk mendaftar masuk ke kolese (college) atau universitas di Amerika Serikat atau negara-negara lain di dunia. Ujian ini sangat diperlukan bagi pendaftar atau pembicara yang bahasa ibunya bukan bahasa Inggris. Ujian TOEFL ini diselenggarakan oleh kantor ETS (Educational Testing Service) di Amerika Serikat untuk semua peserta tes di seluruh dunia. Jenis tes bahasa Inggris TOEFL ini pada umumnya diperlukan untuk persyaratan masuk kuliah pada hampir semua universitas di Amerika Serikat dan Kanada baik untuk program undergraduate (S-1) maupun graduate (S-2 atau S-3). Hasil tes TOEFL ini juga dipakai sebagai bahan pertimbangan mengenai kemampuan bahasa Inggris dari calon mahasiswa yang mendaftar ke universitas di negara lain, termasuk universitas di Eropa dan Australia. Secara umum, tes TOEFL lebih berorientasi kepada American English, dan sedikit berbeda dengan jenis tes IELTS yang berorientasi kepada British English. Tidak seperti tes IELTS, tes TOEFL ini pada umumnya tidak mempunyai bagian individual interview test. Biasanya tes ini memakan waktu sekitar tiga jam dan diselenggarakan dalam 4 bagian, yaitu bagian: * listening comprehension, * grammar structure and written expression, * reading comprehension, dan bagian * writing. Nilai hasil ujian TOEFL berkisar antara: 310 (nilai minimum) sampai 677 (nilai maximum) untuk versi PBT (paper-based test). Sejak tahun 1998, tes TOEFL ini diadakan secara online dengan menggunakan komputer (Computer-based Testing/CBT), dan sejak tahun 2005 disebut iBT (Internet-based Test). Di tempat-tempat yang belum bisa melaksanakan CBT atau iBT (karena belum ada fasilitas komputer dan jaringan internetnya), ujian TOEFL ini masih tetap diadakan secara manual menggunakan kertas dan potlot (paper-based test atau PBT). Informasi lebih lengkap tentang tes CBT dan paper-based TOEFL berkaitan dengan pendaftaran, lokasi penyelenggaraan, biaya, dan bahan-bahan persiapan tes dapat dilihat di situs resmi TOEFL, http://www.toefl.org (hasil ujian TOEFL versi CBT mempunyai nilai berkisar antara 0 sampai 300, sementara nilai untuk iBT adalah dari 0 sampai 120) [1]. Akhir-akhir ini penyelenggara tes TOEFL juga mengadakan jenis tes TWE (Test of Written English) yang hasil nilainya terpisah dari nilai tes TOEFL. Tes ini memakan waktu selama 30 menit, dan peserta akan diminta untuk menuliskan karangan singkat yang menggambarkan mengenai kemampuan peserta untuk mengekspresikan dan menuangkan suatu gagasan atau ide, serta mendukung gagasan itu dengan contoh-contoh yang terdapat dalam kehidupan sehari-hari dengan menggunakan bahasa Inggris yang standar.

Jenis tes TOEFL yang lain adalah TSEP (Test of Spoken English Program) yang mirip dengan bagian individual interview pada tes IELTS. Tes ini biasanya dipakai kalau kita ingin mendaftar sebagai asisten dosen atau asisten laboratorium (sebagai salah satu cara untuk meringankan biaya kuliah) di universias di AS (atau negara lain). Bentuk tesnya diadakan secara lisan dan berlangsung selama kurang lebih 20 menit. Waktu penyelenggaraan dan batas akhir pendaftarannya sama dengan tes TOEFL yang lain, dan biayanya kira-kira sebesar US$100.

eHow Education College & Higher Education Getting Into College TOEFL History

TOEFL History By John Yargo, eHow Contributor

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The Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) is the standardized test by which the English-language skills of non-native speakers are evaluated. The test is required by most colleges and some employers to make sure students and employees are capable of handling the linguistic challenges of cultural immersion. The test is designed by the Center for Applied Linguistics and administered by the Educational Testing Service. Other People Are Reading

The History of the TOEFL Exam What Is the TOEFL Exam?

Background

Based in Washington, D.C., the Center for Applied Linguistics (CAL) is a nonprofit organization committed to researching the relationship between language and culture. Founded in 1959, its first director was Charles A. Ferguson (1921-1998), who had administered similar programs in the Middle East and taught as a professor at Harvard University. Ferguson guided the center to develop practical solutions for the applied language and literacy concerns of international and national governments. Origin

One of Ferguson's earliest projects was to develop a test that would quantify the command of the language that ESL (English-as-a-Second-Language) students and government employees had. Ferguson and fellow applied linguistics researchers developed the TOEFL test for the first five years of the CAL. In 1964, the first official TOEFL test was taken at the center.

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Since the late 1960s, the TOEFL test has been administered by the Educational Testing Service (ETS), an international standardized-testing organization. According to ETS, between 1964 and 2008, 24 million people, largely international students, have taken the test. Introduced in 2005, the Internet-based test has replaced the computer-based and paper-based formats, with the computer-based results ruled no longer valid as of 2006. Organization

Since the early 1970s, the 15-member TOEFL board has dealt with specific problems regarding the organization. This board is comprised of educators and government and industry representatives who are involved in international education. A board of 12 language specialists form the TOEFL Committee of

Examiners, which addresses any concerns with the test's content and methodology, keeping the test valid. Composition of Test

Since 1998, the paper test has been made up of 30 listening-based questions, 40 "writtenexpression" questions, 50 reading-comprehension questions, and a 300-word essay. The Internet-based test includes four sections: answering questions on a 700-word passage and questions on 30 minutes of an audio sample, as well as six speaking and written-composition tasks. The Internet-based test has also implemented tables and other formats into the test.

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Completely Free -Start Course Now ! www.alison.com/English-Grammar eHow pendidikan Universitas & Perguruan Tinggi Mendapatkan Ke Universitas Sejarah TOEFL Sejarah TOEFL Oleh John Yargo , eHow Kontributor saham Cetak artikel ini Tes Bahasa Inggris sebagai Bahasa Asing ( TOEFL ) adalah tes standar dimana kemampuan bahasa Inggris - bahasa non-penutur asli dievaluasi . Tes ini diperlukan oleh sebagian besar perguruan tinggi dan beberapa pengusaha untuk membuat siswa yakin dan karyawan yang mampu menangani tantangan

linguistik perendaman budaya . Tes ini dirancang oleh Center for Applied Linguistics dan dikelola oleh Educational Testing Service . Orang Lain Apakah Membaca Sejarah Ujian TOEFL Apa Apakah Ujian TOEFL ? latar belakang Berbasis di Washington , DC , Pusat Linguistik Terapan ( CAL ) adalah sebuah organisasi nirlaba berkomitmen untuk meneliti hubungan antara bahasa dan budaya . Didirikan pada tahun 1959 , direktur pertama adalah Charles A. Ferguson ( 1921-1998 ) , yang telah diberikan program serupa di Timur Tengah dan mengajar sebagai profesor di Harvard University. Ferguson dipandu pusat untuk mengembangkan solusi praktis untuk masalah bahasa dan keaksaraan diterapkan pemerintah internasional dan nasional . asal Salah satu proyek awal Ferguson adalah untuk mengembangkan tes yang akan mengukur perintah bahasa yang ESL ( English - as-a - Second - Language) mahasiswa dan pegawai pemerintah memiliki . Ferguson dan rekan diterapkan linguistik peneliti mengembangkan tes TOEFL selama lima tahun pertama CAL . Pada tahun 1964 , pertama tes resmi TOEFL diambil di pusat. Pesan Sponsor Bahan pelatihan Lembut keterampilan materi pelatihan untuk mengajar pelatihan pengembangan staf . corporatetrainingmaterials.com pengembangan Sejak akhir 1960-an , tes TOEFL telah dikelola oleh Educational Testing Service ( ETS ) , sebuah organisasi standar - pengujian internasional . Menurut ETS , antara 1964 dan 2008 , 24 juta orang , sebagian besar siswa internasional , telah mengambil tes . Diperkenalkan pada tahun 2005, ujian berbasis internet telah menggantikan dan format berbasis kertas berbasis komputer , dengan hasil berbasis komputer diperintah tidak lagi berlaku pada tahun 2006 . organisasi Sejak awal 1970-an , 15 - anggota dewan TOEFL telah berurusan dengan masalah-masalah khusus mengenai organisasi . Dewan ini terdiri dari pendidik dan wakil pemerintah dan industri yang terlibat dalam pendidikan internasional . Sebuah dewan 12 spesialis bahasa membentuk Komite TOEFL Penguji , yang membahas segala keprihatinan dengan isi tes dan metodologi , menjaga tes valid. Komposisi Uji

Sejak tahun 1998 , kertas ujian telah terdiri dari 30 berbasis mendengarkan pertanyaan , 40 " ditulis - ekspresi " pertanyaan , 50 pertanyaan membaca - pemahaman, dan esai 300 - kata . Tes berbasis internet meliputi empat bagian : menjawab pertanyaan pada bagian 700 - kata dan pertanyaan tentang 30 menit dari sampel audio, serta enam berbicara dan menulis komposisi - tugas . Tes berbasis internet juga telah mengimplementasikan tabel dan format lain ke dalam tes . Pesan Sponsor Gratis English Grammar English Grammar w Video / Audio & Cert Sepenuhnya Gratis -Start Course Sekarang! www.alison.com / English Grammar

The TOEFL test, formerly known as the Test of English as a Foreign Language was developed in the early 1960s to assess the English proficiency of nonnative speakers of the language who intend to study in institutions where English is the language of instruction. The TOEFL test was developed under the auspices of the National Council on the Testing of English as a Foreign Language. The Council was formed through the cooperative effort of more than 30 public and private institutions concerned with the English proficiency of nonnative speakers, especially those applying to English-medium academic institutions. The testing program was initially financed by grants from the

Ford and Danforth Foundations and was, at first, attached administratively to the Modern Language Association. In 1965, the College Board and Educational Testing Service ( ETS ) assumed joint responsibility for the testing program. In recognition of the fact that many who take the TOEFL test are potential graduate students, a cooperative arrangement for the operation of the testing program was entered into by ETS, the College Board, and the Graduate Record Examinations ( GRE ) Board. Today the TOEFL Board advises ETS on policies under which ETS administers the TOEFL Program. The Board consists of 16 individuals. In accordance with its bylaws, the College Board appoints three Board members, and three are appointed by the GRE Board to represent the interests of undergraduate and graduate education. Nine at-large members are also appointed to provide representation for the various constituent groups that have an interest in the program. The Chair of the TOEFL Committee of Examiners also serves

on the TOEFL Board. The board has three standing committees, each responsible for specific areas of program activity: the Committee of Examiners (COE), the Grants and Aw

itu TOEFL Uji , sebelumnya dikenal sebagai " Test Bahasa Inggris sebagai Bahasa Asing " dikembangkan pada awal 1960-an untuk menilai kemampuan berbahasa Inggris normatif dari bahasa yang berniat untuk belajar di lembaga mana Bahasa Inggris adalah bahasa pengantar . Tes TOEFL adalah dikembangkan di bawah naungan Dewan Nasional Pengujian Bahasa Inggris sebagai Bahasa Asing . Dewan dibentuk melalui upaya kerja sama lebih dari 30 lembaga publik dan swasta yang bersangkutan dengan Kemampuan berbahasa Inggris normatif , terutama yang mendaftar ke institusi akademis Inggris- menengah . itu program pengujian awalnya dibiayai oleh hibah dari Ford dan Danforth Yayasan dan , pada awalnya , terlampir administratif kepada Modern Language Association . di 1965 , Dewan College dan Educational Testing Service ( ETS ) Diasumsikan tanggung jawab bersama untuk program pengujian . Dalam pengakuan fakta bahwa banyak yang mengambil TOEFL uji potensi siswa pascasarjana , koperasi pengaturan untuk pengoperasian program pengujian yang diadakan oleh ETS , Dewan College, dan Graduate Record Examinations ( GRE ) Dewan . Hari ini Dewan TOEFL menyarankan ETS kebijakan di mana ETS mengelola Program TOEFL . Dewan terdiri dari 16 orang . sesuai dengan peraturan , Dewan Tinggi menunjuk tiga anggota Dewan , dan tiga diangkat oleh Dewan GRE untuk mewakili kepentingan sarjana dan pendidikan pascasarjana . sembilan

at-large anggota juga ditunjuk untuk memberikan representasi berbagai kelompok konstituen yang memiliki kepentingan dalam program ini . Ketua Komite TOEFL Penguji juga berfungsi di Dewan TOEFL . Dewan memiliki tiga komite berdiri , masing-masing bertanggung jawab untuk daerah tertentu dari program kegiatan : the Komite Penguji ( COE ) , Hibah dan Aw
Shiken: JALT Testing & Evaluation SIG Newsletter. 14 (1 ) March 2010 (p. 2 10) 2 The TOEIC The TOEIC in Japan: A scandal made in heaven in Japan: A scandal made in heaven James McCrostie (Daito Bunka University) F irst implemented in 1979, the Test of English for International Communication TM (TOEIC) has become ubiquitous in Japan , where the test was administered 1,718,000 times in 2008 (A. Yoshida, personal

communication, June 5, 2009). Korea is about the only other country sharing Japan's enthusiasm for the test. About 5 million people in more than 90 countries take the TOEIC annually, but approximately 80% of them live in Japan or Korea (ETS, 2006, p. 4). Despite the TOEIC's popularity, few people seem aware of the organization administrating the test in Japan. Called the Institute for International Business Communication (IIBC), even authors mildly or highly critic al of the TOEIC have virtually ignored it (Chapman & Newfields, 2008; Chapman, 2006; Childs, 1995; Hirai, 2002; McCrostie, 2006). The one exception, an explanation of the IIBC's marketing strategy co authored by a former employee, contains little in the wa y of critical analysis (Ihara & Tsuroka, 2001). The IIBC is a public interest corporation ( zaidan houijin ), a type of non profit requiring government approval to be formed. In the case of the IIBC, the former Ministry of International Trade and Indus try, which in 2001 became the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry, threw its weight behind IIBC and the TOEIC in the 1970s and 80s (Chapman, 2004, p. 10). The IIBC also has origins as an amakudari

organization. Literally meaning descent from heave n , amakudari refers to the practice of providing Japanese bureaucrats with patronage posts when they retire from the civil service. This article briefly examines IIBC's early history, its executive hiring practices, its relationships with for profit pa rtners, and its misuse of TOEIC fees. On the basis of those facts, I will then assert that IIBC is an organization which appears to be more concerned more with benefiting itself than with the English ability of test takers. TOEIC's Descent From Heaven: Th e Early History A man named Kitaoka Yasuo (1928 1997) deserves most of the credit for the TOEIC's creation (IIBC, 2009b). As the owner of a now defunct business named International Communications Inc., Kitaoka first planned to market English textbo oks -

but decided to enter the testing business. In the mid 1970s, Kitaoka approached Educational Testing Service (ETS) with his idea for a new English test for use in Japan. According to Ihara and Tsuoka (2001, p. 37), ETS informed Kitaoka that the y required a non profit organization to work as their partner. According to Prey (2001, p. 55), while the TOEIC was being established ETS preferred these non profit partners to have government support. Kitaoka first approached the Ministry of Educat ion, but its bureaucrats obstructed his efforts because they did not want to foster competition against the STEP Eiken, which the Ministry already supported (Ihara & Tsuroka, 2001, p. 37). Undeterred, Kitaoka received assistance from a friend named Watanab e Yaeji. Watanabe's influence as a retired high ranking MITI bureaucrat proved crucial to establishing the TOEIC. In his memoirs, Watanabe describes taking cover behind the Ministry of Trade shield

 to overcome Ministry of Education opposition (Watanabe, 2003, p. 114). Watanabe had remained in close contact with his old ministry after taking amakudari posts as chair of the Japan China Economic Association and World Economic Information Services (WEIS) board member. Both are public interest corporatio ns that operated under MITI authority. Watanabe received permission to form and chair a TOEIC Steering Committee within WEIS. Members of the committee included other retired MITI bureaucrats and business executives. With government support secured, ETS agreed to create the test and in 1979 the TOEIC Steering Committee administered the first TOEIC in Japan (Chapman, 2004, p. 10).

Shiken: JALT Testing & Evaluation SIG Newsletter. 14 (1 ) March 2010 (p. 2 10) 3 While the TOEIC has now become synonymous with business English testing in Japan, this success was by no means assure

d. During TOEIC's early years it attracted fewer than the expected number of test takers, resulting in serious financial difficulties. C ircumstances became so clamant that Watanabe prayed to God for help (Watanabe, 2003, p. 114). His prayers were answered in the form of a new version of the TOEIC and a little help from some friends. In 1981, the IIBC began offering a second format of the test called the TOEIC Institutional Program (IP). Unlike the TOEIC Secure Program (SP) offered at fixed places and times of the year, the TOEIC IP could be offered at a company's convenience for a slightly cheaper price. The year after its introduction, the IP test passed the SP in terms of number of t est takers and has remained the more popular format ever since. In 2 008, test takers in Japan took the TOEIC IP 940,000 times and the TOEIC SP 778,000 times (A. Yoshida, personal communication, June 5, 2009) . Two of the first companies to force their employees to take the TOEIC IP were Matsushita Electric Industrial

Co., Ltd. (now Panasonic) and Fujitsu. At first glance, their early adoption of the TOEIC IP seems natural since high level managers from both companies helped Watanabe establish the TOEIC. Harata Akira, a Matsushita vice president, and Akazawa Shoichi, an advisor for Fujitsu Computers, were two of the TOEIC Steering Committee's original 23 members (Ihara & Tsuoka, 2001, p. 50). A closer look shows that neither had any formal training in language teaching or testing. Like Watanabe, both gentlemen were retired MITI bureau chiefs. Both men had also deployed golden amakudari parachutes to drop into their high level management positions. For example Akazawa, the former director of MITI's H eavy I ndustries B ureau, undertook a major

 descent from the MITI in 1973 when he became an advisor to Fujitsu (Johnson, 1974, p. 956). At the time, Fujitsu was in fierce competition with American computer makers and a major recipient of MITI subsidies to develop a Japanese computer industry (Johnson, 1974, p. 956). Their MITI connections led to Akazawa and Harata's serving on the steering committee , which facilitated Fujitsu and Matsushita's adoption of the TOEIC IP. This certainly did not lead directly to continued ministry subsidies for their computer divisions; h owever, being reliant on the Ministry of Trade, it would have been difficult for them to refuse a request from their former colleague to support the new ministry backed test. Fujitsu and Matsushita's support for the TOEIC IP helped secure a market a nd high profile users for the test (Ihara & Tsuoka, 2001, p. 43). This proved a significant boost as the TOEIC struggled to win market share. Government connections proved vital not only to the test's creation but also its early survival. Without the suppo

rt from Watanabe's old colleagues it seems likely that a lack of demand would have smothered the newly born TOEIC in its cradle. By 1986, the TOEIC had 100,000 annual test takers in Japan and Watanabe became chair of a new public interest corporation called the Institute for International Business Communication (IIBC). Created with the permission of the MITI and operating under its supervision, the IIBC assumed responsibilities for administering the TOEIC in Japan. Getting a Job at Heaven on Earth: Ne potistic Hiring Hiring practices for IIBC executives seem to have more to do with connections than with knowledge about language learning or testing. Ever since the IIBC's creation, it has provided positions to ex bureaucrats from the MITI/METI. In 2 007, one of four full time members and three of ten part time members of the IIBC's Board of Directors were ex bureaucrats. Most, if not all, of these part timers were connected to Watanabe. The part

time members of the board are technically volunteers, so one is reminded of the adage you get what you pay for when considering the contributions made by such appointees. Since these ex bureaucrats possess little or no experience related to language learning or testing they can play little role in improving the TOEIC or helping ensure businesses or schools use it properly. Instead, they help ed serve a role in continuing to cement the relationship between the IIBC and the METI and ensure the support of the Ministry during any bureaucratic turf battles.

Shiken: JALT Testing & Evaluation SIG Newsletter. 14 (1 ) March 2010 (p. 2 10) 4 Wata nabe Yaeji, IIBC c hair from its foundation in 1986 until his sudden retirement in 2009 at the age of 92, deserves special attention when discussing the lack of qualifications for IIBC executives. Until he helped his friend Kitaoka establish the TOEIC, Wata

nabe confessed he possessed no interest in, or knowledge of, language testing. Watanabe only began studying English in 1982 at the age of 65 and did not begin studying in earnest until after becoming IIBC c hair in 1986 (Watanabe, 2003, p. 3, 117). No r did Watanabe devote his undivided attention to the IIBC. Despite holding a full time position as IIBC chair, he also worked as a partner in his own law firm and chair of the Beautiful Aging Association (BAA). Established by Watanabe in 1992, the BAA is a nother public interest corporation operating under METI authority. The BAA organizes lectures and activities for member company retirees including: kar a oke outings, go tournaments, and cooking classes (BAA, 2008). Another member of the IIBC executiv e board with questionable qualifications is a man named Murofushi Takayuki. FRIDAY , a weekly Japanese magazine best known for reporting on scandals connected to

celebrities and government officials, caused some surprise in the language teaching community w hen it ran an expose of Murofushi s appointment to the IIBC. According to FRIDAY, Murofushi started working for IIBC's for profit partner International Communications School (ICS) following his graduation from university (FRIDAY, 2009, p. 16). ICS was foun ded in 1983 to promote the TOEIC IP , initially on behalf of the WEIS TOEIC Steering Committee and presently on behalf of the IIBC . In 2008, he resigned from his position on ICS' board of directors to join the IIBC's board. His main qualification for both p osts seemed to

be his third job as Watanabe's personal secretary. In July 2009 , Murofushi became IIBC chair, replacing Watanabe who suddenly resigned for health reasons. Watanabe and Murofushi's mother, a poetry teacher named Murofushi Jukan, have h ad a long relationship. Since the 1980s, she and Watanabe worked together to increase the popularity of classical Chinese poetry (Watanabe, 2003, pp. 80 83). The two are also romantically linked, living in adjacent apartments in the same building (FRIDAY, 2009, p. 16). The blatant nepotism of appointing Watanabe's girlfriend's son to an executive position shocked even the IIBC Board of Directors. To force the appointment Watanabe had to purge half the board (FRIDAY, 2009, p. 15). Heaven's Streets Are Paved with Gold: Private Companies Profiting from the TOEIC Despite ETS' original refusal to deal with Kitaoka's business, several connected companies in Japan have enjoyed a profitable partnership with the IIBC. Kitaoka's efforts to create the TOEIC and h is friendship with Watanabe did not go uncompensated. Kitaoka became IIBC vice chair and the IIBC rewarded his company International Communications Inc. with contracts for administering the test's official Japanese fan club, publishing the magazine TOEIC F riends, and developing an online registration system (McCrostie, Aug. 11,

2009). In addition, ICI subsidiaries promoted the TOEIC in the United States, Canada, and other countries in the mid 1990s . Appendix A outlines the connections between IIBC and its m ain for profit partners. Following Kitaoka's death in 1997, ICI seemed to begin having difficulties. According to Yoshida Atsuko, an IIBC public relations manager, It closed after Mr. Kitaoka passed away (A. Yoshida, personal communication, June 5, 2009). However, archived web pages show that ICI continued operations until 2003. In 2003, ICI changed its name to T. F. Communications, which shut down in 2004. A nother for profit company that continues enjoying close ties with the IIBC is Interna tional Communication School (ICS). Established in 1983 to promote the TOEIC IP in Japan, it offers customer

support to organizations using the test. ICS operations, while not top secret, are not exactly widely advertised either; it has no website and the o nly mention of the company on the IIBC website is on a privacy policy page at www.toeic.or.jp/privacy/privacy_05_01.html. When asked during a June 2009 interview why IIBC needed a for profit partner IIBC public relations manager, Yoshida Atsuko, sta ted, International Communications School was established purely for the purpose of promoting TOEIC business. As to why it had to be established, I'm sorry but I don't have an answer for tha t (A. Yoshida, personal communication, June 5, 2009). Despite pro mises to find the answer , another public relations employee informed me in a follow up email, We are not in a position to answer the

Shiken: JALT Testing & Evaluation SIG Newsletter. 14 (1 ) March 2010 (p. 2 10) 5 question (R. Hanai, personal communication, June 9, 2009). Similarly, ICS spokespeople refuse to reveal the names of the corporate owners (McCrostie, Aug. 18, 2009). The IIBC and ICS share a very close partnership. Watanabe formerly served on its board of directors and ICS' 70 employees operate out of offices located next door to IIBC, sharing a common lobby area and s ecurity guard. IIBC and ICS employees also have nearly identical business cards, both prominently displaying the TOEIC logo with only International Communications School Inc. or The Institute for International Business Communication

in fine print disti nguishing them. ICS is involved in the TOEIC several different ways. It acts as the publisher for IIBC produced TOEIC textbooks, but its main duty is promoting the TOEIC IP. ICS sales staff work for one of two divisions promoting the TOEIC IP to eit her businesses or schools. Financial statements for 2008 show the IIBC spent 375 million (45% of the TOEIC IP's administration costs) for the vague service of popularizing the test. According to an expert in Japanese non profits, such partnerships are a standard technique for public interest corporations to engage in off the book profiteering (S.

Carpenter , personal communication, July 10, 2009). ICS may also be making money by printing exams and through the dispatch of test proctors. The IIBC spen t 250 million in exam printing fees in 2008. IIBC financial statements do not reveal which company received the contract, but ICS is the publisher for IIBC approved textbooks. The IIBC's biggest expense for administering the TOEIC SP is dispatch fees for test examiners. In 2008, dispatch fees total l ed 862 million, making up 39% of the total expenses for administering the TOEIC SP (IIBC, 2009a). Suspiciously, company websites show that ICS owns its own dispatch company called Fellowship Inc. through a subs idiary called Odyssey Communications (Fellowship Inc, 2009; Odyssey Communications, 2009). At some point, the ownership of ICI/T.F. Communications' subsidiaries was transferred to ICS. One of these subsidiaries is a company called E Communications (w ww.e

coms.co.jp). Its primary clients are the IIBC and ICS and its office is located down the hall from their offices. E Communications' main business is managing TOEIC's Japanese online application system. The company web page shows that it is also involv ed in the TOEIC preparation business, offering an online programme that recycles questions from the old TOEIC fan club magazine. E Communications has been consistently profitable, generating a net profit of 36 million in fiscal 2005, 13.6 million i n 2006, 30 million in 2007, and nearly 11 million in 2008. They closed the 2008 financial year with net assets worth 246 million (E -

Communications, 2009). The three members of E Communications' board (Representative Director Sato Shinya, ICS' Representa tive Director Noguchi Hisao, and a third board member) received a total of 33 million for their services in 2008 (E Communications, 2009, p. 4). Another connected company making money off the TOEIC through their relationship with the IIBC is a busi ness called ICC. This English training and consulting company, whose initials do not seem to stand for anything, offers English and TOEIC training classes. ICC's Representative Director is a man named Chida Junichi and he worked with Kitaoka at Time magazi ne. Chida also worked as a special advisor to TOEIC Friends magazine when it was published by Kitaoka's company , International Communications Inc. H e currently offers TOEIC preparation advice on the TOEIC Square website at

http://www.toeic.or.jp/square/adv ice/advice_score/ . According to Chida, Kitaoka inspired him to start ICC. On ICC's web page Chida explains how as Kitaoka lay dying of cancer in the hospital he instructed Chida to create an English counselling system in his last telephone call to hi m. As a result, Chida started ICC (Chida, 2008). Conveniently, ICC's offices are located in the same building as IIBC, International Communications School, and E Communications. In addition to the TOEIC preparation classes they offer, ICC receives c ontracts from the IIBC to give TOEIC information lectures. After the IIBC introduced the TOEIC Bridge to Japan, ICC representatives gave 16 information lectures across Japan in 2003 and 2004 (ICC, 2008). Chida has also recently given a

Shiken: JALT Testing & Evaluation SIG Newsletter. 14 (1 ) March 2010 (p. 2 10) 6 series of lectures e xplaining the TOEIC Speaking and Writing test. It is unclear why the IIBC's own public relations department is unable to perform these duties. It is nearly impossible for the public to know how much the IIBC pays its for -

profit partners. While the I IBC is required by law to publish financial statements, their vagueness makes it difficult to track the movement of funds between the IIBC and companies such as ICS, E Communications, and ICC. Furthermore, my experience is that IIBC spokespeople become ver y defensive when queried about these for profit partners. When asked about E Communications for a newspaper article, IIBC public relations manager Yoshida Atsuko replied, How do you know about E Communications? then later Why do you have to mention E co mmunications in your article?

 (A. Yoshida, personal communication, June 5, 2009). In the 1990s, ETS' attitude towards for profits underwent a volte face and it established its own for profit subsidiary to take over responsibility for the TOEIC. From 1996 2004, a private company owned by ETS, called The Chauncey Group International, controlled the TOEIC. ETS established The Chauncey Group to run a number of tests , including the TOEIC, that it decided lay outside ETS' main educational mission. This all owed ETS to continue generating revenue from the tests without threatening its tax exempt status (Bennett, 2008, p. 2). Transfer of TOEIC control to The Chauncey Group suggests ETS viewed the test as laying outside its main educational mission but at the s

ame time an important source of revenue. In 2004, ETS regained direct control of the TOEIC following a series of mergers and acquisitions . (Canadian Press, 2004). Today, ETS licenses the right to use the TOEIC to private companies in exchange for a pe r test royalty fee. In Korea, an English education conglomerate called YBM/Si sa administers the TOEIC. According to Y.B. Min, president of that company, ETS now prefer [s] commercial companies in order to make profi t (Prey, 2001, p. 56). The quest ionable partnerships between the IIBC and private companies , ETS' decision to transfer control of the test to its own for -

profit subsidiary as well as the relative lack of actual TOEIC research (Chapman, 2003, pp. 2 4) suggests IIBC and ETS have been more concerned with building their own organizations than with creating a valid measure of English proficiency and promoting effective language instruction improving the English ability of test takers. The Price of Heaven: Where Do the Test Fees Go? Despi te being a public interest corporation, it is my belief that the IIBC misuses TOEIC fees in a number of ways that fail to benefit the test taking public. For one, fees are spent subsidizing the remarkably high cost of some less popular TOEIC brand tests. T hose paying to take the TOEIC Listening and Reading test subsidize less popular TOEIC brand tests. In fiscal 2008, the IIBC took in 36 million in test fees from the computer based TOEIC Speaking and Writing Test (SW)

well short of the estimated 79 mill ion but spent 551 million administering the test (IIBC, 2009a). With only 4,000 people taking the test in 2008, it cost the IIBC more than 138,000 per test taker. The IIBC lost a further 28 million on other unpopular tests including the TOEIC Language Proficiency Interview which is no longer being offered after February 2010 and the French TOEIC, which was taken by only four people in fiscal 2008 (IIBC, 2008a). The IIBC

s willingness to promote the testing of communicative English skills, even at a financial loss, is admirable. However, the extent of that loss, 515 million per year in the case of the TOEIC SW, raises the question where is all the money going? That question is impossible to answer by examining the IIBC s public financial statements. Secondly, the IIBC's budget includes several expenses that have little to do with testing English proficiency. The previously mentioned Beautiful Aging Association received funds from both the IIBC and its for profit partner ICS. However, IIBC and B AA financial statements fail to clearly show how much money. After my Japan Times articles showing the financial links between the IIBC and BAA were published the IIBC's name was taken off the list of supporting organizations published on the BAA's web sit e , but it is unclear whether the funding itself has also been cut. ICS continues to be listed as a supporting

member.

Shiken: JALT Testing & Evaluation SIG Newsletter. 14 (1 ) March 2010 (p. 2 10) 7 TOEIC test fees also help pay for an IIBC division called Global Human Resources Development (GHRD). This division gathers informati on from around the world to help Japanese become better global managers ( GHRD, 2004 ) . I t maintains a website, magazine, and hosts information seminars. IIBC

spokespeople declined to reveal how much money the GHRD division spends each year (R. Hanai, pers onal communication, June 9, 2009). However, financial statements show that it was nearly 265 million in fiscal 2007, over a 100 million in fiscal 2008, and about 78 million in fiscal 2009 (IIBC, 2009a; 2009d). The smaller budget in 2009 was the result o f cutting funding to the Chinese Poetry Recitation Association and an end to a leadership consultation project that cost 161 million in 2007. Furthermore, in a conflict of interest, from 1989 2009 through this GHRD division, the IIBC spent about 13 million annually on research into adapting to Chinese culture (IIBC, 2008a; 2009a). This money was actually funneled to the Chinese Poetry Recitation Association. Starting in 1989, the IIBC sponsored the association's Chinese poetry appreciation meet ings in Japan as well as the United States and Europe. The poetry association's head teacher, Murofushi Jukan, is the IIBC's ex chair's girlfriend and the current chair's

mother. After the magazine FRIDAY began investigating Watanabe and Murofushi , the IIB C suddenly cut off this poetry funding. These conflicts of interest show how Watanabe viewed IIBC assets as his private property. Furthermore, while he only showed up at the IIBC office one day a week in 2009 Watanabe received an annual salary of abo ut 20 million (FRIDAY, 2009; IIBC 2008a). Four IIBC executives received a total of 77.5 million in fiscal 2007 and 79 million in 2008. Budget estimates showed plans to increase pay for four executives to 121 million in fiscal 2009 but it was cut to 75 million for three executives (IIBC, 2008a; 2009). The salaries of IIBC executives can be described as very generous. For comparison, the average annual income of 29 amakudari

bureaucrats working for independent government administrative agencies in 2008 w as 18.58 million, with the 22.31 million salary for the chair of the METI's Japan External Trade Organization being the highest (Kyodo News, 2009). Murofushi earns about 25 million yen to manage the IIBC's 156 employees and three offices in Tokyo, Osaka and Nagoya. JETRO's chair earns 22.31 million to manage that organization's 1,580 employees and 72 offices in 55 countries (JETRO, 2010). Thirdly, ETS takes a cut of the test fee through dramatically rising royalty fees. The IIBC pays ETS royalties for each TOEIC brand test taken in Japan. IIBC financial records show test royalties paid to ETS doubled from 800 million to 1.6 billion between 2007 and 2008 (IIBC, 2008a). According to a Japanese journalist who wrote an article on the IIBC's TOEIC sca ndal, IIBC's contract with ETS expired in 2007 and the new deal required the dramatic increase in royalty payments (K. Ishii, personal communication, Sept. 8,

2009). Despite these large expenses, the IIBC remains comfortably in the black , recording a profit over 600 million in fiscal 2008 (IIBC, 2009a) . S ince it is a public interest corporation, laws regulating how the IIBC can use its annual surpluses mean most of the money sits in bank accounts . In addition to nearly 1.7 billion in cash on hand a nd savings accounts the IIBC also holds government bonds, time deposits, and investment securities worth 215 million. The IIBC's total assets add up to about 4 billion (IIBC, 2009a). The profits generated by the TOEIC, as well as the conflicts of i nterest and misuse of test taker fees, finally caught up with the IIBC. Shortly after the IIBC began attracting unwanted press attention, Watanabe

resigned citing health reasons and the Ministry of Trade warned the IIBC that their profits were excessive an d issued non binding guidance to reduce test fees. In August 2009, the IIBC announced a reduction in the cost of the TOEIC SP from 6,615 to 5,895, effective immediately. The decision was so sudden the IIBC also announced an automatic refund for test take rs who had pre paid for the September and October tests. The cost of other TOEIC brand tests, including the TOEIC IP, remained unchanged. Ironically , the same month TOEIC SP fees were cut in response to M

inistry warnings of excessive profits , the IIB C also announced a new source of revenue. A September 2009 IIBC press release publicized the start of sales for official TOEIC training software (IIBC, 2009 c ). The software was the result of a licensing agreement between the IIBC and a software developer k nown as IE Institute to produce official IIBC/ETS approved TOEIC training software for the Nintendo DS, a handheld computer game console . A similar

Shiken: JALT Testing & Evaluation SIG Newsletter. 14 (1 ) March 2010 (p. 2 10) 8 licensing deal between the Japan Kanji Aptitude Testing Foundation and software companies brought in

 76 mil lion in revenues for that organization in only two years. However, 90% of those revenues were siphoned off to a private company owned by the foundation s vice chair (Asahi Shimbun, 2009). Conclusion TOEIC's 30th anniversary is a time to reflect on the business priorities of the IIBC. From its origins as a cover for the profit seeking founder of TOEIC to its present day spending habits the IIBC's behaviour has been scandalous. A critical look at TOEIC's history shows that its founder, Kitaoka Yasuo, seemed driven by money making motives in addition to a desire to improve English education in Japan. Similarly, Watanabe Yaeji appeared to have been more concerned with creating his own public interest corporation, which as we have seen, he treated as his personal property. This article has pointed out four criticisms of IIBC: 1) the profit oriented motives for starting the test, 2)

nepotistic executive appointments, 3) questionable partnerships with companies such as International Communications Inc. and International Communications School whose services have cost hundreds of millions of yen, and 4) the misuse of test taker fees for expenses including staggering executive salaries and funding the former chair's pet projects such as a Chinese poetry as sociation and the Beautiful Aging Association. For the IIBC and its affiliated companies profiting from the test, the TOEIC truly is a small piece of heaven. Partly, to avert a METI investigative raid on the IIBC similar to the one the Ministry of Ed ucation launched against the Japan Kanji Aptitude Testing Foundation , which resulted in legal charges for misappropriation of funds against that organization's father and son chair and co chair, the IIBC recently lowered the price of the TOEIC IP by 630. More substantial changes at the IIBC are necessary. There are four things the IIBC should do, as a start, if they are truly concerned about the interests of TOEIC test takers

in Japan. 1) The IIBC's current chair, Murofushi Takayuki , managing director, Yos hizawa Seiji, and executive director, Umezawa Naomi, as well as the board of directors and board of trustees should all resign. These individuals have proven themselves either unable to spend TOEIC test fees appropriately or unable to properly oversee the IIBC's budgetary and executive appointment decisions. The replacement b oard of directors and board of trustees should include more individuals who are knowledgeable about language testing and learning. 2) Having more people knowledgeable about language tes ting and learning would also help the IIBC to stop relying entirely on ETS for decisions about test design, form, and content. Despite the fact that the IIBC and Korean TOEIC preferred vendor YBM/Si -

sa enjoy a near duopsonistic relationship with ETS, the I IBC has fail ed to exert any pressure on ETS to improve the TOEIC or to make it a better test of communicative ability. In a 2009 interview, IIBC spokesperson, Yoshida Atsuko, explained that the IIBC leaves all decisions about writing the TOEIC up to ETS (A . Yoshida, personal communication, June 5, 2009). I believe that the IIBC should be using their influence to encourage ETS to make meaningful improvements to the TOEIC. 3) The IIBC should also end its relationship with International Communication School. T here is no need for the IIBC to pay ICS to promote the TOEIC when they have their own in house public relations department. If the IIBC needs a company to provide services they are unable to perform in -

house they should be able to tender contract bids. One example would be desig n ing and maintain ing the test's online application system. The IIBC should also reveal more than the current legal minimum in their financial statements and clearly show how much it is paying to which private companies and for what s ervices. Giving summaries of the costs for a non profit s major programmes is a level of transparency recommended by the United States based Charities Review Council (Charities Review Council, 2009). 4) If the non

profit IIBC (staffed with more executives knowledgeable about testing) takes over responsibilities for selling the TOEIC IP from the for profit ICS , it should be able to curb some of the more egregious misuses of the test by companies and schools. For example, the TOEIC was never designed to be us ed for university EFL classroom placement or to judge student progress , yet many of the TOEIC IP exams

Shiken: JALT Testing & Evaluation SIG Newsletter. 14 (1 ) March 2010 (p. 2 10) 9 are administered precisely for those purpose s . Furthermore, the IIBC should abandon annual targets for increasing the number of test

takers. An organizat ion truly dedicated to the public interest should persuade organizations to refrain from using its products for purposes they were never designed for and not focus on increasing the number of TOEIC test takers every year. References Asahi Shimbum . (2009, April 15). DS, Wii yo softo rieki kantei miuchi kigyou ni 9 wari . [90% of DS and Wii software returns given to K anji F oundation related business].

Asahi Shimbun . p. 13 . BAA. (2008). Heisei 20 Jigyouhoukoku. [2008 Operations Report] . Retrieved January 6, 20 10 from http://www.baa.or.jp/newpage26.htm Canadian Press. (2004, August 16). Thomson buys testing service. The Globe and Mail . Retrieved May 31, 2009 from http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20040816.gtThomson0816/ BNStory/Technology/ Chapm an, M. (2003). TOEIC: Tried but undertested. Shiken: JALT Testing & Evaluation SIG Newsletter , 12 ( 2 ) 2 -

7. Retrieved December 29, 2009 from http://jalt.org/test/cha_1.htm Chapman, M. (2004). An interview with Kazuhiko Saito. Shiken : JALT Testing & Ev aluati on SIG Newsletter , 8 , ( 2 ) 10 12. Retrieved January 9, 2010 from http://jalt.org/test/sai_cha.htm Chapman, M. (2006). An over reliance on discrete item testing in the Japanese business context. Paper Presented at the International Conference on English Inst ruction and Assessment, April 22 23, 2006, National Chung Cheng University, Taiwan.

Chapman, M. & Newfields, T. (2008). The new TOEIC. Shiken: JALT Testin g & Evaluation SIG Newsletter , 12 ( 2 ) 3 2 3 7 . Retrieved December 29, 2009 from http://jalt.org/test /cha_new.htm Charities Review Council. (2009). Accountability Standards 2009: Public Disclosure . Retrieved January 22, 2010 from http://www.smartgivers.org/Disclosure.html Chida,

J. ( 2008). Chida Junichi sensei kara no message [ A message from Chida Junich i Sensei.] Retrieved January 10, 2010 from http://www.icconsul.com/centers/message005.html Childs, M. (1995). Good and bad uses of TOEIC by Japanese companies. In J.D. Brown and S.O. Yamashita (Eds.), Language Testing in Japan (pp. 66 75). Tokyo, Japan: JA LT. E Communications. (2009). Daikyuki houkokusyo Kabukikaisha E Communications . [E Communications 9th Periodic Stock Report]. Tokyo: Author. ETS. (2006). TOEIC Report on Test Takers Worldwide, 2005. Retrieved January 9, 2010 from http://www.ea.toeic.eu/fi leadmin/free_resources/Europe%20website/3548 -

TOEIC_TTRep.pdf Fellowship Inc. (2009). Fellowship Inc. Retrieved January 10, 2010 from http://www.f ship.jp/ FRIDAY. (June 12, 2009). TOEIC: Kourei kaicho to shinmitsu josei shinbutsukakeiei no jittai . [TOEIC: The truth of the elderly chair and his intimate woman's mismanagement]. pp. 14 16 . GHRD. (2004). Web Site for Global Managers: About Us. Retrieved January 22, 2010 from http://www.toeic.or.jp/ghrd/english/aboutus/index.html Hirai, M. (2002). Correlations between active skill and passive skill test scores. Shiken: JALT Testing and Evaluation SIG Newsletter, 6 (3), 2 8. Retrieved December 29, 2009 from http://jalt.org/test/hir_1.htm ICC. (2008). TOEIC, TOEIC Bridge setsumeikai and kouenkai.

[TOEIC, TOEIC Br idge explanation meetings and lectures] . Retrieved January 10, 2010 from http://www.icconsul.com/seminars/toeic/index.html IIBC. (2009a). Heisei 20 do zaimu shohyo. [2008 Financial Statement]. Tokyo.

Shiken: JALT Testing & Evaluation SIG Newsletter. 14 (1 ) March 2010 (p. 2 10) 10 IIBC. (2009b). Profile Kitaoka Yasuo. Retrieved January 10, 2010 from http://www.toeic.or.jp/30th/secrets/1.html IIBC. (2009c). TOEIC testo no koushiki Nintendo DS softo ga tsuni ni toujou . [

Official TOEIC test Nintendo DS software is finally introduced ] . Retrieved January 27, 2010 from http://www.toeic.or.jp/p ress/22.html IIBC. (2009d). Heisei 21 nen do shusei shushi yosansho. [2010 Revised Revenue and Expenses Estimate Report]. Tokyo. IIBC. (2008a). Heisei 19 do dai 23 ki jigyoukeikaku. [2007 Business Plan]. Tokyo: Author. IIBC. (2008b). Heisei 19 do zaimu sh ohyo. [2007 Financial Statement]. Tokyo: Author. Ihara, H. & Tsuroka, T. (2001). TOEIC: Seikou no himitsu maaketinguteki shiten kara no bunseki . [The secret behind the success of TOEIC: An analysis from a marketing viewpoint]. Nagano University Bulletin,

3 2 ( 2 ), 32 52. JETRO. (2010). JETRO Profile. Retrieved January 9, 2010 from http://www.jetro.go.jp/en/jetro/profile/ Johnson, C. (1974). The reemployment of retired government bureaucrats in Japanese big business. Asian Surve y 14 ( 11 ) 953 965. Kyodo News. ( 2009, October 25). 'Amakudari' rules in state institutions. The Japan Times, Retrieved January 8, 2010

from http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi bin/nn20091025a4.html McCrostie, J. (2006). Why are universities abandoning English teaching for TOEIC training? On Cue, 14 ( 2 ), 30 32. Retrieved January 7, 2010 from http://jaltcue sig.org/files/OnCUE/14.2content.pdf McCrostie, J. (2009, August 11). TOEIC no turkey at 30. The Japan Times. Life in Japan > Features. Retrieved January 5, 2010 from http://search.japant imes.co.jp/cgi bin/fl20090811zg.html McCrostie, J. (2009, August 18). TOEIC: Where does the money go? The Japan Times. Life in Japan > Features.

Retrieved January 5, 2010 from http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi bin/fl20090818zg.html Odyssey Communications. (2009). Fellowship Inc . Retrieved January 10, 2010 from http://www.odyssey com.co.jp/work/fellowship.html Prey, R. (2001). How do you say 'imperialism'? The English language teaching industry and the culture of imperialism in South Korea. M.A. dissertatio n, University of Windsor. Watanabe, Y. (2003). 125 sai made watashi wa ikiru. [I'll live to 125]. Tokyo: Sony Magazines. Appendix A. An Overview of IIBC and its Main P artners , 1986 2009

Shiken: JALT Testing & Evaluation SIG Newsletter. 14 (1 ) March 2010 (p. 2 10) 2 The TOEIC The TOEIC in Japan: A scandal made in heaven in Japan: A scandal made in heaven James McCrostie (Daito Bunka University) F irst implemented in 1979, the Test of English for International Communication TM (TOEIC) has become ubiquitous in Japan , where the test was administered 1,718,000 times in 2008 (A. Yoshida, personal communication, June 5, 2009). Korea is about the only other country sharing Japan's enthusiasm for the test. About 5 million people in more than 90 countries take the TOEIC annually, but approximately 80% of them live in Japan or Korea (ETS, 2006, p. 4).

Despite the TOEIC's popularity, few people seem aware of the organization administrating the test in Japan. Called the Institute for International Business Communication (IIBC), even authors mildly or highly critic al of the TOEIC have virtually ignored it (Chapman & Newfields, 2008; Chapman, 2006; Childs, 1995; Hirai, 2002; McCrostie, 2006). The one exception, an explanation of the IIBC's marketing strategy co authored by a former employee, contains little in the wa y of critical analysis (Ihara & Tsuroka, 2001). The IIBC is a public interest corporation ( zaidan houijin ), a type of non profit requiring government approval to be formed. In the case of the IIBC, the former Ministry of International Trade and Indus try, which in 2001 became the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry, threw its weight behind IIBC and the TOEIC in the 1970s and 80s (Chapman, 2004, p. 10). The IIBC also has origins as an amakudari organization. Literally meaning descent from heave n ,

amakudari refers to the practice of providing Japanese bureaucrats with patronage posts when they retire from the civil service. This article briefly examines IIBC's early history, its executive hiring practices, its relationships with for profit pa rtners, and its misuse of TOEIC fees. On the basis of those facts, I will then assert that IIBC is an organization which appears to be more concerned more with benefiting itself than with the English ability of test takers. TOEIC's Descent From Heaven: Th e Early History A man named Kitaoka Yasuo (1928 1997) deserves most of the credit for the TOEIC's creation (IIBC, 2009b). As the owner of a now defunct business named International Communications Inc., Kitaoka first planned to market English textbo oks but decided to enter the testing business. In the mid 1970s, Kitaoka approached Educational Testing Service (ETS) with his idea for a new English test for use in Japan. According to Ihara and Tsuoka (2001, p. 37), ETS informed Kitaoka that the

y required a non profit organization to work as their partner. According to Prey (2001, p. 55), while the TOEIC was being established ETS preferred these non profit partners to have government support. Kitaoka first approached the Ministry of Educat ion, but its bureaucrats obstructed his efforts because they did not want to foster competition against the STEP Eiken, which the Ministry already supported (Ihara & Tsuroka, 2001, p. 37). Undeterred, Kitaoka received assistance from a friend named Watanab e Yaeji. Watanabe's influence as a retired high ranking MITI bureaucrat proved crucial to establishing the TOEIC. In his memoirs, Watanabe describes taking cover behind the Ministry of Trade shield to overcome Ministry of Education opposition (Watanabe, 2003, p. 114). Watanabe had remained in close contact with his old ministry after taking

amakudari posts as chair of the Japan China Economic Association and World Economic Information Services (WEIS) board member. Both are public interest corporatio ns that operated under MITI authority. Watanabe received permission to form and chair a TOEIC Steering Committee within WEIS. Members of the committee included other retired MITI bureaucrats and business executives. With government support secured, ETS agreed to create the test and in 1979 the TOEIC Steering Committee administered the first TOEIC in Japan (Chapman, 2004, p. 10).

Shiken: JALT Testing & Evaluation SIG Newsletter. 14 (1 ) March 2010 (p. 2 10) 3 While the TOEIC has now become synonymous with business English testing in Japan, this success was by no means assure d. During TOEIC's early years it attracted fewer than the expected number of test takers, resulting in serious financial difficulties. C ircumstances became so clamant that Watanabe prayed to God for help (Watanabe, 2003, p. 114). His prayers were answered

in the form of a new version of the TOEIC and a little help from some friends. In 1981, the IIBC began offering a second format of the test called the TOEIC Institutional Program (IP). Unlike the TOEIC Secure Program (SP) offered at fixed places and times of the year, the TOEIC IP could be offered at a company's convenience for a slightly cheaper price. The year after its introduction, the IP test passed the SP in terms of number of t est takers and has remained the more popular format ever since. In 2 008, test takers in Japan took the TOEIC IP 940,000 times and the TOEIC SP 778,000 times (A. Yoshida, personal communication, June 5, 2009) . Two of the first companies to force their employees to take the TOEIC IP were Matsushita Electric Industrial Co., Ltd. (now Panasonic) and Fujitsu. At first glance, their early adoption of the TOEIC IP seems natural since high level managers from both companies helped Watanabe establish the TOEIC. Harata Akira, a Matsushita vice

president, and Akazawa Shoichi, an advisor for Fujitsu Computers, were two of the TOEIC Steering Committee's original 23 members (Ihara & Tsuoka, 2001, p. 50). A closer look shows that neither had any formal training in language teaching or testing. Like Watanabe, both gentlemen were retired MITI bureau chiefs. Both men had also deployed golden amakudari parachutes to drop into their high level management positions. For example Akazawa, the former director of MITI's H eavy I ndustries B ureau, undertook a major descent from the MITI in 1973 when he became an advisor to Fujitsu (Johnson, 1974, p. 956). At the time, Fujitsu was in fierce competition with American computer makers and

a major recipient of MITI subsidies to develop a Japanese computer industry (Johnson, 1974, p. 956). Their MITI connections led to Akazawa and Harata's serving on the steering committee , which facilitated Fujitsu and Matsushita's adoption of the TOEIC IP. This certainly did not lead directly to continued ministry subsidies for their computer divisions; h owever, being reliant on the Ministry of Trade, it would have been difficult for them to refuse a request from their former colleague to support the new ministry backed test. Fujitsu and Matsushita's support for the TOEIC IP helped secure a market a nd high profile users for the test (Ihara & Tsuoka, 2001, p. 43). This proved a significant boost as the TOEIC struggled to win market share. Government connections proved vital not only to the test's creation but also its early survival. Without the suppo rt from Watanabe's old colleagues it seems likely that a lack of demand would have smothered the newly born TOEIC in its cradle. By 1986, the TOEIC had 100,000 annual test takers in Japan and Watanabe became chair of a new public interest corporation called the Institute for International Business Communication (IIBC). Created with the

permission of the MITI and operating under its supervision, the IIBC assumed responsibilities for administering the TOEIC in Japan. Getting a Job at Heaven on Earth: Ne potistic Hiring Hiring practices for IIBC executives seem to have more to do with connections than with knowledge about language learning or testing. Ever since the IIBC's creation, it has provided positions to ex bureaucrats from the MITI/METI. In 2 007, one of four full time members and three of ten part time members of the IIBC's Board of Directors were ex bureaucrats. Most, if not all, of these part timers were connected to Watanabe. The part time members of the board are technically volunteers, so one is reminded of the adage you get what you pay for when considering the contributions made by such appointees. Since these ex -

bureaucrats possess little or no experience related to language learning or testing they can play little role in improving the TOEIC or helping ensure businesses or schools use it properly. Instead, they help ed serve a role in continuing to cement the relationship between the IIBC and the METI and ensure the support of the Ministry during any bureaucratic turf battles.

Shiken: JALT Testing & Evaluation SIG Newsletter. 14 (1 ) March 2010 (p. 2 10) 4 Wata nabe Yaeji, IIBC c hair from its foundation in 1986 until his sudden retirement in 2009 at the age of 92, deserves special attention when discussing the lack of qualifications for IIBC executives. Until he helped his friend Kitaoka establish the TOEIC, Wata nabe confessed he possessed no interest in, or knowledge of, language testing. Watanabe only began studying English in 1982 at the age of 65 and did not begin studying in earnest until after becoming IIBC c

hair in 1986 (Watanabe, 2003, p. 3, 117). No r did Watanabe devote his undivided attention to the IIBC. Despite holding a full time position as IIBC chair, he also worked as a partner in his own law firm and chair of the Beautiful Aging Association (BAA). Established by Watanabe in 1992, the BAA is a nother public interest corporation operating under METI authority. The BAA organizes lectures and activities for member company retirees including: kar a oke outings, go tournaments, and cooking classes (BAA, 2008). Another member of the IIBC executiv e board with questionable qualifications is a man named Murofushi Takayuki. FRIDAY , a weekly Japanese magazine best known for reporting on scandals connected to celebrities and government officials, caused some surprise in the language teaching community

w hen it ran an expose of Murofushi s appointment to the IIBC. According to FRIDAY, Murofushi started working for IIBC's for profit partner International Communications School (ICS) following his graduation from university (FRIDAY, 2009, p. 16). ICS was foun ded in 1983 to promote the TOEIC IP , initially on behalf of the WEIS TOEIC Steering Committee and presently on behalf of the IIBC . In 2008, he resigned from his position on ICS' board of directors to join the IIBC's board. His main qualification for both p osts seemed to be his third job as Watanabe's personal secretary. In July 2009 , Murofushi became IIBC chair, replacing Watanabe who suddenly resigned for health reasons.

Watanabe and Murofushi's mother, a poetry teacher named Murofushi Jukan, have h ad a long relationship. Since the 1980s, she and Watanabe worked together to increase the popularity of classical Chinese poetry (Watanabe, 2003, pp. 80 83). The two are also romantically linked, living in adjacent apartments in the same building (FRIDAY, 2009, p. 16). The blatant nepotism of appointing Watanabe's girlfriend's son to an executive position shocked even the IIBC Board of Directors. To force the appointment Watanabe had to purge half the board (FRIDAY, 2009, p. 15). Heaven's Streets Are Paved with Gold: Private Companies Profiting from the TOEIC Despite ETS' original refusal to deal with Kitaoka's business, several connected companies in Japan have enjoyed a profitable partnership with the IIBC. Kitaoka's efforts to create the TOEIC and h is friendship with Watanabe did not go uncompensated. Kitaoka became IIBC vice chair and the IIBC rewarded his company International Communications Inc. with contracts for administering the test's official Japanese fan club, publishing the magazine TOEIC F riends, and developing an online registration system (McCrostie, Aug. 11, 2009). In addition, ICI subsidiaries promoted the TOEIC in the United States, Canada, and other countries in the mid -

1990s . Appendix A outlines the connections between IIBC and its m ain for profit partners. Following Kitaoka's death in 1997, ICI seemed to begin having difficulties. According to Yoshida Atsuko, an IIBC public relations manager, It closed after Mr. Kitaoka passed away (A. Yoshida, personal communication, June 5, 2009). However, archived web pages show that ICI continued operations until 2003. In 2003, ICI changed its name to T. F. Communications, which shut down in 2004. A nother for profit company that continues enjoying close ties with the IIBC is Interna tional Communication School (ICS). Established in 1983 to promote the TOEIC IP in Japan, it offers customer support to organizations using the test. ICS operations, while not top secret, are not exactly widely advertised either; it has no website and the o nly mention of the company on the IIBC website is on a privacy policy

page at www.toeic.or.jp/privacy/privacy_05_01.html. When asked during a June 2009 interview why IIBC needed a for profit partner IIBC public relations manager, Yoshida Atsuko, sta ted, International Communications School was established purely for the purpose of promoting TOEIC business. As to why it had to be established, I'm sorry but I don't have an answer for tha t (A. Yoshida, personal communication, June 5, 2009). Despite pro mises to find the answer , another public relations employee informed me in a follow up email, We are not in a position to answer the

Shiken: JALT Testing & Evaluation SIG Newsletter. 14 (1 ) March 2010 (p. 2

10) 5 question (R. Hanai, personal communication, June 9, 2009). Similarly, ICS spokespeople refuse to reveal the names of the corporate owners (McCrostie, Aug. 18, 2009). The IIBC and ICS share a very close partnership. Watanabe formerly served on its board of directors and ICS' 70 employees operate out of offices located next door to IIBC, sharing a common lobby area and s ecurity guard. IIBC and ICS employees also have nearly identical business cards, both prominently displaying the TOEIC logo with only International Communications School Inc. or The Institute for International Business Communication in fine print disti nguishing them. ICS is involved in the TOEIC several different ways. It acts as the publisher for IIBC

produced TOEIC textbooks, but its main duty is promoting the TOEIC IP. ICS sales staff work for one of two divisions promoting the TOEIC IP to eit her businesses or schools. Financial statements for 2008 show the IIBC spent 375 million (45% of the TOEIC IP's administration costs) for the vague service of popularizing the test. According to an expert in Japanese non profits, such partnerships are a standard technique for public interest corporations to engage in off the book profiteering (S. Carpenter , personal communication, July 10, 2009). ICS may also be making money by printing exams and through the dispatch of test proctors. The IIBC

spen t 250 million in exam printing fees in 2008. IIBC financial statements do not reveal which company received the contract, but ICS is the publisher for IIBC approved textbooks. The IIBC's biggest expense for administering the TOEIC SP is dispatch fees for test examiners. In 2008, dispatch fees total l ed 862 million, making up 39% of the total expenses for administering the TOEIC SP (IIBC, 2009a). Suspiciously, company websites show that ICS owns its own dispatch company called Fellowship Inc. through a subs idiary called Odyssey Communications (Fellowship Inc, 2009; Odyssey Communications, 2009). At some point, the ownership of ICI/T.F. Communications' subsidiaries was transferred to ICS. One of these subsidiaries is a company called E Communications (w ww.e coms.co.jp). Its primary clients are the IIBC and ICS and its office is located down the hall from their offices. E

Communications' main business is managing TOEIC's Japanese online application system. The company web page shows that it is also involv ed in the TOEIC preparation business, offering an online programme that recycles questions from the old TOEIC fan club magazine. E Communications has been consistently profitable, generating a net profit of 36 million in fiscal 2005, 13.6 million i n 2006, 30 million in 2007, and nearly 11 million in 2008. They closed the 2008 financial year with net assets worth 246 million (E Communications, 2009). The three members of E -

Communications' board (Representative Director Sato Shinya, ICS' Representa tive Director Noguchi Hisao, and a third board member) received a total of 33 million for their services in 2008 (E Communications, 2009, p. 4). Another connected company making money off the TOEIC through their relationship with the IIBC is a busi ness called ICC. This English training and consulting company, whose initials do not seem to stand for anything, offers English and TOEIC training classes. ICC's Representative Director is a man named Chida Junichi and he worked with Kitaoka at Time magazi ne. Chida also worked as a special advisor to TOEIC Friends magazine when it was published by Kitaoka's company , International Communications Inc. H e currently offers TOEIC preparation advice on the TOEIC Square website at http://www.toeic.or.jp/square/adv ice/advice_score/ .

According to Chida, Kitaoka inspired him to start ICC. On ICC's web page Chida explains how as Kitaoka lay dying of cancer in the hospital he instructed Chida to create an English counselling system in his last telephone call to hi m. As a result, Chida started ICC (Chida, 2008). Conveniently, ICC's offices are located in the same building as IIBC, International Communications School, and E Communications. In addition to the TOEIC preparation classes they offer, ICC receives c ontracts from the IIBC to give TOEIC information lectures. After the IIBC introduced the TOEIC Bridge to Japan, ICC representatives gave 16 information lectures across Japan in 2003 and 2004 (ICC, 2008). Chida has also recently given a

Shiken: JALT Testing & Evaluation SIG Newsletter. 14 (1 ) March 2010 (p. 2 10) 6 series of lectures e xplaining the TOEIC Speaking and Writing test. It is unclear why the IIBC's own public relations department is unable to perform these duties. It is nearly impossible for the public to know how much the IIBC pays its for profit partners. While the I IBC is required by law to publish financial statements, their vagueness makes it difficult to track the

movement of funds between the IIBC and companies such as ICS, E Communications, and ICC. Furthermore, my experience is that IIBC spokespeople become ver y defensive when queried about these for profit partners. When asked about E Communications for a newspaper article, IIBC public relations manager Yoshida Atsuko replied, How do you know about E Communications? then later Why do you have to mention E co mmunications in your article? (A. Yoshida, personal communication, June 5, 2009). In the 1990s, ETS' attitude towards for

profits underwent a volte face and it established its own for profit subsidiary to take over responsibility for the TOEIC. From 1996 2004, a private company owned by ETS, called The Chauncey Group International, controlled the TOEIC. ETS established The Chauncey Group to run a number of tests , including the TOEIC, that it decided lay outside ETS' main educational mission. This all owed ETS to continue generating revenue from the tests without threatening its tax exempt status (Bennett, 2008, p. 2). Transfer of TOEIC control to The Chauncey Group suggests ETS viewed the test as laying outside its main educational mission but at the s ame time an important source of revenue. In 2004, ETS regained direct control of the TOEIC following a series of mergers and acquisitions

. (Canadian Press, 2004). Today, ETS licenses the right to use the TOEIC to private companies in exchange for a pe r test royalty fee. In Korea, an English education conglomerate called YBM/Si sa administers the TOEIC. According to Y.B. Min, president of that company, ETS now prefer [s] commercial companies in order to make profi t (Prey, 2001, p. 56). The quest ionable partnerships between the IIBC and private companies , ETS' decision to transfer control of the test to its own for profit subsidiary as well as the relative lack of actual TOEIC research (Chapman, 2003, pp. 2 -

4) suggests IIBC and ETS have been more concerned with building their own organizations than with creating a valid measure of English proficiency and promoting effective language instruction improving the English ability of test takers. The Price of Heaven: Where Do the Test Fees Go? Despi te being a public interest corporation, it is my belief that the IIBC misuses TOEIC fees in a number of ways that fail to benefit the test taking public. For one, fees are spent subsidizing the remarkably high cost of some less popular TOEIC brand tests. T hose paying to take the TOEIC Listening and Reading test subsidize less popular TOEIC brand tests. In fiscal 2008, the IIBC took in 36 million in test fees from the computer based TOEIC Speaking and Writing Test (SW) well short of the estimated

79 mill ion but spent 551 million administering the test (IIBC, 2009a). With only 4,000 people taking the test in 2008, it cost the IIBC more than 138,000 per test taker. The IIBC lost a further 28 million on other unpopular tests including the TOEIC Language Proficiency Interview which is no longer being offered after February 2010 and the French TOEIC, which was taken by only four people in fiscal 2008 (IIBC, 2008a). The IIBC s willingness to promote the testing of communicative English skills, even at a financial loss, is admirable.

However, the extent of that loss, 515 million per year in the case of the TOEIC SW, raises the question where is all the money going? That question is impossible to answer by examining the IIBC s public financial statements. Secondly, the IIBC's budget includes several expenses that have little to do with testing English proficiency. The previously mentioned Beautiful Aging Association received funds from both the IIBC and its for profit partner ICS. However, IIBC and B AA financial statements fail to clearly show how much money. After my Japan Times articles showing the financial links between the IIBC and BAA were published the IIBC's name was taken off the list of supporting organizations published on the BAA's web sit e , but it is unclear whether the funding itself has also been cut. ICS continues to be listed as a supporting member.

Shiken: JALT Testing & Evaluation SIG Newsletter. 14

(1 ) March 2010 (p. 2 10) 7 TOEIC test fees also help pay for an IIBC division called Global Human Resources Development (GHRD). This division gathers informati on from around the world to help Japanese become better global managers ( GHRD, 2004 ) . I t maintains a website, magazine, and hosts information seminars. IIBC spokespeople declined to reveal how much money the GHRD division spends each year (R. Hanai, pers onal communication, June 9, 2009).

However, financial statements show that it was nearly 265 million in fiscal 2007, over a 100 million in fiscal 2008, and about 78 million in fiscal 2009 (IIBC, 2009a; 2009d). The smaller budget in 2009 was the result o f cutting funding to the Chinese Poetry Recitation Association and an end to a leadership consultation project that cost 161 million in 2007. Furthermore, in a conflict of interest, from 1989 2009 through this GHRD division, the IIBC spent about 13 million annually on research into adapting to Chinese culture (IIBC, 2008a; 2009a). This money was actually funneled to the Chinese Poetry Recitation Association. Starting in 1989, the IIBC sponsored the association's Chinese poetry appreciation meet ings in Japan as well as the United States and Europe. The poetry association's head teacher, Murofushi Jukan, is the IIBC's ex chair's girlfriend and the current chair's mother. After the magazine FRIDAY began investigating Watanabe and Murofushi , the IIB

C suddenly cut off this poetry funding. These conflicts of interest show how Watanabe viewed IIBC assets as his private property. Furthermore, while he only showed up at the IIBC office one day a week in 2009 Watanabe received an annual salary of abo ut 20 million (FRIDAY, 2009; IIBC 2008a). Four IIBC executives received a total of 77.5 million in fiscal 2007 and 79 million in 2008. Budget estimates showed plans to increase pay for four executives to 121 million in fiscal 2009 but it was cut to 75 million for three executives (IIBC, 2008a; 2009). The salaries of IIBC executives can be described as very generous. For comparison, the average annual income of 29 amakudari bureaucrats working for independent government administrative agencies in 2008 w as

18.58 million, with the 22.31 million salary for the chair of the METI's Japan External Trade Organization being the highest (Kyodo News, 2009). Murofushi earns about 25 million yen to manage the IIBC's 156 employees and three offices in Tokyo, Osaka and Nagoya. JETRO's chair earns 22.31 million to manage that organization's 1,580 employees and 72 offices in 55 countries (JETRO, 2010). Thirdly, ETS takes a cut of the test fee through dramatically rising royalty fees. The IIBC pays ETS royalties for each TOEIC brand test taken in Japan. IIBC financial records show test royalties paid to ETS doubled from 800 million to 1.6 billion between 2007 and 2008 (IIBC, 2008a). According to a Japanese journalist who wrote an article on the IIBC's TOEIC sca ndal, IIBC's contract with ETS expired in 2007 and the new deal required the dramatic increase in royalty payments (K. Ishii, personal communication, Sept. 8, 2009). Despite these large expenses, the IIBC remains comfortably in the black

, recording a profit over 600 million in fiscal 2008 (IIBC, 2009a) . S ince it is a public interest corporation, laws regulating how the IIBC can use its annual surpluses mean most of the money sits in bank accounts . In addition to nearly 1.7 billion in cash on hand a nd savings accounts the IIBC also holds government bonds, time deposits, and investment securities worth 215 million. The IIBC's total assets add up to about 4 billion (IIBC, 2009a). The profits generated by the TOEIC, as well as the conflicts of i nterest and misuse of test taker fees, finally caught up with the IIBC. Shortly after the IIBC began attracting unwanted press attention, Watanabe resigned citing health reasons and the Ministry of Trade warned the IIBC that their profits were excessive

an d issued non binding guidance to reduce test fees. In August 2009, the IIBC announced a reduction in the cost of the TOEIC SP from 6,615 to 5,895, effective immediately. The decision was so sudden the IIBC also announced an automatic refund for test take rs who had pre paid for the September and October tests. The cost of other TOEIC brand tests, including the TOEIC IP, remained unchanged. Ironically , the same month TOEIC SP fees were cut in response to M inistry warnings of excessive profits , the IIB

C also announced a new source of revenue. A September 2009 IIBC press release publicized the start of sales for official TOEIC training software (IIBC, 2009 c ). The software was the result of a licensing agreement between the IIBC and a software developer k nown as IE Institute to produce official IIBC/ETS approved TOEIC training software for the Nintendo DS, a handheld computer game console . A similar

Shiken: JALT Testing & Evaluation SIG Newsletter. 14 (1 ) March 2010 (p. 2 10) 8 licensing deal between the Japan Kanji Aptitude Testing Foundation and software companies brought in 76 mil

lion in revenues for that organization in only two years. However, 90% of those revenues were siphoned off to a private company owned by the foundation s vice chair (Asahi Shimbun, 2009). Conclusion TOEIC's 30th anniversary is a time to reflect on the business priorities of the IIBC. From its origins as a cover for the profit seeking founder of TOEIC to its present day spending habits the IIBC's behaviour has been scandalous. A critical look at TOEIC's history shows that its founder, Kitaoka Yasuo, seemed driven by money making motives in addition to a desire to improve English education in Japan. Similarly, Watanabe Yaeji appeared to have been more concerned with creating his own public interest corporation, which as we have seen, he treated as his personal property. This article has pointed out four criticisms of IIBC: 1) the profit oriented motives for starting the test, 2) nepotistic executive appointments, 3) questionable partnerships with companies such as International Communications Inc. and International Communications School whose services have cost hundreds of

millions of yen, and 4) the misuse of test taker fees for expenses including staggering executive salaries and funding the former chair's pet projects such as a Chinese poetry as sociation and the Beautiful Aging Association. For the IIBC and its affiliated companies profiting from the test, the TOEIC truly is a small piece of heaven. Partly, to avert a METI investigative raid on the IIBC similar to the one the Ministry of Ed ucation launched against the Japan Kanji Aptitude Testing Foundation , which resulted in legal charges for misappropriation of funds against that organization's father and son chair and co chair, the IIBC recently lowered the price of the TOEIC IP by 630. More substantial changes at the IIBC are necessary. There are four things the IIBC should do, as a start, if they are truly concerned about the interests of TOEIC test takers in Japan. 1) The IIBC's current chair, Murofushi Takayuki

, managing director, Yos hizawa Seiji, and executive director, Umezawa Naomi, as well as the board of directors and board of trustees should all resign. These individuals have proven themselves either unable to spend TOEIC test fees appropriately or unable to properly oversee the IIBC's budgetary and executive appointment decisions. The replacement b oard of directors and board of trustees should include more individuals who are knowledgeable about language testing and learning. 2) Having more people knowledgeable about language tes ting and learning would also help the IIBC to stop relying entirely on ETS for decisions about test design, form, and content. Despite the fact that the IIBC and Korean TOEIC preferred vendor YBM/Si sa enjoy a near duopsonistic

relationship with ETS, the I IBC has fail ed to exert any pressure on ETS to improve the TOEIC or to make it a better test of communicative ability. In a 2009 interview, IIBC spokesperson, Yoshida Atsuko, explained that the IIBC leaves all decisions about writing the TOEIC up to ETS (A . Yoshida, personal communication, June 5, 2009). I believe that the IIBC should be using their influence to encourage ETS to make meaningful improvements to the TOEIC. 3) The IIBC should also end its relationship with International Communication School. T here is no need for the IIBC to pay ICS to promote the TOEIC when they have their own in house public relations department. If the IIBC needs a company to provide services they are unable to perform in house they should be able to tender contract

bids. One example would be desig n ing and maintain ing the test's online application system. The IIBC should also reveal more than the current legal minimum in their financial statements and clearly show how much it is paying to which private companies and for what s ervices. Giving summaries of the costs for a non profit s major programmes is a level of transparency recommended by the United States based Charities Review Council (Charities Review Council, 2009). 4) If the non profit IIBC (staffed with more executives knowledgeable about testing) takes over

responsibilities for selling the TOEIC IP from the for profit ICS , it should be able to curb some of the more egregious misuses of the test by companies and schools. For example, the TOEIC was never designed to be us ed for university EFL classroom placement or to judge student progress , yet many of the TOEIC IP exams

Shiken: JALT Testing & Evaluation SIG Newsletter. 14 (1 ) March 2010 (p. 2 10) 9 are administered precisely for those purpose s . Furthermore, the IIBC should abandon annual targets for increasing the number of test takers. An organizat ion truly dedicated to the public interest should persuade

organizations to refrain from using its products for purposes they were never designed for and not focus on increasing the number of TOEIC test takers every year. References Asahi Shimbum . (2009, April 15). DS, Wii yo softo rieki kantei miuchi kigyou ni 9 wari . [90% of DS and Wii software returns given to K anji F oundation related business]. Asahi Shimbun . p. 13 .

BAA. (2008). Heisei 20 Jigyouhoukoku. [2008 Operations Report] . Retrieved January 6, 20 10 from http://www.baa.or.jp/newpage26.htm Canadian Press. (2004, August 16). Thomson buys testing service. The Globe and Mail . Retrieved May 31, 2009 from http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20040816.gtThomson0816/ BNStory/Technology/ Chapm an, M. (2003). TOEIC: Tried but undertested. Shiken: JALT Testing & Evaluation SIG Newsletter , 12 ( 2 ) 2 7. Retrieved December 29, 2009 from http://jalt.org/test/cha_1.htm Chapman, M. (2004). An interview with Kazuhiko Saito.

Shiken : JALT Testing & Ev aluati on SIG Newsletter , 8 , ( 2 ) 10 12. Retrieved January 9, 2010 from http://jalt.org/test/sai_cha.htm Chapman, M. (2006). An over reliance on discrete item testing in the Japanese business context. Paper Presented at the International Conference on English Inst ruction and Assessment, April 22 23, 2006, National Chung Cheng University, Taiwan. Chapman, M. & Newfields, T. (2008). The new

 TOEIC. Shiken: JALT Testin g & Evaluation SIG Newsletter , 12 ( 2 ) 3 2 3 7 . Retrieved December 29, 2009 from http://jalt.org/test /cha_new.htm Charities Review Council. (2009). Accountability Standards 2009: Public Disclosure . Retrieved January 22, 2010 from http://www.smartgivers.org/Disclosure.html Chida, J. ( 2008).

Chida Junichi sensei kara no message [ A message from Chida Junich i Sensei.] Retrieved January 10, 2010 from http://www.icconsul.com/centers/message005.html Childs, M. (1995). Good and bad uses of TOEIC by Japanese companies. In J.D. Brown and S.O. Yamashita (Eds.), Language Testing in Japan (pp. 66 75). Tokyo, Japan: JA LT. E Communications. (2009). Daikyuki houkokusyo Kabukikaisha E Communications . [E Communications 9th Periodic Stock Report]. Tokyo: Author. ETS. (2006). TOEIC Report on Test Takers Worldwide, 2005. Retrieved January 9, 2010 from http://www.ea.toeic.eu/fi leadmin/free_resources/Europe%20website/3548 TOEIC_TTRep.pdf Fellowship Inc. (2009). Fellowship Inc. Retrieved January 10, 2010 from http://www.f -

ship.jp/ FRIDAY. (June 12, 2009). TOEIC: Kourei kaicho to shinmitsu josei shinbutsukakeiei no jittai . [TOEIC: The truth of the elderly chair and his intimate woman's mismanagement]. pp. 14 16 . GHRD. (2004). Web Site for Global Managers: About Us. Retrieved January 22, 2010 from http://www.toeic.or.jp/ghrd/english/aboutus/index.html Hirai, M. (2002). Correlations between active skill and passive skill test scores. Shiken: JALT Testing and Evaluation SIG Newsletter, 6 (3), 2 8. Retrieved December 29, 2009 from http://jalt.org/test/hir_1.htm ICC. (2008). TOEIC, TOEIC Bridge setsumeikai and kouenkai. [TOEIC, TOEIC Br idge explanation meetings and lectures]

. Retrieved January 10, 2010 from http://www.icconsul.com/seminars/toeic/index.html IIBC. (2009a). Heisei 20 do zaimu shohyo. [2008 Financial Statement]. Tokyo.

Shiken: JALT Testing & Evaluation SIG Newsletter. 14 (1 ) March 2010 (p. 2 10) 10 IIBC. (2009b). Profile Kitaoka Yasuo. Retrieved January 10, 2010 from http://www.toeic.or.jp/30th/secrets/1.html IIBC. (2009c). TOEIC testo no koushiki Nintendo DS softo ga tsuni ni toujou . [ Official TOEIC test Nintendo DS

software is finally introduced ] . Retrieved January 27, 2010 from http://www.toeic.or.jp/p ress/22.html IIBC. (2009d). Heisei 21 nen do shusei shushi yosansho. [2010 Revised Revenue and Expenses Estimate Report]. Tokyo. IIBC. (2008a). Heisei 19 do dai 23 ki jigyoukeikaku. [2007 Business Plan]. Tokyo: Author. IIBC. (2008b). Heisei 19 do zaimu sh ohyo. [2007 Financial Statement]. Tokyo: Author. Ihara, H. & Tsuroka, T. (2001). TOEIC: Seikou no himitsu maaketinguteki shiten kara no bunseki . [The secret behind the success of TOEIC: An analysis from a marketing viewpoint]. Nagano University Bulletin, 3 2 (

2 ), 32 52. JETRO. (2010). JETRO Profile. Retrieved January 9, 2010 from http://www.jetro.go.jp/en/jetro/profile/ Johnson, C. (1974). The reemployment of retired government bureaucrats in Japanese big business. Asian Surve y 14 ( 11 ) 953 965. Kyodo News. ( 2009, October 25). 'Amakudari' rules in state institutions. The Japan Times, Retrieved January 8, 2010 from http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi bin/nn20091025a4.html

McCrostie, J. (2006). Why are universities abandoning English teaching for TOEIC training? On Cue, 14 ( 2 ), 30 32. Retrieved January 7, 2010 from http://jaltcue sig.org/files/OnCUE/14.2content.pdf McCrostie, J. (2009, August 11). TOEIC no turkey at 30. The Japan Times. Life in Japan > Features. Retrieved January 5, 2010 from http://search.japant imes.co.jp/cgi bin/fl20090811zg.html McCrostie, J. (2009, August 18). TOEIC: Where does the money go? The Japan Times. Life in Japan > Features. Retrieved January 5, 2010 from http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi bin/fl20090818zg.html

Odyssey Communications. (2009). Fellowship Inc . Retrieved January 10, 2010 from http://www.odyssey com.co.jp/work/fellowship.html Prey, R. (2001). How do you say 'imperialism'? The English language teaching industry and the culture of imperialism in South Korea. M.A. dissertatio n, University of Windsor. Watanabe, Y. (2003). 125 sai made watashi wa ikiru. [I'll live to 125]. Tokyo: Sony Magazines. Appendix A. An Overview of IIBC and its Main P artners , 1986 2009

Shiken: JALT Testing & Evaluation SIG Newsletter. 14 (1 ) March 2010 (p. 2 10) 2 The TOEIC The TOEIC in Japan: A scandal made in heaven in Japan: A scandal made in heaven James McCrostie (Daito Bunka University) F irst implemented in 1979, the Test of English for International Communication TM (TOEIC) has become ubiquitous in Japan , where the test was administered 1,718,000 times in 2008 (A. Yoshida, personal communication, June 5, 2009). Korea is about the only other country sharing Japan's enthusiasm for the test. About 5 million people in more than 90 countries take the TOEIC annually, but approximately 80% of them live in Japan or Korea (ETS, 2006, p. 4).

Despite the TOEIC's popularity, few people seem aware of the organization administrating the test in Japan. Called the Institute for International Business Communication (IIBC), even authors mildly or highly critic al of the TOEIC have virtually ignored it (Chapman & Newfields, 2008; Chapman, 2006; Childs, 1995; Hirai, 2002; McCrostie, 2006). The one exception, an explanation of the IIBC's marketing strategy co authored by a former employee, contains little in the wa y of critical analysis (Ihara & Tsuroka, 2001). The IIBC is a public interest corporation ( zaidan houijin ), a type of non profit requiring government approval to be formed. In the case of the IIBC, the former Ministry of International Trade and Indus try, which in 2001 became the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry, threw its weight behind IIBC and the TOEIC in the 1970s and 80s (Chapman, 2004, p. 10). The IIBC also has origins as an amakudari organization. Literally meaning descent from heave n ,

amakudari refers to the practice of providing Japanese bureaucrats with patronage posts when they retire from the civil service. This article briefly examines IIBC's early history, its executive hiring practices, its relationships with for profit pa rtners, and its misuse of TOEIC fees. On the basis of those facts, I will then assert that IIBC is an organization which appears to be more concerned more with benefiting itself than with the English ability of test takers. TOEIC's Descent From Heaven: Th e Early History A man named Kitaoka Yasuo (1928 1997) deserves most of the credit for the TOEIC's creation (IIBC, 2009b). As the owner of a now defunct business named International Communications Inc., Kitaoka first planned to market English textbo oks but decided to enter the testing business. In the mid 1970s, Kitaoka approached Educational Testing Service (ETS) with his idea for a new English test for use in Japan. According to Ihara and Tsuoka (2001, p. 37), ETS informed Kitaoka that the

y required a non profit organization to work as their partner. According to Prey (2001, p. 55), while the TOEIC was being established ETS preferred these non profit partners to have government support. Kitaoka first approached the Ministry of Educat ion, but its bureaucrats obstructed his efforts because they did not want to foster competition against the STEP Eiken, which the Ministry already supported (Ihara & Tsuroka, 2001, p. 37). Undeterred, Kitaoka received assistance from a friend named Watanab e Yaeji. Watanabe's influence as a retired high ranking MITI bureaucrat proved crucial to establishing the TOEIC. In his memoirs, Watanabe describes taking cover behind the Ministry of Trade shield to overcome Ministry of Education opposition (Watanabe, 2003, p. 114). Watanabe had remained in close contact with his old ministry after taking

amakudari posts as chair of the Japan China Economic Association and World Economic Information Services (WEIS) board member. Both are public interest corporatio ns that operated under MITI authority. Watanabe received permission to form and chair a TOEIC Steering Committee within WEIS. Members of the committee included other retired MITI bureaucrats and business executives. With government support secured, ETS agreed to create the test and in 1979 the TOEIC Steering Committee administered the first TOEIC in Japan (Chapman, 2004, p. 10).

Shiken: JALT Testing & Evaluation SIG Newsletter. 14 (1 ) March 2010 (p. 2 10) 3 While the TOEIC has now become synonymous with business English testing in Japan, this success was by no means assure d. During TOEIC's early years it attracted fewer than the expected number of test takers, resulting in serious financial difficulties. C ircumstances became so clamant that Watanabe prayed to God for help (Watanabe, 2003, p. 114). His prayers were answered

in the form of a new version of the TOEIC and a little help from some friends. In 1981, the IIBC began offering a second format of the test called the TOEIC Institutional Program (IP). Unlike the TOEIC Secure Program (SP) offered at fixed places and times of the year, the TOEIC IP could be offered at a company's convenience for a slightly cheaper price. The year after its introduction, the IP test passed the SP in terms of number of t est takers and has remained the more popular format ever since. In 2 008, test takers in Japan took the TOEIC IP 940,000 times and the TOEIC SP 778,000 times (A. Yoshida, personal communication, June 5, 2009) . Two of the first companies to force their employees to take the TOEIC IP were Matsushita Electric Industrial Co., Ltd. (now Panasonic) and Fujitsu. At first glance, their early adoption of the TOEIC IP seems natural since high level managers from both companies helped Watanabe establish the TOEIC. Harata Akira, a Matsushita vice

president, and Akazawa Shoichi, an advisor for Fujitsu Computers, were two of the TOEIC Steering Committee's original 23 members (Ihara & Tsuoka, 2001, p. 50). A closer look shows that neither had any formal training in language teaching or testing. Like Watanabe, both gentlemen were retired MITI bureau chiefs. Both men had also deployed golden amakudari parachutes to drop into their high level management positions. For example Akazawa, the former director of MITI's H eavy I ndustries B ureau, undertook a major descent from the MITI in 1973 when he became an advisor to Fujitsu (Johnson, 1974, p. 956). At the time, Fujitsu was in fierce competition with American computer makers and

a major recipient of MITI subsidies to develop a Japanese computer industry (Johnson, 1974, p. 956). Their MITI connections led to Akazawa and Harata's serving on the steering committee , which facilitated Fujitsu and Matsushita's adoption of the TOEIC IP. This certainly did not lead directly to continued ministry subsidies for their computer divisions; h owever, being reliant on the Ministry of Trade, it would have been difficult for them to refuse a request from their former colleague to support the new ministry backed test. Fujitsu and Matsushita's support for the TOEIC IP helped secure a market a nd high profile users for the test (Ihara & Tsuoka, 2001, p. 43). This proved a significant boost as the TOEIC struggled to win market share. Government connections proved vital not only to the test's creation but also its early survival. Without the suppo rt from Watanabe's old colleagues it seems likely that a lack of demand would have smothered the newly born TOEIC in its cradle. By 1986, the TOEIC had 100,000 annual test takers in Japan and Watanabe became chair of a new public interest corporation called the Institute for International Business Communication (IIBC). Created with the

permission of the MITI and operating under its supervision, the IIBC assumed responsibilities for administering the TOEIC in Japan. Getting a Job at Heaven on Earth: Ne potistic Hiring Hiring practices for IIBC executives seem to have more to do with connections than with knowledge about language learning or testing. Ever since the IIBC's creation, it has provided positions to ex bureaucrats from the MITI/METI. In 2 007, one of four full time members and three of ten part time members of the IIBC's Board of Directors were ex bureaucrats. Most, if not all, of these part timers were connected to Watanabe. The part time members of the board are technically volunteers, so one is reminded of the adage you get what you pay for when considering the contributions made by such appointees. Since these ex -

bureaucrats possess little or no experience related to language learning or testing they can play little role in improving the TOEIC or helping ensure businesses or schools use it properly. Instead, they help ed serve a role in continuing to cement the relationship between the IIBC and the METI and ensure the support of the Ministry during any bureaucratic turf battles.

Shiken: JALT Testing & Evaluation SIG Newsletter. 14 (1 ) March 2010 (p. 2 10) 4 Wata nabe Yaeji, IIBC c hair from its foundation in 1986 until his sudden retirement in 2009 at the age of 92, deserves special attention when discussing the lack of qualifications for IIBC executives. Until he helped his friend Kitaoka establish the TOEIC, Wata nabe confessed he possessed no interest in, or knowledge of, language testing. Watanabe only began studying English in 1982 at the age of 65 and did not begin studying in earnest until after becoming IIBC c

hair in 1986 (Watanabe, 2003, p. 3, 117). No r did Watanabe devote his undivided attention to the IIBC. Despite holding a full time position as IIBC chair, he also worked as a partner in his own law firm and chair of the Beautiful Aging Association (BAA). Established by Watanabe in 1992, the BAA is a nother public interest corporation operating under METI authority. The BAA organizes lectures and activities for member company retirees including: kar a oke outings, go tournaments, and cooking classes (BAA, 2008). Another member of the IIBC executiv e board with questionable qualifications is a man named Murofushi Takayuki. FRIDAY , a weekly Japanese magazine best known for reporting on scandals connected to celebrities and government officials, caused some surprise in the language teaching community

w hen it ran an expose of Murofushi s appointment to the IIBC. According to FRIDAY, Murofushi started working for IIBC's for profit partner International Communications School (ICS) following his graduation from university (FRIDAY, 2009, p. 16). ICS was foun ded in 1983 to promote the TOEIC IP , initially on behalf of the WEIS TOEIC Steering Committee and presently on behalf of the IIBC . In 2008, he resigned from his position on ICS' board of directors to join the IIBC's board. His main qualification for both p osts seemed to be his third job as Watanabe's personal secretary. In July 2009 , Murofushi became IIBC chair, replacing Watanabe who suddenly resigned for health reasons.

Watanabe and Murofushi's mother, a poetry teacher named Murofushi Jukan, have h ad a long relationship. Since the 1980s, she and Watanabe worked together to increase the popularity of classical Chinese poetry (Watanabe, 2003, pp. 80 83). The two are also romantically linked, living in adjacent apartments in the same building (FRIDAY, 2009, p. 16). The blatant nepotism of appointing Watanabe's girlfriend's son to an executive position shocked even the IIBC Board of Directors. To force the appointment Watanabe had to purge half the board (FRIDAY, 2009, p. 15). Heaven's Streets Are Paved with Gold: Private Companies Profiting from the TOEIC Despite ETS' original refusal to deal with Kitaoka's business, several connected companies in Japan have enjoyed a profitable partnership with the IIBC. Kitaoka's efforts to create the TOEIC and h is friendship with Watanabe did not go uncompensated. Kitaoka became IIBC vice chair and the IIBC rewarded his company International Communications Inc. with contracts for administering the test's official Japanese fan club, publishing the magazine TOEIC F riends, and developing an online registration system (McCrostie, Aug. 11, 2009). In addition, ICI subsidiaries promoted the TOEIC in the United States, Canada, and other countries in the mid -

1990s . Appendix A outlines the connections between IIBC and its m ain for profit partners. Following Kitaoka's death in 1997, ICI seemed to begin having difficulties. According to Yoshida Atsuko, an IIBC public relations manager, It closed after Mr. Kitaoka passed away (A. Yoshida, personal communication, June 5, 2009). However, archived web pages show that ICI continued operations until 2003. In 2003, ICI changed its name to T. F. Communications, which shut down in 2004. A nother for profit company that continues enjoying close ties with the IIBC is Interna tional Communication School (ICS). Established in 1983 to promote the TOEIC IP in Japan, it offers customer support to organizations using the test. ICS operations, while not top secret, are not exactly widely advertised either; it has no website and the o nly mention of the company on the IIBC website is on a privacy policy

page at www.toeic.or.jp/privacy/privacy_05_01.html. When asked during a June 2009 interview why IIBC needed a for profit partner IIBC public relations manager, Yoshida Atsuko, sta ted, International Communications School was established purely for the purpose of promoting TOEIC business. As to why it had to be established, I'm sorry but I don't have an answer for tha t (A. Yoshida, personal communication, June 5, 2009). Despite pro mises to find the answer , another public relations employee informed me in a follow up email, We are not in a position to answer the

Shiken: JALT Testing & Evaluation SIG Newsletter. 14 (1 ) March 2010 (p. 2

10) 5 question (R. Hanai, personal communication, June 9, 2009). Similarly, ICS spokespeople refuse to reveal the names of the corporate owners (McCrostie, Aug. 18, 2009). The IIBC and ICS share a very close partnership. Watanabe formerly served on its board of directors and ICS' 70 employees operate out of offices located next door to IIBC, sharing a common lobby area and s ecurity guard. IIBC and ICS employees also have nearly identical business cards, both prominently displaying the TOEIC logo with only International Communications School Inc. or The Institute for International Business Communication in fine print disti nguishing them. ICS is involved in the TOEIC several different ways. It acts as the publisher for IIBC

produced TOEIC textbooks, but its main duty is promoting the TOEIC IP. ICS sales staff work for one of two divisions promoting the TOEIC IP to eit her businesses or schools. Financial statements for 2008 show the IIBC spent 375 million (45% of the TOEIC IP's administration costs) for the vague service of popularizing the test. According to an expert in Japanese non profits, such partnerships are a standard technique for public interest corporations to engage in off the book profiteering (S. Carpenter , personal communication, July 10, 2009). ICS may also be making money by printing exams and through the dispatch of test proctors. The IIBC

spen t 250 million in exam printing fees in 2008. IIBC financial statements do not reveal which company received the contract, but ICS is the publisher for IIBC approved textbooks. The IIBC's biggest expense for administering the TOEIC SP is dispatch fees for test examiners. In 2008, dispatch fees total l ed 862 million, making up 39% of the total expenses for administering the TOEIC SP (IIBC, 2009a). Suspiciously, company websites show that ICS owns its own dispatch company called Fellowship Inc. through a subs idiary called Odyssey Communications (Fellowship Inc, 2009; Odyssey Communications, 2009). At some point, the ownership of ICI/T.F. Communications' subsidiaries was transferred to ICS. One of these subsidiaries is a company called E Communications (w ww.e coms.co.jp). Its primary clients are the IIBC and ICS and its office is located down the hall from their offices. E

Communications' main business is managing TOEIC's Japanese online application system. The company web page shows that it is also involv ed in the TOEIC preparation business, offering an online programme that recycles questions from the old TOEIC fan club magazine. E Communications has been consistently profitable, generating a net profit of 36 million in fiscal 2005, 13.6 million i n 2006, 30 million in 2007, and nearly 11 million in 2008. They closed the 2008 financial year with net assets worth 246 million (E Communications, 2009). The three members of E -

Communications' board (Representative Director Sato Shinya, ICS' Representa tive Director Noguchi Hisao, and a third board member) received a total of 33 million for their services in 2008 (E Communications, 2009, p. 4). Another connected company making money off the TOEIC through their relationship with the IIBC is a busi ness called ICC. This English training and consulting company, whose initials do not seem to stand for anything, offers English and TOEIC training classes. ICC's Representative Director is a man named Chida Junichi and he worked with Kitaoka at Time magazi ne. Chida also worked as a special advisor to TOEIC Friends magazine when it was published by Kitaoka's company , International Communications Inc. H e currently offers TOEIC preparation advice on the TOEIC Square website at http://www.toeic.or.jp/square/adv ice/advice_score/ .

According to Chida, Kitaoka inspired him to start ICC. On ICC's web page Chida explains how as Kitaoka lay dying of cancer in the hospital he instructed Chida to create an English counselling system in his last telephone call to hi m. As a result, Chida started ICC (Chida, 2008). Conveniently, ICC's offices are located in the same building as IIBC, International Communications School, and E Communications. In addition to the TOEIC preparation classes they offer, ICC receives c ontracts from the IIBC to give TOEIC information lectures. After the IIBC introduced the TOEIC Bridge to Japan, ICC representatives gave 16 information lectures across Japan in 2003 and 2004 (ICC, 2008). Chida has also recently given a

Shiken: JALT Testing & Evaluation SIG Newsletter. 14 (1 ) March 2010 (p. 2 10) 6 series of lectures e xplaining the TOEIC Speaking and Writing test. It is unclear why the IIBC's own public relations department is unable to perform these duties. It is nearly impossible for the public to know how much the IIBC pays its for profit partners. While the I IBC is required by law to publish financial statements, their vagueness makes it difficult to track the

movement of funds between the IIBC and companies such as ICS, E Communications, and ICC. Furthermore, my experience is that IIBC spokespeople become ver y defensive when queried about these for profit partners. When asked about E Communications for a newspaper article, IIBC public relations manager Yoshida Atsuko replied, How do you know about E Communications? then later Why do you have to mention E co mmunications in your article? (A. Yoshida, personal communication, June 5, 2009). In the 1990s, ETS' attitude towards for

profits underwent a volte face and it established its own for profit subsidiary to take over responsibility for the TOEIC. From 1996 2004, a private company owned by ETS, called The Chauncey Group International, controlled the TOEIC. ETS established The Chauncey Group to run a number of tests , including the TOEIC, that it decided lay outside ETS' main educational mission. This all owed ETS to continue generating revenue from the tests without threatening its tax exempt status (Bennett, 2008, p. 2). Transfer of TOEIC control to The Chauncey Group suggests ETS viewed the test as laying outside its main educational mission but at the s ame time an important source of revenue. In 2004, ETS regained direct control of the TOEIC following a series of mergers and acquisitions

. (Canadian Press, 2004). Today, ETS licenses the right to use the TOEIC to private companies in exchange for a pe r test royalty fee. In Korea, an English education conglomerate called YBM/Si sa administers the TOEIC. According to Y.B. Min, president of that company, ETS now prefer [s] commercial companies in order to make profi t (Prey, 2001, p. 56). The quest ionable partnerships between the IIBC and private companies , ETS' decision to transfer control of the test to its own for profit subsidiary as well as the relative lack of actual TOEIC research (Chapman, 2003, pp. 2 -

4) suggests IIBC and ETS have been more concerned with building their own organizations than with creating a valid measure of English proficiency and promoting effective language instruction improving the English ability of test takers. The Price of Heaven: Where Do the Test Fees Go? Despi te being a public interest corporation, it is my belief that the IIBC misuses TOEIC fees in a number of ways that fail to benefit the test taking public. For one, fees are spent subsidizing the remarkably high cost of some less popular TOEIC brand tests. T hose paying to take the TOEIC Listening and Reading test subsidize less popular TOEIC brand tests. In fiscal 2008, the IIBC took in 36 million in test fees from the computer based TOEIC Speaking and Writing Test (SW) well short of the estimated

79 mill ion but spent 551 million administering the test (IIBC, 2009a). With only 4,000 people taking the test in 2008, it cost the IIBC more than 138,000 per test taker. The IIBC lost a further 28 million on other unpopular tests including the TOEIC Language Proficiency Interview which is no longer being offered after February 2010 and the French TOEIC, which was taken by only four people in fiscal 2008 (IIBC, 2008a). The IIBC s willingness to promote the testing of communicative English skills, even at a financial loss, is admirable.

However, the extent of that loss, 515 million per year in the case of the TOEIC SW, raises the question where is all the money going? That question is impossible to answer by examining the IIBC s public financial statements. Secondly, the IIBC's budget includes several expenses that have little to do with testing English proficiency. The previously mentioned Beautiful Aging Association received funds from both the IIBC and its for profit partner ICS. However, IIBC and B AA financial statements fail to clearly show how much money. After my Japan Times articles showing the financial links between the IIBC and BAA were published the IIBC's name was taken off the list of supporting organizations published on the BAA's web sit e , but it is unclear whether the funding itself has also been cut. ICS continues to be listed as a supporting member.

Shiken: JALT Testing & Evaluation SIG Newsletter. 14

(1 ) March 2010 (p. 2 10) 7 TOEIC test fees also help pay for an IIBC division called Global Human Resources Development (GHRD). This division gathers informati on from around the world to help Japanese become better global managers ( GHRD, 2004 ) . I t maintains a website, magazine, and hosts information seminars. IIBC spokespeople declined to reveal how much money the GHRD division spends each year (R. Hanai, pers onal communication, June 9, 2009).

However, financial statements show that it was nearly 265 million in fiscal 2007, over a 100 million in fiscal 2008, and about 78 million in fiscal 2009 (IIBC, 2009a; 2009d). The smaller budget in 2009 was the result o f cutting funding to the Chinese Poetry Recitation Association and an end to a leadership consultation project that cost 161 million in 2007. Furthermore, in a conflict of interest, from 1989 2009 through this GHRD division, the IIBC spent about 13 million annually on research into adapting to Chinese culture (IIBC, 2008a; 2009a). This money was actually funneled to the Chinese Poetry Recitation Association. Starting in 1989, the IIBC sponsored the association's Chinese poetry appreciation meet ings in Japan as well as the United States and Europe. The poetry association's head teacher, Murofushi Jukan, is the IIBC's ex chair's girlfriend and the current chair's mother. After the magazine FRIDAY began investigating Watanabe and Murofushi , the IIB

C suddenly cut off this poetry funding. These conflicts of interest show how Watanabe viewed IIBC assets as his private property. Furthermore, while he only showed up at the IIBC office one day a week in 2009 Watanabe received an annual salary of abo ut 20 million (FRIDAY, 2009; IIBC 2008a). Four IIBC executives received a total of 77.5 million in fiscal 2007 and 79 million in 2008. Budget estimates showed plans to increase pay for four executives to 121 million in fiscal 2009 but it was cut to 75 million for three executives (IIBC, 2008a; 2009). The salaries of IIBC executives can be described as very generous. For comparison, the average annual income of 29 amakudari bureaucrats working for independent government administrative agencies in 2008 w as

18.58 million, with the 22.31 million salary for the chair of the METI's Japan External Trade Organization being the highest (Kyodo News, 2009). Murofushi earns about 25 million yen to manage the IIBC's 156 employees and three offices in Tokyo, Osaka and Nagoya. JETRO's chair earns 22.31 million to manage that organization's 1,580 employees and 72 offices in 55 countries (JETRO, 2010). Thirdly, ETS takes a cut of the test fee through dramatically rising royalty fees. The IIBC pays ETS royalties for each TOEIC brand test taken in Japan. IIBC financial records show test royalties paid to ETS doubled from 800 million to 1.6 billion between 2007 and 2008 (IIBC, 2008a). According to a Japanese journalist who wrote an article on the IIBC's TOEIC sca ndal, IIBC's contract with ETS expired in 2007 and the new deal required the dramatic increase in royalty payments (K. Ishii, personal communication, Sept. 8, 2009). Despite these large expenses, the IIBC remains comfortably in the black

, recording a profit over 600 million in fiscal 2008 (IIBC, 2009a) . S ince it is a public interest corporation, laws regulating how the IIBC can use its annual surpluses mean most of the money sits in bank accounts . In addition to nearly 1.7 billion in cash on hand a nd savings accounts the IIBC also holds government bonds, time deposits, and investment securities worth 215 million. The IIBC's total assets add up to about 4 billion (IIBC, 2009a). The profits generated by the TOEIC, as well as the conflicts of i nterest and misuse of test taker fees, finally caught up with the IIBC. Shortly after the IIBC began attracting unwanted press attention, Watanabe resigned citing health reasons and the Ministry of Trade warned the IIBC that their profits were excessive

an d issued non binding guidance to reduce test fees. In August 2009, the IIBC announced a reduction in the cost of the TOEIC SP from 6,615 to 5,895, effective immediately. The decision was so sudden the IIBC also announced an automatic refund for test take rs who had pre paid for the September and October tests. The cost of other TOEIC brand tests, including the TOEIC IP, remained unchanged. Ironically , the same month TOEIC SP fees were cut in response to M inistry warnings of excessive profits , the IIB

C also announced a new source of revenue. A September 2009 IIBC press release publicized the start of sales for official TOEIC training software (IIBC, 2009 c ). The software was the result of a licensing agreement between the IIBC and a software developer k nown as IE Institute to produce official IIBC/ETS approved TOEIC training software for the Nintendo DS, a handheld computer game console . A similar

Shiken: JALT Testing & Evaluation SIG Newsletter. 14 (1 ) March 2010 (p. 2 10) 8 licensing deal between the Japan Kanji Aptitude Testing Foundation and software companies brought in 76 mil

lion in revenues for that organization in only two years. However, 90% of those revenues were siphoned off to a private company owned by the foundation s vice chair (Asahi Shimbun, 2009). Conclusion TOEIC's 30th anniversary is a time to reflect on the business priorities of the IIBC. From its origins as a cover for the profit seeking founder of TOEIC to its present day spending habits the IIBC's behaviour has been scandalous. A critical look at TOEIC's history shows that its founder, Kitaoka Yasuo, seemed driven by money making motives in addition to a desire to improve English education in Japan. Similarly, Watanabe Yaeji appeared to have been more concerned with creating his own public interest corporation, which as we have seen, he treated as his personal property. This article has pointed out four criticisms of IIBC: 1) the profit oriented motives for starting the test, 2) nepotistic executive appointments, 3) questionable partnerships with companies such as International Communications Inc. and International Communications School whose services have cost hundreds of

millions of yen, and 4) the misuse of test taker fees for expenses including staggering executive salaries and funding the former chair's pet projects such as a Chinese poetry as sociation and the Beautiful Aging Association. For the IIBC and its affiliated companies profiting from the test, the TOEIC truly is a small piece of heaven. Partly, to avert a METI investigative raid on the IIBC similar to the one the Ministry of Ed ucation launched against the Japan Kanji Aptitude Testing Foundation , which resulted in legal charges for misappropriation of funds against that organization's father and son chair and co chair, the IIBC recently lowered the price of the TOEIC IP by 630. More substantial changes at the IIBC are necessary. There are four things the IIBC should do, as a start, if they are truly concerned about the interests of TOEIC test takers in Japan. 1) The IIBC's current chair, Murofushi Takayuki

, managing director, Yos hizawa Seiji, and executive director, Umezawa Naomi, as well as the board of directors and board of trustees should all resign. These individuals have proven themselves either unable to spend TOEIC test fees appropriately or unable to properly oversee the IIBC's budgetary and executive appointment decisions. The replacement b oard of directors and board of trustees should include more individuals who are knowledgeable about language testing and learning. 2) Having more people knowledgeable about language tes ting and learning would also help the IIBC to stop relying entirely on ETS for decisions about test design, form, and content. Despite the fact that the IIBC and Korean TOEIC preferred vendor YBM/Si sa enjoy a near duopsonistic

relationship with ETS, the I IBC has fail ed to exert any pressure on ETS to improve the TOEIC or to make it a better test of communicative ability. In a 2009 interview, IIBC spokesperson, Yoshida Atsuko, explained that the IIBC leaves all decisions about writing the TOEIC up to ETS (A . Yoshida, personal communication, June 5, 2009). I believe that the IIBC should be using their influence to encourage ETS to make meaningful improvements to the TOEIC. 3) The IIBC should also end its relationship with International Communication School. T here is no need for the IIBC to pay ICS to promote the TOEIC when they have their own in house public relations department. If the IIBC needs a company to provide services they are unable to perform in house they should be able to tender contract

bids. One example would be desig n ing and maintain ing the test's online application system. The IIBC should also reveal more than the current legal minimum in their financial statements and clearly show how much it is paying to which private companies and for what s ervices. Giving summaries of the costs for a non profit s major programmes is a level of transparency recommended by the United States based Charities Review Council (Charities Review Council, 2009). 4) If the non profit IIBC (staffed with more executives knowledgeable about testing) takes over

responsibilities for selling the TOEIC IP from the for profit ICS , it should be able to curb some of the more egregious misuses of the test by companies and schools. For example, the TOEIC was never designed to be us ed for university EFL classroom placement or to judge student progress , yet many of the TOEIC IP exams

Shiken: JALT Testing & Evaluation SIG Newsletter. 14 (1 ) March 2010 (p. 2 10) 9 are administered precisely for those purpose s . Furthermore, the IIBC should abandon annual targets for increasing the number of test takers. An organizat ion truly dedicated to the public interest should persuade

organizations to refrain from using its products for purposes they were never designed for and not focus on increasing the number of TOEIC test takers every year. References Asahi Shimbum . (2009, April 15). DS, Wii yo softo rieki kantei miuchi kigyou ni 9 wari . [90% of DS and Wii software returns given to K anji F oundation related business]. Asahi Shimbun . p. 13 .

BAA. (2008). Heisei 20 Jigyouhoukoku. [2008 Operations Report] . Retrieved January 6, 20 10 from http://www.baa.or.jp/newpage26.htm Canadian Press. (2004, August 16). Thomson buys testing service. The Globe and Mail . Retrieved May 31, 2009 from http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20040816.gtThomson0816/ BNStory/Technology/ Chapm an, M. (2003). TOEIC: Tried but undertested. Shiken: JALT Testing & Evaluation SIG Newsletter , 12 ( 2 ) 2 7. Retrieved December 29, 2009 from http://jalt.org/test/cha_1.htm Chapman, M. (2004). An interview with Kazuhiko Saito.

Shiken : JALT Testing & Ev aluati on SIG Newsletter , 8 , ( 2 ) 10 12. Retrieved January 9, 2010 from http://jalt.org/test/sai_cha.htm Chapman, M. (2006). An over reliance on discrete item testing in the Japanese business context. Paper Presented at the International Conference on English Inst ruction and Assessment, April 22 23, 2006, National Chung Cheng University, Taiwan. Chapman, M. & Newfields, T. (2008). The new

 TOEIC. Shiken: JALT Testin g & Evaluation SIG Newsletter , 12 ( 2 ) 3 2 3 7 . Retrieved December 29, 2009 from http://jalt.org/test /cha_new.htm Charities Review Council. (2009). Accountability Standards 2009: Public Disclosure . Retrieved January 22, 2010 from http://www.smartgivers.org/Disclosure.html Chida, J. ( 2008).

Chida Junichi sensei kara no message [ A message from Chida Junich i Sensei.] Retrieved January 10, 2010 from http://www.icconsul.com/centers/message005.html Childs, M. (1995). Good and bad uses of TOEIC by Japanese companies. In J.D. Brown and S.O. Yamashita (Eds.), Language Testing in Japan (pp. 66 75). Tokyo, Japan: JA LT. E Communications. (2009). Daikyuki houkokusyo Kabukikaisha E Communications . [E Communications 9th Periodic Stock Report]. Tokyo: Author. ETS. (2006). TOEIC Report on Test Takers Worldwide, 2005. Retrieved January 9, 2010 from http://www.ea.toeic.eu/fi leadmin/free_resources/Europe%20website/3548 TOEIC_TTRep.pdf Fellowship Inc. (2009). Fellowship Inc. Retrieved January 10, 2010 from http://www.f -

ship.jp/ FRIDAY. (June 12, 2009). TOEIC: Kourei kaicho to shinmitsu josei shinbutsukakeiei no jittai . [TOEIC: The truth of the elderly chair and his intimate woman's mismanagement]. pp. 14 16 . GHRD. (2004). Web Site for Global Managers: About Us. Retrieved January 22, 2010 from http://www.toeic.or.jp/ghrd/english/aboutus/index.html Hirai, M. (2002). Correlations between active skill and passive skill test scores. Shiken: JALT Testing and Evaluation SIG Newsletter, 6 (3), 2 8. Retrieved December 29, 2009 from http://jalt.org/test/hir_1.htm ICC. (2008). TOEIC, TOEIC Bridge setsumeikai and kouenkai. [TOEIC, TOEIC Br idge explanation meetings and lectures]

. Retrieved January 10, 2010 from http://www.icconsul.com/seminars/toeic/index.html IIBC. (2009a). Heisei 20 do zaimu shohyo. [2008 Financial Statement]. Tokyo.

Shiken: JALT Testing & Evaluation SIG Newsletter. 14 (1 ) March 2010 (p. 2 10) 10 IIBC. (2009b). Profile Kitaoka Yasuo. Retrieved January 10, 2010 from http://www.toeic.or.jp/30th/secrets/1.html IIBC. (2009c). TOEIC testo no koushiki Nintendo DS softo ga tsuni ni toujou . [ Official TOEIC test Nintendo DS

software is finally introduced ] . Retrieved January 27, 2010 from http://www.toeic.or.jp/p ress/22.html IIBC. (2009d). Heisei 21 nen do shusei shushi yosansho. [2010 Revised Revenue and Expenses Estimate Report]. Tokyo. IIBC. (2008a). Heisei 19 do dai 23 ki jigyoukeikaku. [2007 Business Plan]. Tokyo: Author. IIBC. (2008b). Heisei 19 do zaimu sh ohyo. [2007 Financial Statement]. Tokyo: Author. Ihara, H. & Tsuroka, T. (2001). TOEIC: Seikou no himitsu maaketinguteki shiten kara no bunseki . [The secret behind the success of TOEIC: An analysis from a marketing viewpoint]. Nagano University Bulletin, 3 2 (

2 ), 32 52. JETRO. (2010). JETRO Profile. Retrieved January 9, 2010 from http://www.jetro.go.jp/en/jetro/profile/ Johnson, C. (1974). The reemployment of retired government bureaucrats in Japanese big business. Asian Surve y 14 ( 11 ) 953 965. Kyodo News. ( 2009, October 25). 'Amakudari' rules in state institutions. The Japan Times, Retrieved January 8, 2010 from http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi bin/nn20091025a4.html

McCrostie, J. (2006). Why are universities abandoning English teaching for TOEIC training? On Cue, 14 ( 2 ), 30 32. Retrieved January 7, 2010 from http://jaltcue sig.org/files/OnCUE/14.2content.pdf McCrostie, J. (2009, August 11). TOEIC no turkey at 30. The Japan Times. Life in Japan > Features. Retrieved January 5, 2010 from http://search.japant imes.co.jp/cgi bin/fl20090811zg.html McCrostie, J. (2009, August 18). TOEIC: Where does the money go? The Japan Times. Life in Japan > Features. Retrieved January 5, 2010 from http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi bin/fl20090818zg.html

Odyssey Communications. (2009). Fellowship Inc . Retrieved January 10, 2010 from http://www.odyssey com.co.jp/work/fellowship.html Prey, R. (2001). How do you say 'imperialism'? The English language teaching industry and the culture of imperialism in South Korea. M.A. dissertatio n, University of Windsor. Watanabe, Y. (2003). 125 sai made watashi wa ikiru. [I'll live to 125]. Tokyo: Sony Magazines. Appendix A. An Overview of IIBC and its Main P artners , 1986 2009Shiken : JALT Testing & Evaluasi SIG dunia . 14 (1 ) Maret 2010 ( hal. 2 10 ) 2 The TOEIC The TOEIC

di Jepang : Sebuah skandal yang dibuat di surga di Jepang : Sebuah skandal yang dibuat di surga James McCrostie ( Daito Bunka University) F irst diimplementasikan pada tahun 1979 , Tes Bahasa Inggris untuk Komunikasi Internasional TM ( TOEIC ) telah menjadi di mana-mana di Jepang , dimana tes itu diberikan 1718000 kali di tahun 2008 ( A. Yoshida , pribadi komunikasi , 5 Juni 2009). Korea adalah satu-satunya negara lain berbagi antusiasme Jepang untuk ujian . Sekitar 5 juta orang di lebih dari 90 negara mengambil TOEIC setiap tahun , namun sekitar 80 % dari mereka tinggal di Jepang atau Korea ( ETS , 2006, hal . 4 ) . Meskipun popularitas TOEIC itu , beberapa orang tampaknya menyadari organisasi pengadministrasian tes dalam Jepang . Disebut Lembaga Komunikasi Bisnis Internasional ( IIBC ) , bahkan penulis agak atau sangat pengkritik al dari TOEIC telah hampir diabaikan itu ( Chapman & Newfields , 2008; Chapman , 2006; Childs , 1995; Hirai , 2002; McCrostie , 2006) . Satu pengecualian , penjelasan tentang IIBC itu strategi pemasaran co ditulis oleh seorang mantan karyawan , mengandung sedikit wa y analisis kritis ( Ihara & Tsuroka , 2001 ) . The IIBC adalah perusahaan kepentingan umum ( Zaidan houijin ) , Jenis non keuntungan yang mengharuskan pemerintah persetujuan yang akan dibentuk . Dalam kasus IIBC , mantan Menteri Perdagangan Internasional dan Indus coba , yang pada tahun 2001 menjadi Kementerian Ekonomi , Perdagangan dan Industri , melemparkan berat di belakang IIBC dan TOEIC pada 1970-an dan 80-an ( Chapman , 2004, hal . 10 ) . The IIBC juga memiliki asal-usul sebagai amakudari organisasi . Secara harfiah berarti "

keturunan dari heave n" , amakudari mengacu pada praktek pemberian Birokrat Jepang dengan tulisan patronase ketika mereka pensiun dari pegawai negeri sipil . Artikel ini secara singkat membahas sejarah awal IIBC itu , praktik mempekerjakan eksekutif , hubungan dengan untuk keuntungan pa rtners , dan penyalahgunaannya biaya TOEIC . Atas dasar fakta-fakta tersebut , maka saya akan menegaskan bahwa IIBC adalah organisasi yang tampaknya lebih peduli lagi dengan menguntungkan diri dibandingkan dengan kemampuan bahasa Inggris uji pengambil . TOEIC ini Descent Dari Surga : Th e Sejarah Awal Seorang pria bernama Kitaoka Yasuo (1928 1997) layak sebagian besar kredit untuk penciptaan TOEIC ini ( IIBC , 2009b ) . Sebagai pemilik bisnis sekarang mati bernama Communications International Inc , Kitaoka pertama direncanakan untuk pasar Inggris textbo oks tetapi memutuskan untuk memasuki bisnis pengujian . Pada pertengahan 1970 , Kitaoka mendekati Educational Testing Service ( ETS ) dengan idenya untuk baru Tes bahasa Inggris untuk digunakan di Jepang . Menurut Ihara dan Tsuoka ( 2001 , p . 37 ) , ETS menginformasikan bahwa Kitaoka y diperlukan non profit untuk bekerja sebagai mitra mereka . Menurut Prey (2001 , p . 55 ) , sedangkan TOEIC sedang didirikan ETS disukai non ini mitra keuntungan untuk memiliki dukungan pemerintah . Kitaoka pertama mendekati Kementerian Educat ion , tetapi birokrat yang menghalangi usahanya karena

mereka tidak ingin untuk mendorong persaingan terhadap STEP Eiken , yang Kementerian sudah didukung ( Ihara & Tsuroka , 2001, hal . 37 ) . Tidak terpengaruh , Kitaoka menerima bantuan dari seorang teman bernama Watanab e Yaeji . Pengaruh Watanabe sebagai pensiunan tinggi peringkat MITI birokrat terbukti penting untuk membangun TOEIC . di memoarnya , Watanabe menjelaskan berlindung " di belakang Departemen Perdagangan perisai " untuk mengatasi Kementerian oposisi Pendidikan ( Watanabe , 2003, hal . 114 ) . Watanabe tetap tinggal di kontak dekat dengan pelayanan lamanya setelah mengambil amakudari posting sebagai ketua Jepang Asosiasi Ekonomi China dan Layanan Informasi Ekonomi Dunia ( WEIS ) anggota dewan . Keduanya corporatio kepentingan umum ns yang beroperasi di bawah otoritas MITI . Watanabe mendapat izin untuk membentuk dan kursi Komite Pengarah TOEIC dalam WEIS . anggota komite termasuk birokrat MITI lainnya pensiunan dan eksekutif bisnis . Dengan dukungan pemerintah dijamin , ETS setuju untuk membuat tes dan pada tahun 1979 Komite Pengarah TOEIC diberikan pertama TOEIC di Jepang ( Chapman , 2004 , p . 10 ) . ? Shiken : JALT Testing & Evaluasi SIG dunia . 14 (1 ) Maret 2010 ( hal. 2 10 ) 3 Sedangkan TOEIC kini telah menjadi identik dengan pengujian Inggris bisnis di Jepang , keberhasilan ini adalah tidak berarti menjamin d . Selama tahun-tahun awal TOEIC an itu menarik lebih sedikit dari jumlah yang diharapkan dari peserta tes , mengakibatkan kesulitan keuangan yang serius . C

ircumstances menjadi begitu mendesak bahwa Watanabe berdoa kepada Tuhan untuk membantu ( Watanabe , 2003 , p . 114 ) . Doa-doanya dijawab dalam bentuk versi baru dari TOEIC dan sedikit bantuan dari beberapa teman . Pada tahun 1981 , para IIBC mulai menawarkan format kedua tes yang disebut Kelembagaan Program TOEIC ( IP ) . Berbeda dengan Program Aman TOEIC ( SP ) yang ditawarkan di tempat-tempat tetap dan kali tahun , IP TOEIC bisa ditawarkan pada kenyamanan perusahaan untuk harga yang sedikit lebih murah . Tahun setelah pengenalan, tes IP melewati SP dalam hal jumlah t est pengambil dan tetap menjadi format yang lebih populer sejak itu. di 2 008 , uji pengambil di Jepang mengambil IP TOEIC 940,000 kali dan TOEIC SP 778.000 kali ( A. Yoshida , komunikasi pribadi , 5 Juni 2009 ) . Dua perusahaan pertama untuk memaksa karyawan mereka untuk mengambil IP TOEIC adalah Matsushita Electric industri Co , Ltd ( sekarang Panasonic ) dan Fujitsu . Pada pandangan pertama , adopsi awal mereka dari IP TOEIC tampaknya alami karena tinggi tingkat manajer dari kedua perusahaan membantu Watanabe mendirikan TOEIC . Harata Akira , wakil Matsushita presiden , dan Akazawa Shoichi , seorang penasihat untuk Fujitsu Komputer , adalah dua dari Komite Pengarah TOEIC yang asli 23 anggota ( Ihara & Tsuoka , 2001 , p . 50 ) . Sebuah melihat lebih dekat menunjukkan bahwa tidak memiliki pelatihan formal dalam pengajaran bahasa atau pengujian . Seperti Watanabe , kedua pria itu pensiun MITI biro kepala . Kedua pria juga telah dikerahkan emas amakudari parasut jatuh ke tinggi

posisi manajemen tingkat . Misalnya Akazawa , mantan direktur MITI H eavy saya ndustries B ureau , melakukan sebuah " utama " keturunan dari MITI di 1973 ketika ia menjadi penasehat Fujitsu ( Johnson , 1974 , p . 956 ) . Pada saat itu , Fujitsu dalam persaingan sengit dengan komputer Amerika pembuat dan penerima utama subsidi MITI untuk mengembangkan industri komputer Jepang ( Johnson , 1974, p . 956 ) . Koneksi MITI mereka menyebabkan Akazawa dan Harata yang melayani di komite pengarah , yang difasilitasi Fujitsu dan Matsushita adopsi dari IP TOEIC . Hal ini tentu tidak mengarah langsung ke kementerian terus subsidi untuk divisi komputer mereka , h owever , yang bergantung pada Departemen Perdagangan , itu akan menjadi sulit bagi mereka untuk menolak permintaan dari mantan rekan mereka untuk mendukung kementerian baru tes didukung . Dukungan Fujitsu dan Matsushita untuk IP TOEIC membantu mengamankan pasar nd pengguna profil tinggi untuk test ( Ihara & Tsuoka , 2001, hal . 43 ) . Ini membuktikan dorongan signifikan sebagai TOEIC berjuang untuk memenangkan pasar saham. Koneksi pemerintah terbukti penting tidak hanya untuk penciptaan tes tetapi juga kelangsungan hidup awal . tanpa suppo yang rt dari rekan-rekan lama Watanabe tampaknya mungkin bahwa kurangnya permintaan akan tertahan baru lahir TOEIC di tempatnya . Pada 1986 , TOEIC memiliki 100.000 pengambil tes tahunan di Jepang dan Watanabe menjadi ketua publik baru

korporasi bunga disebut Institut Komunikasi Bisnis Internasional ( IIBC ) . Dibuat dengan izin dari MITI dan operasi di bawah pengawasan , yang IIBC diasumsikan tanggung jawab untuk administrasi TOEIC di Jepang . Mendapatkan Job di Heaven on Earth : Ne Mempekerjakan potistic Praktek mempekerjakan untuk eksekutif IIBC tampaknya memiliki lebih berkaitan dengan koneksi dibandingkan dengan pengetahuan tentang belajar bahasa atau pengujian . Sejak penciptaan IIBC , itu telah memberikan posisi kepada mantan birokrat dari MITI / METI . dalam 2 007 , salah satu dari empat penuh waktu anggota dan tiga dari sepuluh bagian anggota saat ini Dewan IIBC Direksi adalah mantan birokrat . Kebanyakan , jika tidak semua , dari bagian ini timer yang terhubung ke Watanabe . bagian waktu anggota dewan secara teknis relawan , sehingga salah satu yang teringat pepatah Anda mendapatkan apa yang Anda bayar ketika mempertimbangkan kontribusi yang diberikan oleh ditunjuk tersebut . Sejak ex ini birokrat memiliki sedikit atau tidak ada pengalaman yang berhubungan dengan pembelajaran bahasa atau pengujian mereka dapat memainkan peran kecil di meningkatkan Sekolah TOEIC atau membantu memastikan bisnis atau menggunakannya dengan benar . Sebaliknya , mereka membantu ed melayani peran dalam terus mempererat hubungan antara IIBC dan METI dan memastikan dukungan dari Kementerian selama setiap birokrasi rumput pertempuran . ? Shiken : JALT Testing & Evaluasi SIG dunia . 14 (1

) Maret 2010 ( hal. 2 10 ) 4 Wata nabe Yaeji , IIBC c rambut dari berdirinya pada tahun 1986 sampai pensiun tiba-tiba pada tahun 2009 pada usia 92 , layak untuk mendapatkan perhatian khusus ketika membahas kurangnya kualifikasi untuk eksekutif IIBC . Sampai ia membantu temannya Kitaoka mendirikan TOEIC , Wata nabe mengaku ia memiliki tidak ada kepentingan , atau pengetahuan , pengujian bahasa . Watanabe baru mulai belajar bahasa Inggris pada tahun 1982 pada usia 65 dan tidak mulai belajar dengan sungguh-sungguh sampai setelah menjadi IIBC c rambut pada tahun 1986 ( Watanabe , 2003, hal . 3 , 117 ) . tidak r tidak Watanabe mencurahkan perhatian penuh kepada IIBC . Meskipun memegang penuh posisi waktu sebagai Kursi IIBC , ia juga bekerja sebagai mitra dalam firma hukum itu sendiri dan ketua Indah Aging Association ( BAA ) . Didirikan oleh Watanabe pada tahun 1992 , BAA adalah perusahaan kepentingan umum nother beroperasi di bawah Otoritas METI . BAA menyelenggarakan kuliah dan kegiatan untuk anggota pensiunan perusahaan termasuk : kar sebuah oke tamasya , pergi turnamen , dan kelas memasak ( BAA , 2008) . Anggota lain dari Executiv IIBC e papan dengan kualifikasi dipertanyakan adalah seorang pria bernama Murofushi Takayuki . Jumat , Sebuah majalah mingguan Jepang terkenal untuk melaporkan skandal terhubung ke selebriti dan pejabat pemerintah , menyebabkan beberapa kejutan di bahasa pengajaran masyarakat w

ayam itu berlari ekspose dari Murofushi ' s janji untuk IIBC . Menurut Jumat , Murofushi mulai bekerja untuk IIBC untuk partner laba International Communications Sekolah ( ICS ) setelah lulus dari universitas ( Jumat, 2009 , p . 16 ) . ICS adalah foun DED pada tahun 1983 untuk mempromosikan IP TOEIC , awalnya atas nama itu Komite Pengarah WEIS TOEIC dan saat ini atas nama IIBC . Pada tahun 2008 , ia mengundurkan diri dari -Nya posisi di papan ICS ' direksi untuk bergabung papan IIBC itu . Kualifikasi utamanya untuk kedua p biaya yang dipungut tampaknya menjadi tugas ketiga sebagai sekretaris pribadi Watanabe . Pada bulan Juli 2009 , Murofushi menjadi kursi IIBC , menggantikan Watanabe yang tiba-tiba mengundurkan diri karena alasan kesehatan . Watanabe dan ibu Murofushi itu , seorang guru puisi bernama Murofushi Jukan , memiliki h iklan panjang hubungan . Sejak 1980-an , ia dan Watanabe bekerja sama untuk meningkatkan popularitas klasik Puisi Cina ( Watanabe , 2003 , hlm 80 83 ) . Keduanya juga hubungan romantis , yang tinggal di dekat apartemen di gedung yang sama ( Jumat , 2009, hal . 16 ) . The nepotisme terang-terangan menunjuk Watanabe anak pacar untuk posisi eksekutif terkejut bahkan Dewan IIBC Direksi . Untuk memaksa janji Watanabe harus membersihkan setengah papan ( Jumat, 2009 , p . 15 ) . Streets Surga Apakah beraspal dengan Gold: Perusahaan Swasta Keuntungan dari TOEIC Meskipun penolakan asli ETS ' untuk menangani bisnis Kitaoka itu , beberapa perusahaan yang terhubung di Jepang memiliki menikmati kemitraan yang menguntungkan dengan IIBC . Upaya Kitaoka untuk menciptakan TOEIC dan h adalah persahabatan dengan Watanabe tidak pergi terkompensasi . Kitaoka menjadi wakil IIBC

kursi dan IIBC dihargai perusahaannya Communications International Inc dengan kontrak untuk mengelola resmi klub penggemar Jepang tes itu , penerbitan majalah TOEIC F riends , dan mengembangkan sistem pendaftaran secara online ( McCrostie , 11 Agustus , 2009). Selain itu, anak perusahaan ICI mempromosikan TOEIC di Amerika Serikat , Kanada , dan negaranegara lain di pertengahan 1990 . Lampiran A menguraikan hubungan antara IIBC dan m nya ain untuk mitra keuntungan. Setelah kematian Kitaoka pada tahun 1997 , ICI tampaknya mulai mengalami kesulitan . Menurut Yoshida Atsuko , sebuah IIBC manager public relations , " Ini ditutup setelah Mr Kitaoka meninggal " ( A. Yoshida , pribadi komunikasi , 5 Juni , 2009). Namun, halaman web diarsipkan menunjukkan bahwa ICI terus beroperasi hingga tahun 2003 . Pada tahun 2003 , ICI berubah nama menjadi T. F. Komunikasi , yang ditutup pada tahun 2004 . A nother untuk keuntungan perusahaan yang terus menikmati hubungan dekat dengan IIBC adalah Interna nasional Komunikasi Sekolah ( ICS ) . Didirikan pada tahun 1983 untuk mempromosikan IP TOEIC di Jepang , ia menawarkan pelanggan dukungan untuk organisasi yang menggunakan tes . Operasi ICS , sementara tidak rahasia , tidak benarbenar diiklankan secara luas baik , ia tidak memiliki website dan o menyebutkan nly perusahaan di situs IIBC adalah pada kebijakan privasi Halaman di www.toeic.or.jp/privacy/privacy_05_01.html . Ketika ditanya dalam sebuah wawancara Juni 2009 mengapa IIBC diperlukan untuk partner laba IIBC public relations

manajer , Yoshida Atsuko , sta ted , " International Communications School didirikan semata-mata untuk tujuan mempromosikan bisnis TOEIC . Seperti mengapa itu harus dibentuk , aku minta maaf tapi aku tidak memiliki jawaban untuk tha t" ( A. Yoshida , komunikasi pribadi , 5 Juni 2009 ) . meskipun pro mises untuk menemukan jawabannya , karyawan lain public relations informasi saya dalam tindak up email , " Kami tidak dalam posisi untuk menjawab ? Shiken : JALT Testing & Evaluasi SIG dunia . 14 (1 ) Maret 2010 ( hal. 2 10 ) 5 pertanyaan " ( R. Hanai , komunikasi pribadi , 9 Juni 2009). Demikian pula , ICS juru bicara menolak untuk mengungkapkan nama-nama pemilik perusahaan ( McCrostie , 18 Agustus 2009 ) . The IIBC dan ICS berbagi kemitraan sangat dekat . Watanabe dahulu bertugas di dewan direksi dan 70 karyawan ICS ' beroperasi dari kantor yang berlokasi di sebelah IIBC , berbagi area selasar umum dan s penjaga engamanan . Karyawan IIBC dan ICS juga memiliki kartu nama hampir identik , keduanya jelas menampilkan logo TOEIC dengan hanya " International Communications Inc Sekolah " atau "

The Institute for Komunikasi Bisnis Internasional " di Disti baik cetak nguishing mereka . ICS terlibat dalam TOEIC beberapa cara berbeda . Bertindak sebagai penerbit untuk IIBC diproduksi TOEIC buku teks , tetapi tugas utamanya adalah mempromosikan IP TOEIC . ICS staf penjualan bekerja untuk salah satu dari dua divisi mempromosikan IP TOEIC untuk Eit bisnis nya atau sekolah . Laporan keuangan untuk tahun 2008 menunjukkan IIBC menghabiskan 375 juta ( 45 % dari biaya administrasi TOEIC IP ) untuk layanan samar " mempopulerkan " tes . Menurut seorang ahli dalam non Jepang keuntungan, kemitraan tersebut adalah teknik standar untuk kepentingan umum perusahaan untuk terlibat dalam off itu Buku pencatutan ( S. tukang kayu , Komunikasi pribadi , 10 Juli 2009). ICS juga dapat membuat uang dengan ujian pencetakan dan melalui pengiriman pengawas tes . The IIBC spen t 250 juta dalam biaya pencetakan ujian pada tahun 2008 . Laporan keuangan IIBC tidak mengungkapkan mana perusahaan menerima kontrak, tapi ICS adalah penerbit untuk IIBC disetujui buku teks . Beban terbesar IIBC untuk administrasi TOEIC SP adalah biaya pengiriman untuk pemeriksa tes . Pada tahun 2008 , biaya pengiriman total l ed

 862.000.000 , yang membentuk 39 % dari total biaya untuk administrasi TOEIC SP ( IIBC , 2009a ) . Curiga , perusahaan website menunjukkan bahwa ICS memiliki perusahaan pengiriman sendiri disebut Fellowship Inc melalui subs a idiary disebut Odyssey Komunikasi ( Fellowship Inc , 2009; Odyssey Communications , 2009 ) . Pada titik tertentu , kepemilikan ICI / T.F . Anak perusahaan komunikasi ' dipindahkan ke ICS . salah satu anak perusahaan tersebut adalah perusahaan bernama E Komunikasi ( w ww.e coms.co.jp ) . Klien utamanya adalah IIBC dan ICS dan kantor terletak menyusuri lorong dari kantor mereka . E Bisnis utama komunikasi ' adalah mengelola sistem aplikasi online Jepang TOEIC itu . Perusahaan halaman web menunjukkan bahwa itu juga involv ed dalam bisnis persiapan TOEIC , menawarkan program online yang mendaur ulang pertanyaan dari majalah fan club TOEIC tua . E Komunikasi telah secara konsisten menguntungkan , menghasilkan laba bersih 36 juta di tahun fiskal 2005 , 13,6 juta i n 2006 , 30 juta pada tahun 2007 , dan hampir 11 juta pada tahun 2008 . Mereka menutup 2008 keuangan tahun dengan aset kekayaan bersih 246 juta ( E Komunikasi , 2009). Tiga anggota E Komunikasi dewan ( Direktur Perwakilan Sato Shinya , ICS ' perwakilan

tive Direktur Noguchi Hisao , dan anggota dewan ketiga ) menerima total 33 juta untuk jasa mereka pada tahun 2008 ( E komunikasi , 2009, hal . 4 ) . Perusahaan lain yang terhubung membuat uang dari TOEIC melalui hubungan mereka dengan IIBC adalah busi ness disebut ICC . Ini English pelatihan dan konsultasi perusahaan, yang inisial tampaknya tidak berdiri untuk apa-apa, menawarkan bahasa Inggris dan kelas pelatihan TOEIC . Perwakilan Direktur ICC adalah seorang pria bernama Chida Junichi dan ia bekerja dengan Kitaoka di Waktu magazi ne . Chida juga bekerja sebagai penasihat khusus TOEIC teman majalah ketika itu diterbitkan oleh perusahaan yang Kitaoka , Communications International Inc H e saat ini menawarkan TOEIC persiapan Rekomendasi situs TOEIC Square pada http://www.toeic.or.jp/square/adv es / advice_score / . Menurut Chida , Kitaoka menginspirasinya untuk memulai ICC . Pada halaman web ICC Chida menjelaskan bagaimana sebagai Kitaoka terbaring sekarat karena kanker di rumah sakit ia memerintahkan Chida untuk menciptakan sebuah sistem konseling Inggris dalam bukunya telepon terakhir untuk hi m . Akibatnya , Chida mulai ICC ( Chida , 2008) . Mudah, kantor ICC adalah terletak di gedung yang sama sebagai IIBC , International Communications School, dan E Communications. Selain kelas persiapan TOEIC yang mereka tawarkan , ICC menerima c ontracts dari IIBC untuk memberikan Kuliah informasi TOEIC . Setelah IIBC memperkenalkan Bridge TOEIC ke Jepang , perwakilan ICC memberikan 16 kuliah informasi di seluruh Jepang pada tahun 2003 dan 2004 ( ICC 2008 ) . Chida juga baru diberikan ?

Shiken : JALT Testing & Evaluasi SIG dunia . 14 (1 ) Maret 2010 ( hal. 2 10 ) 6 serangkaian kuliah e xplaining TOEIC Berbicara dan Menulis tes . Tidak jelas mengapa publik IIBC sendiri departemen hubungan tidak dapat melakukan tugas ini . Hal ini hampir tidak mungkin bagi masyarakat untuk mengetahui berapa banyak IIBC membayar untuk mitra keuntungan. sementara saya IBC diwajibkan oleh hukum untuk mempublikasikan laporan keuangan , ketidakjelasan mereka membuat sulit untuk melacak pergerakan dana antara IIBC dan perusahaan seperti ICS , E Komunikasi , dan ICC . Selain itu , pengalaman saya adalah bahwa IIBC juru bicara menjadi ver y defensif ketika ditanya tentang ini untuk mitra keuntungan. Ketika ditanya tentang E Komunikasi untuk sebuah artikel koran , IIBC manajer humas Yoshida Atsuko menjawab , " Bagaimana Anda tahu tentang E Komunikasi ? " kemudian " Mengapa Anda harus menyebutkan E co mmunications dalam artikel Anda ? " ( A. Yoshida , komunikasi pribadi , 5 Juni 2009 ) . Dalam sikap tahun 1990-an , ETS ' terhadap untuk keuntungan menjalani volte a -

wajah dan mendirikan sendiri untuk keuntungan anak perusahaan untuk mengambil alih tanggung jawab atas TOEIC . dari 1996 2004 , sebuah perusahaan swasta yang dimiliki oleh ETS , disebut The Chauncey Group International , mengendalikan TOEIC . ETS mendirikan The Chauncey Group untuk menjalankan nomor dari tes , Termasuk TOEIC , yang memutuskan meletakkan misi pendidikan utama ETS luar ' . ini semua ETS berutang untuk terus menghasilkan pendapatan dari tes tanpa mengancam pajaknya status bebas ( Bennett , 2008, hal . 2 ) . Transfer kontrol TOEIC untuk The Chauncey Grup menunjukkan ETS dilihat tes sebagai peletakan di luar misi pendidikan utamanya tetapi pada s waktu ame sumber penting pendapatan. Pada tahun 2004 , ETS kembali kontrol langsung dari TOEIC menyusul serangkaian merger dan akuisisi . ( Canadian Press, 2004) . Hari ini , ETS lisensi hak untuk menggunakan TOEIC untuk perusahaan swasta dalam pertukaran untuk pe a r Biaya tes royalti . Di Korea , konglomerat pendidikan bahasa Inggris disebut YBM / Si sa mengelola the TOEIC . Menurut Y.B. Min , presiden perusahaan itu, ETS sekarang " memilih [s] perusahaan komersial di untuk membuat profi t" ( Prey , 2001, hal . 56 ) . pencarian

kemitraan ionable antara IIBC dan perusahaan swasta , Keputusan ETS ' untuk mentransfer kontrol dari tes untuk sendiri untuk anak perusahaan keuntungan serta relatif kurangnya penelitian TOEIC sebenarnya ( Chapman , 2003, halaman 2 4 ) menunjukkan IIBC dan ETS telah lebih peduli dengan membangun organisasi mereka sendiri daripada dengan menciptakan ukuran valid kemampuan bahasa Inggris dan mempromosikan pengajaran bahasa yang efektif meningkatkan kemampuan bahasa Inggris dari tes pengambil . The Price of Heaven : Mana yang Biaya Tes Go? Despi te menjadi perusahaan kepentingan umum , itu adalah keyakinan saya bahwa IIBC menyalahgunakan biaya TOEIC di nomor cara yang gagal untuk manfaat tes mengambil publik. Untuk satu , biaya yang dihabiskan mensubsidi biaya yang sangat tinggi dari beberapa tes TOEIC merek kurang populer . T selang membayar untuk mengambil Listening TOEIC dan Reading uji mensubsidi tes TOEIC merek kurang populer . Pada tahun fiskal 2008, IIBC mengambil di 36 juta dalam biaya tes dari komputer berdasarkan Berbicara TOEIC dan Test Menulis ( SW ) jauh di bawah perkiraan 79 mill ion tapi menghabiskan 551.000.000 pemberian tes ( IIBC , 2009a ) . Dengan hanya 4.000 orang mengambil tes pada tahun 2008

, itu biaya IIBC lebih dari 138,000 per tes taker . The IIBC kehilangan lanjut 28 juta pada tes populer lainnya termasuk Bahasa TOEIC Proficiency Interview yang tidak lagi ditawarkan setelah Februari 2010 dan TOEIC Perancis, yang diambil oleh hanya empat orang pada tahun fiskal 2008 ( IIBC , 2008a ) . The IIBC ' s kesediaan untuk mempromosikan pengujian kemampuan bahasa Inggris komunikatif , bahkan pada kerugian finansial , sangat mengagumkan . Namun, sejauh mana kerugian tersebut, 515 juta per tahun dalam kasus TOEIC SW , menimbulkan pertanyaan mana semua uang pergi? itu Pertanyaannya adalah mungkin untuk menjawab dengan memeriksa IIBC ' s publik finansial pernyataan . Kedua , anggaran IIBC mencakup beberapa biaya yang tidak ada hubungannya dengan tes Bahasa Inggris kemahiran . Disebutkan sebelumnya Indah Aging Association menerima dana dari kedua IIBC dan untuk perusahaan ICS mitra keuntungan. Namun, IIBC dan B Laporan keuangan AA gagal untuk secara jelas menunjukkan berapa banyak uang . Setelah saya artikel Japan Times menunjukkan hubungan keuangan antara IIBC dan BAA yang diterbitkan nama IIBC itu diambil dari daftar organisasi yang mendukung dipublikasikan di web BAA duduk e , tetapi tidak jelas apakah dana itu sendiri juga telah dipotong . ICS terus terdaftar sebagai pendukung anggota .

? Shiken : JALT Testing & Evaluasi SIG dunia . 14 (1 ) Maret 2010 ( hal. 2 10 ) 7 Biaya tes TOEIC juga membantu membayar untuk divisi IIBC disebut Global Development Sumber Daya Manusia ( GHRD ) . Divisi ini mengumpulkan informati dari seluruh dunia untuk membantu menjadi Jepang lebih baik " global manajer " ( GHRD 2004 ) . saya t mempertahankan sebuah website, majalah , dan host seminar informasi . IIBC juru bicara menolak untuk mengungkapkan berapa banyak uang divisi GHRD menghabiskan setiap tahun ( R. Hanai , pers onal komunikasi , 9 Juni 2009). Namun, laporan keuangan menunjukkan bahwa itu hampir 265.000.000 pada tahun fiskal 2007, lebih dari 100.000.000 pada tahun fiskal 2008 , dan sekitar 78.000.000 pada tahun fiskal 2009 ( IIBC , 2009a ; 2009D ) . itu anggaran yang lebih kecil pada tahun 2009 adalah hasil o f memotong dana untuk Cina Puisi Association Zikir dan mengakhiri sebuah " proyek konsultasi kepemimpinan " yang harganya 161.000.000 pada tahun 2007 . Selanjutnya, dalam konflik kepentingan , dari tahun 1989 2009 melalui divisi GHRD ini, IIBC menghabiskan waktu sekitar 13 juta per tahun pada " penelitian beradaptasi dengan budaya Cina

" ( IIBC , 2008a ; 2009a ) . Uang ini adalah sebenarnya disalurkan ke Cina Puisi Association Zikir . Mulai tahun 1989, IIBC mensponsori asosiasi Cina puisi apresiasi bertemu temuan di Jepang serta Amerika Serikat dan Eropa . itu kepala sekolah puisi asosiasi , Murofushi Jukan , adalah IIBC mantan pacar kursi dan kursi saat ini ibu . Setelah majalah Jumat mulai menyelidiki Watanabe dan Murofushi , the IIB C tiba-tiba memotong off pendanaan puisi ini . Konflik kepentingan ini menunjukkan bagaimana Watanabe dilihat aset IIBC sebagai milik pribadinya . Selain itu , sementara ia hanya muncul di kantor IIBC satu hari dalam seminggu di tahun 2009 Watanabe menerima gaji tahunan abo ut 20 juta ( Jumat, 2009 ; IIBC 2008a ) . Empat eksekutif IIBC menerima total 77500000 di fiskal 2007 dan 79 juta pada tahun 2008 . Perkiraan anggaran menunjukkan rencana untuk meningkatkan gaji selama empat eksekutif untuk 121 juta pada tahun fiskal 2009 tapi dipotong untuk 75 juta untuk tiga eksekutif ( IIBC , 2008a ; 2009 ) . itu gaji eksekutif IIBC dapat digambarkan sebagai sangat murah hati . Sebagai perbandingan , pendapatan tahunan rata-rata dari 29 amakudari birokrat yang bekerja untuk badan-badan administrasi pemerintah independen pada tahun 2008 w sebagai 18.580.000 , dengan

 22.310.000 gaji ketua METI Japan External Trade Organization yang tertinggi ( Kyodo News, 2009). Murofushi menghasilkan sekitar 25.000.000 untuk mengelola IIBC ini 156 karyawan dan tiga kantor di Tokyo , Osaka dan Nagoya . Kursi JETRO yang mendapatkan 22.310.000 untuk mengelola 1.580 karyawan yang organisasi dan 72 kantor di 55 negara ( JETRO , 2010). Ketiga, ETS mengambil potongan biaya tes melalui royalti secara dramatis meningkat . The IIBC membayar ETS royalti untuk setiap tes TOEIC merek diambil di Jepang . Catatan keuangan IIBC menunjukkan royalti tes dibayarkan kepada ETS dua kali lipat dari 800 juta untuk 1,6 miliar antara 2007 dan 2008 ( IIBC , 2008a ) . Menurut Jepang wartawan yang menulis sebuah artikel tentang SCA TOEIC yang IIBC ini ndal , kontrak IIBC dengan ETS berakhir pada tahun 2007 dan kesepakatan baru diperlukan peningkatan dramatis dalam pembayaran royalti ( K. Ishii , komunikasi pribadi , September 8 , 2009). Meskipun biaya ini besar , the IIBC tetap nyaman dalam hitam , perekaman a keuntungan lebih 600 juta pada tahun fiskal 2008 ( IIBC , 2009a ) . S ejak itu adalah sebuah perusahaan kepentingan umum , hukum yang mengatur bagaimana IIBC dapat menggunakan surplus tahunan berarti sebagian besar uang duduk di rekening bank . Selain hampir 1,7 miliar dalam bentuk tunai di tangan nd tabungan yang IIBC juga memegang obligasi pemerintah , deposito berjangka , dan investasi surat berharga senilai

 215 juta . Total aset IIBC yang menambahkan hingga sekitar 4 miliar ( IIBC , 2009a ) . Keuntungan yang dihasilkan oleh TOEIC , serta konflik i nterest dan penyalahgunaan biaya pengambil tes , akhirnya tertangkap dengan IIBC . Tak lama setelah IIBC mulai menarik perhatian pers yang tidak diinginkan , Watanabe mengundurkan diri mengutip alasan kesehatan dan Departemen Perdagangan memperingatkan IIBC bahwa keuntungan mereka berlebihan sebuah d menerbitkan non mengikat bimbingan untuk mengurangi biaya uji . Pada bulan Agustus 2009 , itu IIBC mengumumkan penurunan biaya TOEIC SP dari 6.615 untuk 5.895 , efektif dengan segera . Keputusan itu begitu tiba-tiba IIBC juga mengumumkan pengembalian dana otomatis untuk uji mengambil rs yang telah pra dibayar untuk tes September dan Oktober . Biaya tes TOEIC merek lain , termasuk IP TOEIC , tetap tidak berubah . Ironisnya , bulan yang sama biaya TOEIC SP dipotong dalam menanggapi M inistry peringatan keuntungan yang berlebihan , the IIB C juga mengumumkan sumber pendapatan baru . Sebuah September 2009 siaran pers IIBC dipublikasikan awal penjualan untuk resmi perangkat lunak pelatihan TOEIC ( IIBC 2009 c ) . Perangkat lunak ini adalah hasil dari sebuah lisensi kesepakatan antara IIBC dan

sebuah pengembang perangkat lunak k nown sebagai IE Institute untuk menghasilkan resmi IIBC / ETS perangkat lunak pelatihan TOEIC disetujui untuk Nintendo DS , permainan komputer genggam konsol . Hal serupa ? Shiken : JALT Testing & Evaluasi SIG dunia . 14 (1 ) Maret 2010 ( hal. 2 10 ) 8 kesepakatan lisensi antara Jepang Kanji Aptitude Testing Yayasan dan perusahaan perangkat lunak dibawa 76 seribu singa pendapatan untuk itu organisasi hanya dalam dua tahun . Namun, 90 % dari pendapatan mereka yang tersedot pergi ke sebuah perusahaan swasta yang dimiliki oleh yayasan ' wakil chair ( Asahi Shimbun , 2009). kesimpulan TOEIC 30th anniversary adalah waktu untuk merenungkan prioritas bisnis dari IIBC . Dari asal-usulnya sebagai penutup untuk keuntungan mencari pendiri TOEIC kebiasaan belanja hari yang sekarang perilaku IIBC telah telah skandal . Sebuah kritis melihat sejarah TOEIC menunjukkan bahwa pendirinya , Kitaoka Yasuo , tampaknya didorong oleh uang membuat motif selain keinginan untuk meningkatkan pendidikan bahasa Inggris di Jepang . Demikian pula , Watanabe Yaeji tampaknya lebih peduli dengan menciptakan perusahaan kepentingan publik sendiri , yang seperti kita lihat, ia diperlakukan sebagai nya milik pribadi . Artikel ini telah menunjukkan empat kritik dari IIBC : 1 ) keuntungan

motif berorientasi untuk memulai tes, 2 ) janji eksekutif nepotis , 3 ) kemitraan dipertanyakan dengan perusahaan seperti International Communications Inc dan International Communications Sekolah yang telah layanan biaya ratusan jutaan yen , dan 4 ) penyalahgunaan uji Biaya taker untuk biaya termasuk gaji eksekutif mengejutkan dan mendanai proyek-proyek kesayangan mantan ketua itu seperti puisi Cina sebagai sociation dan Aging Indah Association. Untuk IIBC dan perusahaan afiliasinya keuntungan dari pengujian, TOEIC benar-benar adalah kecil piece of heaven . Sebagian , untuk mencegah serangan investigasi METI pada IIBC mirip dengan salah satu Departemen Ed ucation diluncurkan terhadap Jepang Kanji Aptitude Testing Yayasan , Yang mengakibatkan tuntutan hukum untuk penyalahgunaan dana terhadap ayah dan anak kursi dan co bahwa organisasi kursi , yang baru-baru ini IIBC menurunkan harga IP TOEIC oleh 630 . Perubahan substansial lebih di IIBC diperlukan . ada empat hal yang harus Anda lakukan IIBC , sebagai awal , jika mereka benar-benar peduli tentang kepentingan tes TOEIC pengambil di Jepang . 1 ) Kursi IIBC saat ini , Murofushi Takayuki , managing director , Yos hizawa Seiji , dan direktur eksekutif , Umezawa Naomi , serta dewan direksi dan dewan pengawas semua harus mengundurkan diri . orang-orang ini telah membuktikan dirinya baik dapat menghabiskan Biaya tes TOEIC tepat atau tidak mampu untuk benar mengawasi

itu Keputusan pengangkatan anggaran dan eksekutif IIBC itu . Penggantian b cardb direksi dan dewan wali harus mencakup lebih banyak orang yang memiliki pengetahuan tentang pengujian bahasa dan pembelajaran . 2 ) Memiliki lebih banyak orang tahu tentang tes bahasa ting dan pembelajaran akan juga membantu IIBC untuk menghentikan mengandalkan sepenuhnya pada ETS untuk keputusan tentang rancangan , bentuk , dan konten . Terlepas dari kenyataan bahwa IIBC dan Vendor pilihan TOEIC Korea YBM / Si sa menikmati dekat duopsonistic hubungan dengan ETS , I IBC memiliki gagal ed untuk memberikan tekanan apapun pada ETS untuk meningkatkan TOEIC atau untuk membuat sebuah tes yang lebih baik dari komunikatif kemampuan . dalam 2009 wawancara , IIBC juru bicara , Yoshida Atsuko , menjelaskan bahwa IIBC daun semua keputusan tentang menulis TOEIC hingga ETS ( A . Yoshida , komunikasi pribadi , 5 Juni 2009). saya percaya bahwa yang IIBC harus menggunakan pengaruh mereka untuk mendorong ETS untuk melakukan perbaikan berarti bagi TOEIC . 3 ) The IIBC juga harus mengakhiri hubungannya dengan Komunikasi Sekolah Internasional . T di sini adalah tidak perlu untuk yang IIBC untuk membayar ICS untuk mempromosikan TOEIC ketika mereka memiliki mereka sendiri dalam rumah humas departemen . Jika IIBC membutuhkan perusahaan untuk menyediakan layanan yang mereka tidak dapat tampil di -

Rumah mereka harus mampu lembut kontrak tawaran . satu contoh akan design n ing dan memelihara ing sistem aplikasi online tes itu . The IIBC juga harus mengungkapkan lebih dari arus minimum dalam laporan keuangan mereka dan jelas menunjukkan berapa banyak itu membayar untuk yang perusahaan swasta dan untuk apa s ervices . Memberikan ringkasan dari biaya untuk non keuntungan ' s program utama adalah tingkat transparansi direkomendasikan oleh Amerika Serikat berdasarkan Amal Ulasan Council ( Amal Ulasan Council , 2009). 4 ) Jika non Laba IIBC ( staf dengan lebih eksekutif pengetahuan tentang pengujian ) mengambil alih tanggung jawab untuk menjual IP TOEIC dari untuk ICS laba , harus mampu untuk mengekang beberapa lebih penyalahgunaan mengerikan dari tes oleh perusahaan dan sekolah . Sebagai contoh, TOEIC tidak pernah dirancang untuk menjadi kami ed untuk universitas penempatan kelas EFL atau untuk menilai kemajuan siswa , Namun banyak dari ujian TOEIC IP ? Shiken : JALT Testing & Evaluasi SIG dunia . 14 (1

) Maret 2010 ( hal. 2 10 ) 9 diberikan tepat untuk tujuan tersebut s . Selanjutnya, IIBC harus meninggalkan target tahunan untuk meningkatkan jumlah uji pengambil . sebuah organizat ion -benar didedikasikan untuk kepentingan umum harus membujuk organisasi untuk menahan diri dari menggunakan produknya untuk tujuan mereka adalah pernah dirancang untuk dan tidak fokus pada meningkatkan jumlah peserta tes TOEIC setiap tahun . Referensi Asahi Shimbum . ( 2009, April 15 ) . DS , Wii yo softo rieki Kantei miuchi kigyou ni 9 wari . [ 90 % dari DS dan Wii software kembali diberikan kepada K anji F bisnis landasan yang terkait] . Asahi Shimbun . p . 13 . BAA . ( 2008) . Heisei 20 Jigyouhoukoku . [ 2008 Operasi Report ] . Diakses 6 Januari 20 10 dari

http://www.baa.or.jp/newpage26.htm Tekan Kanada. (2004 , 16 Agustus ) . .

, History of English Language Teaching

Dimitrios Thanasoulas Introduction

The English language teaching tradition has been subject to tremendous change, especially throughout the twentieth century. Perhaps more than any other discipline, this tradition has been practiced, in various adaptations, in language classrooms all around the world for centuries. While the teaching of Maths or Physics, that is, the methodology of teaching Maths or Physics, has, to a greater or lesser extent, remained the same, this is hardly the case with English or language teaching in general. As will become evident in this short paper, there are some milestones in the development of this tradition, which we will briefly touch upon, in an attempt to reveal the importance of research in the selection and implementation of the optimal methods and techniques for language teaching and learning. The Classical Method

In the Western world back in the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, foreign language learning was associated with the learning of Latin and Greek, both supposed to promote their speakers' intellectuality. At the time, it was of vital importance to focus on grammatical rules, syntactic structures, along with rote memorisation of vocabulary and translation of literary texts. There was no provision for the oral use of the languages under study; after all, both Latin and Greek were not being taught for oral communication but for the sake of their speakers' becoming "scholarly?" or creating an illusion of "erudition." Late in the nineteenth century, the Classical Method came to be known as the Grammar Translation Method, which offered very little beyond an insight into the grammatical rules attending the process of translating from the second to the native language.

It is widely recognised that the Grammar Translation Method is still one of the most popular and favourite models of language teaching, which has been rather stalwart and impervious to educational reforms, remaining a standard and sine qua non methodology. With hindsight, we could say that its contribution to language learning has been lamentably limited, since it has shifted the focus from the real language to a "dissected body" of nouns, adjectives, and prepositions, doing nothing to enhance a student's communicative ability in the foreign language. Gouin and Berlitz - The Direct Method

The last two decades of the nineteenth century ushered in a new age. In his The Art of Learning and Studying Foreign Languages (1880), Francois Gouin described his "harrowing" experiences of learning German, which helped him gain insights into the intricacies of language teaching and learning. Living in Hamburg for one year, he attempted to master the German language by dint of memorising a German grammar book and a list of the 248 irregular German verbs, instead of conversing with the natives. Exulting in the security that the grounding in German grammar offered him, he hastened to go to the University to test his knowledge. To no avail. He could not understand a word! After his failure, he decided to memorise the German roots, but with no success. He went so far as to memorise books, translate Goethe and Schiller, and learn by heart 30,000 words in a dictionary, only to meet with failure. Upon returning to France, Gouin discovered that his three-year-old nephew had managed to become a chatterbox of French - a fact that made him think that the child held the secret to learning a language. Thus, he began observing his nephew and came to the conclusion (arrived at by another researcher a century before him!) that language learning is a matter of transforming perceptions into conceptions and then using language to represent these conceptions. Equipped with this knowledge, he devised a teaching method premised upon these insights. It was against this background that the Series Method was created, which taught learners directly a "series" of connected sentences that are easy to understand. For instance,

I stretch out my arm. I take hold of the handle. I turn the handle. I open the door. I pull the door.

Nevertheless, this approach to language learning was short-lived and, only a generation later, gave place to the Direct Method, posited by Charles Berlitz. The basic tenet of Berlitz's method was that second language learning is similar to first language learning. In this light, there should be lots of oral interaction, spontaneous use of the language, no translation, and little if any analysis of grammatical rules and syntactic structures. In short, the principles of the Direct Method were as follows:

Classroom instruction was conducted in the target language

There was an inductive approach to grammar Only everyday vocabulary was taught Concrete vocabulary was taught through pictures and objects, while abstract vocabulary was taught by association of ideas

The Direct Method enjoyed great popularity at the end of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth but it was difficult to use, mainly because of the constraints of budget, time, and classroom size. Yet, after a period of decline, this method has been revived, leading to the emergence of the Audiolingual Method. The Audiolingual Method

The outbreak of World War II heightened the need for Americans to become orally proficient in the languages of their allies and enemies alike. To this end, bits and pieces of the Direct Method were appropriated in order to form and support this new method, the "Army Method," which came to be known in the 1950s as the Audiolingual Method.

The Audiolingual Method was based on linguistic and psychological theory and one of its main premises was the scientific descriptive analysis of a wide assortment of languages. On the other hand, conditioning and habit-formation models of learning put forward by behaviouristic phychologists were married with the pattern practices of the Audiolingual Method. The following points sum up the characteristics of the method:

Dependence on mimicry and memorisation of set phrases Teaching structural patterns by means of repetitive drills (??Repetitio est mater studiorum??) No grammatical explanation Learning vocabulary in context Use of tapes and visual aids Focus on pronunciation Immediate reinforcement of correct responses

But its popularity waned after 1964, partly because of Wilga Rivers's exposure of its shortcomings. It fell short of promoting communicative ability as it paid undue attention to memorisation and drilling, while downgrading the role of context and world knowledge in language learning. After all, it was discovered that language was not acquired through a process of habit formation and errors were not necessarily bad or pernicious. The "Designer" Methods of the 1970s

The Chomskyan revolution in linguistics drew the attention of linguists and language teachers to the "deep structure" of language, while psychologists took account of the affective and interpersonal nature of learning. As a result, new methods were proposed, which attempted to capitalise on the importance of psychological factors in language learning. David Nunan (1989: 97) referred to these methods as "designer" methods, on the grounds that they took a "one-size-fits-all" approach. Let us have a look at two of these "designer" methods. Suggestopedia

Suggestopedia promised great results if we use our brain power and inner capacities. Lozanov (1979) believed that we are capable of learning much more than we think. Drawing upon Soviet psychological research on yoga and extrasensory perception, he came up with a method for learning that used relaxation as a means of retaining new knowledge and material. It stands to reason that music played a pivotal role in his method. Lozanov and his followers tried to present vocabulary, readings, role-plays and drama with classical music in the background and students sitting in comfortable seats. In this way, students became "suggestible."

Of course, suggestopedia offered valuable insights into the "superlearning" powers of our brain but it was demolished on several fronts. For instance, what happens if our classrooms are bereft of such amenities as comfortable seats and Compact Disk players? Certainly, this method is insightful and constructive and can be practised from time to time, without necessarily having to adhere to all its premises. A relaxed mind is an open mind and it can help a student to feel more confident and, in a sense, pliable. The Silent Way

The Silent Way rested on cognitive rather than affective arguments, and was characterised by a problem-solving approach to learning. Gattegno (1972) held that it is in learners' best interests to develop independence and autonomy and cooperate with each other in solving language problems. The

teacher is supposed to be silent - hence the name of the method - and must disabuse himself of the tendency to explain everything to them.

The Silent Way came in for an onslaught of criticism. More specifically, it was considered very harsh, as the teacher was distant and, in general lines, the classroom environment was not conducive to learning. Strategies-based instruction

The work of O'Malley and Chamot (1990), and others before and after them, emphasised the importance of style awareness and strategy development in ensuring mastery of a foreign language. In this vein, many textbooks and entire syllabi offered guidelines on constructing strategy-building activities. Below there is an example of a list of the "Ten Commandments" for good language learning (taken from Brown, H. D. [2000: 137]): Teacher's Version 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Lower inhibitions Encourage risk-taking Build self-confidence Learner's Version Fear not! Dive in Believe in yourself Seize the day

Develop intrinsic motivation

Engage in cooperative learning Love thy neighbour Use right-brain processes Promote ambiguity tolerance Practice intuition Get the BIG picture Cope with the chaos

Go with your hunches

Process error feedback Make mistakes work FOR you Set personal goals Set your own goals

These suggestions cum injunctions are able to sensitise learners to the importance of attaining autonomy, that is, taking charge of their own learning, and not expecting the teacher to deliver everything to them. Communicative Language Teaching

The need for communication has been relentless, leading to the emergence of the Communicative Language Teaching. Having defined and redefined the construct of communicative competence; having explored the vast array of functions of language that learners are supposed to be able to accomplish; and having probed the nature of styles and nonverbal communication, teachers and researchers are now better equipped to teach (about) communication through actual communication, not merely theorising about it.

At this juncture, we should say that Communicative Language Teaching is not a method; it is an approach, which transcends the boundaries of concrete methods and, concomitantly, techniques. It is a theoretical position about the nature of language and language learning and teaching.

Let us see the basic premises of this approach:

Focus on all of the components of communicative competence, not only grammatical or linguistic competence. Engaging learners in the pragmatic, functional use of language for meaningful purposes Viewing fluency and accuracy as complementary principles underpinning communicative techniques Using the language in unrehearsed contexts

Conclusion

From all the above we can see that the manageable stockpile of research of just a few decades ago has given place to a systematic storehouse of information. Researchers the world over are meeting, talking, comparing notes, and arriving at some explanations that give the lie to past explanations. As Brown (2000: ix) notes, "Our research miscarriages are fewer as we have collectively learned how to conceive the right questions". Nothing is taken as gospel; nothing is thrown out of court without being put to the test. This "test" may always change its mechanics, but the fact remains that the changing winds and shifting sands of time and research are turning the desert into a longed-for oasis.

Reference

Brown, H. D. (2000) Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. New York: Longman.

 Dimitrios Thanasoulas 2002

Sejarah Pengajaran Bahasa Inggris Dimitrios Thanasoulas pengantar Tradisi pengajaran bahasa Inggris telah dikenakan perubahan yang sangat besar , terutama sepanjang abad kedua puluh . Mungkin lebih dari disiplin lain , tradisi ini telah dipraktekkan , dalam berbagai adaptasi , di kelas bahasa di seluruh dunia selama berabad-abad . Sementara pengajaran Matematika atau Fisika , yaitu , metodologi pengajaran Matematika atau Fisika , telah , untuk sebagian besar atau lebih kecil , tetap sama , ini hampir tidak terjadi dengan bahasa Inggris atau pengajaran bahasa pada umumnya . Seperti yang akan menjadi jelas dalam tulisan singkat ini , ada beberapa tonggak dalam pengembangan tradisi ini , yang kami akan secara singkat menyentuh , dalam upaya untuk mengungkapkan pentingnya penelitian dalam pemilihan dan implementasi metode yang optimal dan teknik untuk pengajaran bahasa dan belajar . Klasik Metode Di dunia Barat kembali di 17, 18 dan abad ke-19 , belajar bahasa asing dikaitkan dengan pembelajaran bahasa Latin dan Yunani , keduanya seharusnya mempromosikan intelektualitas speaker mereka . Pada saat itu , itu sangat penting untuk fokus pada aturan tata bahasa , struktur sintaksis , bersama dengan menghafal hafalan kosakata dan terjemahan teks-teks sastra . Tidak ada ketentuan untuk penggunaan oral bahasa yang diteliti , setelah semua , baik Latin dan Yunani tidak diajarkan untuk komunikasi lisan tetapi demi pembicara mereka menjadi " ilmiah ? " atau menciptakan ilusi " pengetahuan . " Pada akhir abad kesembilan belas , Metode Klasik kemudian dikenal sebagai Grammar Translation Method , yang ditawarkan sangat sedikit di luar wawasan aturan gramatikal menghadiri proses menerjemahkan dari kedua bahasa asli . Hal ini secara luas diakui bahwa Grammar Translation Method masih merupakan salah satu model yang paling populer dan favorit pengajaran bahasa , yang telah lebih kuat dan tahan terhadap reformasi pendidikan , tetap menjadi qua non standar metodologi dan sinus . Dengan melihat ke belakang , kita bisa mengatakan bahwa kontribusinya terhadap pembelajaran bahasa telah lamentably terbatas , karena telah bergeser fokus dari bahasa nyata untuk "tubuh membedah " dari kata benda , kata sifat , dan preposisi , melakukan apa-apa untuk meningkatkan kemampuan komunikatif siswa dalam bahasa asing . Gouin dan Berlitz - Metode Langsung Dua dekade terakhir abad kesembilan belas diantar dalam era baru . Dalam bukunya The Art of Learning dan Belajar Bahasa Asing ( 1880) , Francois Gouin dijelaskan nya " mengerikan " pengalaman belajar

bahasa Jerman , yang membantunya mendapatkan wawasan ke dalam seluk-beluk pengajaran bahasa dan pembelajaran . Hidup di Hamburg selama satu tahun , ia berusaha untuk menguasai bahasa Jerman dengan berkat menghafal buku tata bahasa Jerman dan daftar 248 kata kerja Jerman tidak teratur , bukannya berbicara dengan penduduk asli . Dengan kebesaran keamanan bahwa landasan dalam tata bahasa Jerman yang ditawarkan kepadanya , ia bergegas pergi ke Universitas untuk menguji pengetahuannya . Sia-sia . Dia tidak bisa mengerti sepatah kata pun ! Setelah kegagalannya , ia memutuskan untuk menghafal akar Jerman , tetapi tidak berhasil . Dia pergi sejauh untuk menghafal buku , menerjemahkan Goethe dan Schiller , dan belajar dengan hati 30.000 kata dalam kamus , hanya untuk bertemu dengan kegagalan . Setelah kembali ke Prancis , Gouin menemukan bahwa keponakannya tiga tahun telah berhasil menjadi cerewet Perancis - sebuah fakta yang membuatnya berpikir bahwa anak memegang rahasia untuk belajar bahasa . Dengan demikian , ia mulai mengamati keponakannya dan sampai pada kesimpulan ( tiba di oleh peneliti lain abad sebelum dia! ) Bahwa belajar bahasa adalah masalah mengubah persepsi menjadi konsepsi dan kemudian menggunakan bahasa untuk mewakili konsep-konsep tersebut . Dilengkapi dengan pengetahuan ini , ia menemukan metode pengajaran yang didasarkan pada wawasan . Itu latar belakang inilah Metode Series diciptakan , yang mengajarkan peserta didik secara langsung suatu "seri " kalimat terhubung yang mudah dimengerti . Sebagai contoh , Aku mengacungkan tanganku . Saya memegang pegangan . Aku berbalik pegangan. Aku membuka pintu . Aku menarik pintu . Namun demikian , pendekatan ini untuk belajar bahasa berumur pendek dan hanya generasi kemudian , memberi tempat untuk Metode Direct , diasumsikan oleh Charles Berlitz . Prinsip dasar metode Berlitz adalah bahwa belajar bahasa kedua adalah sama dengan belajar bahasa pertama . Dalam hal ini, harus ada banyak interaksi lisan , penggunaan spontan bahasa , ada terjemahan , dan sedikit jika setiap analisis aturan tata bahasa dan struktur sintaksis . Singkatnya , prinsip-prinsip Metode langsung adalah sebagai berikut : Instruksi kelas dilakukan dalam bahasa target Ada pendekatan induktif untuk tata bahasa Hanya kosakata sehari-hari diajarkan Kosakata Beton diajarkan melalui gambar dan objek , sementara kosakata abstrak diajarkan oleh asosiasi ide Metode langsung menikmati popularitas besar di akhir abad kesembilan belas dan awal dua puluh tapi itu sulit untuk digunakan, terutama karena kendala anggaran , waktu , dan ukuran kelas . Namun , setelah periode penurunan , metode ini telah dihidupkan kembali , menyebabkan munculnya Metode Audiolingual . The Audiolingual Metode Pecahnya Perang Dunia II meningkat kebutuhan bagi orang Amerika untuk menjadi lisan mahir dalam bahasa sekutu dan musuh mereka sama . Untuk tujuan ini , potongan-potongan Metode Direct yang

dialokasikan untuk membentuk dan mendukung metode baru ini , "Metode Army ", yang kemudian dikenal pada 1950-an sebagai Metode Audiolingual . The Audiolingual Metode ini didasarkan pada teori linguistik dan psikologis dan salah satu tempat utamanya adalah analisis deskriptif ilmiah dari berbagai macam bahasa . Di sisi lain , kondisi dan kebiasaan - pembentukan model pembelajaran yang dikemukakan oleh phychologists behaviouristic menikah dengan praktik pola Metode Audiolingual . Hal-hal berikut meringkas karakteristik metode : Ketergantungan pada mimikri dan menghafal frase set Pengajaran pola struktural melalui latihan berulang ( ? Repetitio est mater studiorum ? ? ) Tidak ada penjelasan gramatikal Belajar kosa kata dalam konteks Penggunaan kaset dan alat bantu visual Fokus pada pengucapan Penguatan Segera jawaban yang benar Tapi popularitasnya berkurang setelah tahun 1964 , sebagian karena paparan Wilga Rivers tentang kekurangannya . Itu jatuh pendek dari mempromosikan kemampuan komunikatif karena perhatian yang tidak perlu menghafal dan pengeboran , sembari menurunkan peran konteks dan dunia pengetahuan dalam pembelajaran bahasa . Setelah semua , ditemukan bahwa bahasa itu tidak diperoleh melalui proses pembentukan kebiasaan dan kesalahan tidak selalu buruk atau jahat . The " Designer " Metode tahun 1970-an The Chomsky revolusi dalam linguistik menarik perhatian ahli bahasa dan guru bahasa ke " struktur dalam " bahasa , sedangkan psikolog mengambil rekening sifat afektif dan interpersonal pembelajaran . Akibatnya , metode baru yang diusulkan , yang berusaha untuk memanfaatkan pentingnya faktor psikologis dalam belajar bahasa . David Nunan ( 1989 : 97 ) disebut metode ini sebagai " desainer " metode , dengan alasan bahwa mereka mengambil " satu ukuran cocok untuk semua " pendekatan . Mari kita lihat dua ini " desainer " metode . Sugestopedia Sugestopedia berjanji hasil yang bagus jika kita menggunakan kekuatan otak kita dan kapasitas batin . Lozanov ( 1979) percaya bahwa kita mampu belajar lebih banyak dari yang kita pikirkan . Menggambar pada penelitian psikologis Soviet pada yoga dan persepsi ekstra-indrawi , ia datang dengan sebuah metode pembelajaran yang digunakan relaksasi sebagai sarana mempertahankan pengetahuan baru dan material. Hal ini cukup beralasan musik yang memainkan peran penting dalam metodenya . Lozanov dan pengikutnya mencoba untuk menyajikan kosakata , bacaan , permainan peran dan drama dengan musik klasik di latar belakang dan mahasiswa duduk di kursi yang nyaman . Dengan cara ini , siswa menjadi " dibisikkan . " Tentu saja, Sugestopedia menawarkan wawasan berharga " pembelajaran super " kekuatan otak kita tapi itu dibongkar di beberapa bidang . Misalnya , apa yang terjadi jika kelas kita kehilangan fasilitas

seperti kursi yang nyaman dan pemutar Disk Compact ? Tentu saja , metode ini adalah wawasan dan konstruktif dan dapat dipraktekkan dari waktu ke waktu , tanpa perlu harus mematuhi semua propertinya . Pikiran yang rileks adalah pikiran yang terbuka dan dapat membantu siswa untuk merasa lebih percaya diri dan , dalam arti, lentur . The Silent Way The Silent Way bertumpu pada kognitif daripada argumen afektif , dan ditandai dengan pendekatan pemecahan masalah untuk belajar. Gattegno ( 1972) menyatakan bahwa itu adalah dalam kepentingan terbaik peserta didik untuk mengembangkan kemandirian dan otonomi dan bekerjasama satu sama lain dalam memecahkan masalah bahasa . Guru seharusnya diam - maka nama metode - dan harus membebaskan dr kesalahan diri dari kecenderungan untuk menjelaskan semuanya kepada mereka . The Silent Way datang untuk serangan kritik . Lebih khusus lagi , itu dianggap sangat keras , sebagai guru itu jauh dan , dalam garis umum , lingkungan kelas tidak kondusif untuk belajar . Instruksi strategi berbasis Karya O'Malley dan Chamot ( 1990) , dan lain-lain sebelum dan sesudah mereka , menekankan pentingnya kesadaran gaya dan strategi pengembangan dalam memastikan penguasaan bahasa asing . Dalam lapisan ini, banyak buku dan seluruh silabus ditawarkan pedoman membangun kegiatan strategi pembangunan . Di bawah ini ada contoh dari daftar " Sepuluh Perintah Allah " untuk belajar bahasa yang baik ( diambil dari Brown , HD [ 2000: 137 ] ) : Guru Versi Pelajar Versi 1 hambatan rendah Jangan takut ! 2 Mendorong pengambilan risiko Dive di 3 Membangun kepercayaan diri Percaya pada diri sendiri 4 Mengembangkan motivasi intrinsik Rebut hari ini 5 Terlibat dalam belajar tetangga Cinta Mu koperasi 6 Gunakan proses otak kanan Dapatkan gambaran BESAR 7 Mempromosikan toleransi ambiguitas Mengatasi kekacauan 8 Praktek intuisi Pergilah dengan firasat Anda 9 Proses umpan balik kesalahan Membuat kesalahan bekerja UNTUK Anda 10 Tetapkan tujuan pribadi Tetapkan tujuan Anda sendiri Saran ini perintah cum mampu menyadarkan peserta didik untuk pentingnya mencapai otonomi , yaitu , mengambil alih belajar mereka sendiri , dan tidak mengharapkan guru untuk memberikan segalanya untuk mereka . Pengajaran Bahasa Komunikatif Kebutuhan akan komunikasi telah tanpa henti , menyebabkan munculnya Pengajaran Bahasa Komunikatif . Setelah mendefinisikan dan mendefinisikan kembali membangun kompetensi komunikatif , setelah menjelajahi array yang luas dari fungsi bahasa peserta didik seharusnya dapat mencapai , dan setelah diselidiki sifat gaya dan komunikasi nonverbal , guru dan peneliti sekarang lebih siap untuk

mengajar ( sekitar ) komunikasi melalui komunikasi yang sebenarnya , bukan hanya berteori tentang hal itu . Pada saat ini, kita harus mengatakan bahwa Pengajaran Bahasa Komunikatif bukanlah metode , melainkan sebuah pendekatan , yang melampaui batas-batas metode beton dan , secara bersamaan , teknik . Ini adalah posisi teoritis tentang sifat bahasa dan pembelajaran bahasa dan mengajar . Mari kita lihat premis dasar dari pendekatan ini : Fokus pada semua komponen kompetensi komunikatif , tidak hanya kompetensi tata bahasa atau linguistik . Melibatkan peserta didik dalam pragmatis , penggunaan fungsional bahasa untuk tujuan bermakna Melihat kefasihan dan akurasi prinsip sebagai pelengkap mendasari teknik komunikatif Menggunakan bahasa dalam konteks tanpa latihan kesimpulan Dari semua di atas kita dapat melihat bahwa persediaan dikelola penelitian hanya beberapa dekade yang lalu telah memberikan tempat untuk sebuah gudang sistematis informasi . Para peneliti di seluruh dunia bertemu , berbicara , membandingkan catatan , dan tiba di beberapa penjelasan yang memberikan kebohongan penjelasan terakhir. Sebagai Brown ( 2000: ix ) mencatat, " Penelitian kami keguguran lebih sedikit karena kami telah bersama belajar bagaimana untuk hamil pertanyaan yang tepat " . Tidak ada yang diambil sebagai Injil , tidak ada yang dilempar keluar dari pengadilan tanpa diuji . Ini " test" dapat selalu mengubah mekanik , tetapi kenyataannya tetap bahwa perubahan angin dan pergeseran pasir waktu dan penelitian yang beralih padang pasir menjadi oasis merindukan - bagi . referensi Brown , HD (2000) Prinsip Bahasa Belajar dan Mengajar . New York : Longman . Dimitrios Thanasoulas 2002