dari isotop kecil kalium, 40K, untuk 40Ar. Komplikasi Sampel standar terkena fluks neutron yang sama
dalam hal ini bukan yang serius. Ini adalah bahwa digunakan untuk kalibrasi. Itu40ar /39Metode ar
hanya 10,5% dari40K meluruh hasil 40Ar, sisanya memiliki keuntungan bahwa pemanasan langkah-
menjadi meluruh ke 40Ca. Rasio konstan peluruhan bijaksana dari rilis spesimen yang solid di berbagai
untuk produksi40Ar, lar, Untuk total, adalah tempera-membangun struktur argon diadakan di situs
kristalografi yang berbeda. Kemudian, jika sampel
lar=l ¼ lar= ðlar þ lcaÞ ¼ 0:105: (3:6) memiliki sejarah meta-morphism yang telah
Ada biasanya sangat sedikit argon awal dalam batuan menyebabkan kerugian argon dari situs yang kurang
igne-ous, karena volatilitas dan kimia lembam-ness. kuat, yang40ar /39Rasio Ar akan lebih rendah untuk
Hal ini hampir sepenuhnya hilang oleh outgassing dari rilis suhu rendah dan akan tanggal metamorfosis
pendinginan lava. Ketika membeku batuan beku tersebut. Ini telah digunakan untuk melacak evolusi
ekstrusif, tanpa40Ar, clock diatur ke nol. Jadi untuk K- daerah Prakambrium Perisai Kanada. Koreksi untuk
Ar kencan persamaan jam adalah modifikasi sederhana argon non-radiogenik adalah
dari Persamaan. (3,5),
diperoleh dari perbandingan dengan 36Ar. Sebuah
40 40
ar ¼ ðlar=lÞ Kðe
lt
1Þ: (3:7) grafik dari40ar /36Rasio ar vs 39ar /36Ar untuk argon
Estimasi usia batu atau mineral oleh Persamaan. dirilis pada temperatur yang berbeda memberikan plot
linier dengan gradien sama dengan 40ar /39Ar, di mana
(3.7) membutuhkan penentuan rasio 40ar /40K. Metode
yang paling banyak digunakan bergantung pada tanda bintang menunjukkan radiogenik 40Ar
pengukuran inde-penden argon dan kalium. Ini berarti diperlukan untuk perhitungan usia. Sebuah tindakan
hati-hati membagi sampel ke dalam dua bagian yang pencegahan yang diperlukan untuk menghindari
mengandung konsentrasi yang sama dari K dan Ar, dan kesalahan yang dihasilkan dari nuklir reaksi interfer-
ing disebabkan oleh neutron irra-diation. Kehadiran
kemudian K diukur dalam satu setengah dan Ar yang
lain. Pengukuran argon dibuat dengan spektrometer dari37Ar, yang dapat diproduksi dalam reaksi-reaksi
massa setelah mencair sampel dalam ruang hampa, ini, merupakan indikasi bahwa ini adalah masalah.
pencampuran argon dirilis dengan kuantitas yang
Argon adalah pelacak untuk outgassing dari mantel
dikenal dari isotopically dipisahkan38Ar (yang 'spike')
(bagian 5.2). Dipadamkan basal kapal selam dari
dan menghilangkan gas yang tidak diinginkan. Serta pegunungan di tengah laut dan hot spot pulau, seperti
memungkinkan untuk fakta bahwa spec massa-
Loihi, off Hawaii, memiliki40ar /36rasio ar yang
trometers ukuran rasio sangat baik, tapi tidak dalam
umumnya jauh lebih tinggi dari rasio atmosfer. Ini
jumlah abso-kecapi, dengan membandingkan tiga
isotop argon prosedur ini menyediakan metode rutin merupakan indikasi bahwa primordial36Ar yang
mengoreksi kontaminasi atmosfer. bertambah dengan Bumi sebagian besar di atmosfer.
Kita mungkin menganggap baik bahwa ia selalu ada
atau yang mantel yang sangat outgassed dan karena itu
argon atmosfer memiliki rasio kelimpahan isotop40ar: banyak40Ar juga di atmosfer. Diskusi di Bagian 5.2
38
ar: 36ar ¼ 100: 0,063: 0,337. konsisten dengan kedua alternatif tersebut.
Kalium umumnya ditentukan oleh perbandingan api
fotometer dari solusi dengan standar dan bergantung
pada kenyataan bahwa 40K adalah sebagian kecil tetap Metode K-Ar cocok untuk kencan batuan beku
(0,011 67%) dari jumlah K. dengan sejarah sederhana, terutama bahan yang relatif
Sebuah metode alternatif untuk memperoleh muda secara geologis. Untuk materi ini memiliki
rasio40ar /40K dalam sampel adalah untuk mengekspos keuntungan bahwa ada sangat sedikit putri isotop awal,
ke neutron batas usia bawah kegunaan yang diberlakukan oleh
fluks dalam reaktor nuklir, mengkonversi sebagian
argon residual tidak outgassed dari lelehan alamiah
kecil dari 39K hadir untuk 39Ar. Itu39Ar sehingga (Hayatsu dan Waboso, 1985). keberhasilan tertentu
dihasilkan adalah ukuran langsung dari kandungan metode K-Ar adalah membangun-ment dari skala
kalium, sehingga rasio ar / K dapat diukur dengan
waktu pembalikan geomagnetik (Cox et al, 1963;.
perbandingan spektrometer massa40ar /39Ar. Ini lebih McDougall dan tarling, 1963) dan kencan tepat berusia
langsung daripada pengukuran terpisah pada Ar dan K endapan vulkanik Afrika Timur 1,88 juta tahun (tuff)
oleh metode yang berbeda pada sampel terpisah.
yang
52 RADIOAKTIVITAS, ISOTOPESANDDATING
(8687SrSr
0
) SEBUAH B C
87rb / 86sr
T ¼ ðlF=lÞ
238 lt
Ue 1:
Fission tracks in meteorites include a 235U
(3:8)
component due to cosmic ray-produced neu-trons. The
Dalam hal ini lF is the decay constant for fission, which
excess tracks, relative to the known meteorite ages, are
is very small compared with the total decay constant, l,
thus a measure of cosmic ray exposures. This method
and T is the number of tracks caused by the available
238 was used to demonstrate that tektites have no
U. The statistical pro-blem of determining the observable cosmic ray expo-sures (Section 1.12).
relevant uranium abun-dance, corresponding to the
tracks intersecting a particular plane of observation, is
solved by irradiating the sample with slow neutrons in
a reactor and counting the additional tracks, TN, 3.6 The use of isochrons:
produced by neutron-induced fission of 235
U (no Rb-Sr dating
238
significant further fission of U is caused). Then
Most of the isotopic clocks are complicated by the
235 occurrence of initial, as well as radiogenic,
TN ¼ U: (3:9) daughter nuclides. This applies to the dating methods
where is the total neutron flux and ¼ 582 based on decays of 87Rb, 238U, 235U and 147Sm, as
10 28 m2 is the neutron-fission cross-section of well as the less used 174Hf, 176Lu
235
U. The new tracks may be observed in the
and 187Re. The presence of initial abundances of
same plane as the original 238U tracks, by re-etching, daughter isotopes is not always a disadvant-age. They
after irradiation, in which case a factor 2 arises in the frequently give information about the histories of the
comparison of Eqs. (3.8) and (3.9) because the original source materials of the rocks examined and may be as
tracks were produced by uranium on both sides of the interesting as the ages deduced from radiogenic
plane, whereas after the cut only the uranium on the components. When initial daughter abundances must
remaining side can contribute. Then be allowed for in a dating scheme, a single mea-
surement of a daughter/parent ratio does not suffice.
Additional information is needed to solve for the extra
T lF 238U : e lt1
unknown. In practice this means that the decay scheme
:
TN ¼ ð 2Þ l 235U (3:10) must meet two conditions.
The bracketed factor (2) does not apply if the second
track count is made on a fresh plane,
54 RADIOACTIVITY,ISOTOPESANDDATING
allows dating of both the original emplacement and
subsequent metamorphism of a suite of cogenetic
(i) A rock must have several minerals with quite rocks. Consider three rocks that are produced in a
sufficiently rapid sequence to have the same age within
different ratios of parent-to-daughter elements and
the uncertainties of observation. Their initial whole-
it must be possible to separate them. This is
rock isotopic compositions are represented by the
normally satisfied, but it means that a rock in points A, B and C. They are chemically different, so
which only one mineral has sufficient of the that the Rb/Sr ratios cover a reasonable range, but being
relevant isotopes, or in which all the minerals have from a common source they are isotopi-cally
parent/daughter ratios that are too similar, cannot
homogeneous, that is, initial strontium, (87Sr/86Sr)0, is
be dated.
the same for all of them. As the rocks age, so 87Rb
(ii) A non-radiogenic (reference) isotope of the
daughter element must be present for comparison. decays and for each 87Rb atom lost a new 87Sr atom is
produced, causing the compositions to move along the
broken lines (of gradient 1), reaching the points A0, B0
In the case of the Rb-Sr clock, we can rewrite Eq.
(3.5) with N ¼ 87Rb and D ¼ 87Sr and then and C0 after time T. The line through these points is the
add initial strontium, 87Sr0, T-isochron, gradient (elT 1). Normally we con-sider
87
Sr ¼ 87Sr0 þ 87Sr ¼ 87Sr0 þ 87Rb e lt 1 : (3:11) individual mineral analyses rather than whole rock data,
but now suppose that at some time t (years ago), where
t < T, all of the rocks represented in Fig. 3.1 were
reheated sufficiently to re-homogenize the isotopes
Dividing by the abundance of the reference within their miner-als (on a scale of centimetres), but
isotope,86Sr, we have the isochron (equal time) not sufficiently to cause mixing between them (on a
equation scale of tens or hundreds of metres). In this
circumstance the whole rock analyses would be
87 87 unaffected, but the mineral clocks would have been re-
Sr 87Sr Rb lt
86 86 86 set to zero t years ago and so now would give isochrons
Sr ¼ Sr 0þ Sr e 1: (3:12)
with gradients corresponding to age t.
The initial strontium ratio, (87Sr/86Sr)0 is the same for
all minerals in an igneous rock because the two isotopes
are chemically identical and, when a rock is melted, the
ratio becomes uni-form throughout (or very nearly so if Figure 3.1 is a convenient starting point for
the mass ratio is near to unity – see Section 3.9). The considering also the inferences that can be drawn from
min-erals may have quite different strontium abun- initial strontium ratios. Rock C, hav-ing a high Rb/Sr
dances but they are homogenized with respect to
ratio, accumulates radiogenic87Sr faster than A or B.
isotopic ratios. Ideally, the minerals have very different
Thus, when its clock is reset (by the postulated
ratios, Rb/Sr, of the chemically differ-ent elements, so
reheating event), its minerals have a higher
that 87Sr/86Sr evolves differently with time. Thus Eq.
(87Sr/86Sr)0, ratio than those in A or B, although all of
(3.12) represents the varia-tion with time, t, of 87Sr/86Sr the minerals in all three rocks started with the same
in a suite of samples that were isotopically ratio T years ago. A high initial strontium ratio
homogeneous at t ¼ 0, such as several minerals in a characterizes a rock that was derived from a source
single rock. If, at age t, we consider a graph of
region rich in Rb relative to Sr. The Earth’s continental
(87Sr/86Sr) versus (87Rb/86Sr), then it is linear, with an crust generally is such a source region. This obser-
intercept that gives the initial Sr ratio (as would be mea- vation is referred to in Section 5.3, in considering the
sured in a mineral with no Rb), and a gradient (elt 1) lt, evolution of the crust. Young igneous rocks with high
which gives the age, t. The gradient is always much less initial strontium ratios are likely to be re-worked
than unity because 87Rb is long-lived compared with material with long residence times in the crust, whereas
the Earth. low (87Sr/86Sr)0 (less than 0.705) probably indicates
mantle-derived rocks.
204 l t 204
each of which is referred to the non-radiogenic þ Pb 0 238 U ð e 238 1Þ Pb 0 :
(3:15)
isotope204Pb,
206 Pb Pb
206 238 U l t
238 9 In these equations, 235U/238U ¼ 1/137.9 is very
nearly the same in all natural materials, so that the
¼ 0 þ >
e 1 >
204Pb 204Pb 204Pb ;
= (3:13) square-bracketed terms in Eq. (3.15) are con-stants for
207 Pb 207 Pb 235 U l
235
t
;
Pb
¼
Pb 0þ Pb
a series of cogenetic samples. The first is the gradient
204 204 204 e 1 :> and the second is the intercept of a
Decay of uranium to lead is not immediate but proceeds lead–lead isochron, that is a graph of207Pb/204Pb
in a series of steps via intermediate
versus 206Pb/204Pb, and an age can be determined
daughter products. The longest half-life among these from the gradient with no more information about
products is 2.5 105 years for 234U, great-grand- uranium abundances than the assumption that
daughter of 238U, and there is an isotope of 235 238
U/ U is a known constant. Only lead iso-
the gaseous element, radon, in each of the decay series. tope ratios need to be measured. In fact the con-stancy
Thus it is crucial that rocks to be dated remain closed of the235U/238U ratio is not exact, but the
systems, not allowing escape or introduction of any
only known strong variation occurs in a uranium
component. In some cases, especially234U, the deposit at Oklo in Gabon, West Africa, parts of which
intermediate daughters can be used as tracers, as in the are so concentrated that they operated as natural
study of marine sedimentation. nuclear reactors two billion years ago. The uranium
decay constants are the most pre-cisely determined of
Equations (3.13) provide two independent clocks, any and they occur in the range most favourable for
but it is convenient to combine them dating Precambrian events, as well as meteorites.
For238U the half-life is very close to the age of the
Earth and for
56 RADIOACTIVITY,ISOTOPESANDDATING
that re-homogenized the isotopes t2 years ago, with no
other disturbance, would lie on a chord of the concordia
235 graph, joining the points corres-ponding to ages t1 and
U the value is about 20% of this. Uranium and lead
are widely distributed in the crust and in stony t2. In effect, they would be mixtures of concordant
meteorites, and the existence of two paral-lel decay components with these ages. Unfortunately, when
schemes allows a test for consistency of dating results. diffusion occurs it is found not to be so simple. If
conclusions are sought from discordant lead data, then
If ages calculated from different decay schemes more complicated variations of isochron plots are
agree, they are termed concordant and assumed to be advocated (Tera, 2003).
valid. The agreement may be between 40Ar/40K and
87
Sr/87Rb, or between either of these and the lead A particularly important early success in lead
isochron in Eq. (3.15), but the notion of concordance is isotope measurements was the dating of the meteorites
applied particularly to Pb/U dat-ing because the two (Section 4.3). Most of the meteorites have remained
parallel decays (Eqs. 3.13) allow a test independent of unaltered and isolated from other chemical reservoirs
the other methods. Equation (3.15) may be re-written since they were formed from an isotopically
homogeneous source. They there-fore give an excellent
fit to a lead–lead isochron (Eq. 3.15). For terrestrial
206
Pb=
238
U¼A ð
207
Pb=
235
UÞ þ B; rocks, as well as meteor-ites, the mineral zircon is of
(3:16)
greatest interest, not only because it has low or
where A ¼ [exp(l238 t) 1]/[exp(l235 t) 1] and negligible initial lead, but because it resists diffusion of
B ¼ 206Pb0/238U A 207Pb0/235U. U and Pb and because it is resistant to mechanical and
The subscript zero refers to initial abundances, so, che-mical weathering. Ion ‘microprobes’ that sputter
if there is no initial abundance of lead, B ¼ 0 in Eq. very small, selected volumes from small zircon crystals
(3.16). Then, since A is a universal function of age, t, allow isotopic ratios to be compared for different parts
concordant data fit Eq. (3.16) (with B ¼ 0), a of the same crystal, and so give dates for individual
relationship termed concordia. Note that, zircon crystals. The oldest measured terrestrial sample
although written here, and always plotted, as a is a zircon from Western Australia dated at 4.4 Ga.
relationship between 206Pb/238U and 207Pb/235U,
concordia does not require absolute abundances of
uranium isotopes. Equation (3.16), with or without B, 147
can be multiplied through by 238U and is seen to require 3.8 Sm-143Nd and other decays
only the ratio of uranium isotopes. But concordia is
applicable only to sam-ples with no initial lead. Samarium and neodymium are widely distrib-uted,
Uranium, lead and intermediate daughters diffuse although only in trace amounts, and they are both rare-
less readily in zircon (ZrSiO4) than in other minerals, earth elements (REE). These are a sequence of
making it the most favourable mineral for lead dating. chemically similar elements with a progression of
It has the further advant-age that it accepts U, and also properties through the periodic table that have been
Th, as substitutes for Zr in its crystal lattice, but rejects used as tracers of global geochemical processes.
Pb, which has a larger ionic size. Thus, zircons have Recognition that isoto-
very little initial Pb and a suite of cogenetic zircons will pic measurements can be made precisely enough to use
plot as a single point on concordia, if there has been no the very slow (1011 year) 147Sm decay to
diffusion of any component. These include the inert 143
Nd added a new dimension to REE chemistry.
gas, radon, which has inter-mediate daughter isotopes 144
Nd is used as the reference isotope, with the proviso
in both238U and 235U decay series, so the requirement that measurements are invalidated if a specimen is
is strin-gent. But the real interest in concordia arose exposed to neutrons (for example by cosmic ray
from the idea that it could be used to derive information bombardment) because143Nd readily absorbs neutrons
from discordant data. A suite of zir-cons of age t1, to become 144Nd. Although use of the Sm-Nd decay is
subjected to a brief heating event technically
3 . 9 I S O T O P I C F R A C T I O N A T I O N 57
difficult because of the limited range of values of
143
Nd/144Nd and the slow decay of 147Sm, it has
particular advantages. Sm and Nd are less mobile even the component elements. The bonding energies are the
than Rb and Sr and, unlike Rb/Sr, the Sm/Nd ratio same for all isotopes, being determined by the orbital
appears to have been sensibly uniform in the primitive electrons, but the nuclear masses affect the molecular
mantle. This is evidently a conse-quence of the fact that vibration frequencies and hence energy levels,
these elements were not fractionated in the formation including the zero point (low temperature) energies of
of the Earth from the solar nebula. the molecules. The equilibrium distribution of isotopes
be-tween interacting compounds is the result of a
We can write an isochron equation, as for Rb-Sr balance between competing effects. In the absence of
and U-Pb, thermal disturbance they would be distributed as
143 Nd 143 Nd147Sm unevenly as necessary to min-imise the total energy of
lSm t
144Nd ¼ 144Nd þ 144Nd e 1 : (3:17) the system, but the randomizing effect of thermal
0
agitation reduces the unevenness to a small bias. The
There are three other Sm-Nd decays (Table H.1), but resulting bias is thus a function of the temperature at
with half-lives that are either much longer or much which the compounds come to equilibrium and it can
shorter and they do not provide the sort of cross- be used to determine that temper-ature. Small isotopic
checking that is available with the U-Pb clocks. variations are observed for several light elements (H,
Equation (3.17) represents another inde-pendent clock, C, N, O, S), permit-ting studies of a range of geological
but probably wider interest in the Sm-Nd method arises phenomena. The original application was to the
from the information about the source of a rock that can estimation of the temperatures at which calcareous
be obtained from the initial Nd ratio (Section 5.3). shells of marine organisms were deposited, using
Often Nd ratios and Sr ratios are compared, or plotted oxygen isotope ratios. The results obtained cor-related
against one another, to seek trends that indicate with Pleistocene glaciations, but, as explained below,
chemical evolution of the reservoirs from which they so did the isotopic composi-tion of sea water, due to the
were derived. higher concentra-tion of light isotopes in fresh-water
ice, leaving the paleotemperature estimates in doubt.
Less used than Sm-Nd dating are methods based on Greater emphasis is now given to problems such as the
the 176Lu decay to 176Hf, which uses 177Hf as the non- evolution of sea water and condi-tions of magma
radiogenic reference, and the187Re decay to 187Os, generation and crystallization, but interest in
with 186Os as the reference. paleotemperature data remains strong.
The isochron equations are exact analogues of Eqs.
(3.12) and (3.17). Re and Os are siderophile elements,
which means that they are found in iron meteorites and
have been used to date them. Also Re and Os are
strongly separated by magmatic processes, so that The equilibrium distribution of isotopes is
crustal Os is systematically different from meteoritic determined quantitatively by minimizing the total free
Os. This difference was used to demonstrate that the Os energy of a system. Although this is strictly the Gibbs
associated with Ir in the clays of the Cretaceous– free energy, G, volume and pressure changes are not
Tertiary boundary is of meteoritic origin (see Section involved so this is equivalent to using the Helmholtz
5.5). free energy, F (see Table E.1, Appendix E),
F ¼ U TS; (3:18)
3.9 Isotopic fractionation
where U is internal energy and S is entropy at
temperature T. In general both U and S depend on the
There are subtle chemical differences between the distribution of isotopes. If we select a convenient
properties of molecules that have the same chemical parameter, p, to represent this distri-bution then, at a
structures, but different isotopes of
particular temperature T, the condition ð@ F=@pÞT
¼ 0 gives
58 RADIOACTIVITY,ISOTOPESANDDATING
Then by differentiating with respect to p,
ð Þ n ln ð Þð Þ
dln W 1 p 2f p
¼
ð þ Þ
dp p1 2f p
T ¼ ð@ U=@pÞT ð@ S=@pÞT : (3:19)
p 1 2f p
n ln ð þ Þ : (3:25)
The principle is illustrated by considering a sim-ple ð Þð Þ
2 1 A
1 p=ð 1 pÞ 1;
> ðX =X Þ
n1 2f p dari BX : ¼ 2 1 B ¼ ð2 f pÞ=ð1 2f þ pÞ
(3:27)
Jika tidak ada bias dalam distribusi, yaitu X2 merata
antara A dan B, maka p ¼f, tapi kami tertarik untuk so that
keberangkatan dari situasi ini karena perbedaan energi.
Entropi config-urational dari distribusi yang
sebenarnya adalah ukuran dari gangguan, yang
merupakan terbesar bagi p¼ f dan setidaknya jika p ¼ pð1 2fþ pÞ
0 atau 2f, yaitu jika X2 menempel hanya untuk B atau
A. configurational entropi, yang kita dapat mewakili 1 þ ¼ ð2f pÞð1 pÞ : (3:28)
hanya dengan S karena merupakan satu-satunya Comparing Eqs. (3.25) and (3.28), we see that, with 1,
komponen entropi menarik dalam konteks ini,
diberikan oleh
dðln WÞ
n ln 1 n: (3:29)
S ¼ k ln W; (3:21) dp ¼ ðþ Þ
where k is Boltzmann’s constant and W is the number Thus, differentiating Eq. (3.21),
of complexions of the system, that is the number of
ð @ S=@pÞT ¼ nk : (3:30)
possible ways that X1 and X2 can be distributed among
the 2n molecules in the man-ner of (3.20). Thus S would be a maximum (disorder would be maxi-
mized) if ð @ S=@pÞT ¼ 0, that is if ¼ 0. However,
n! : n! this state is prevented by the energy differences.
W ¼ ð n npÞ!ð npÞ! ½ n ð 2f pÞ&!½ n ð1 2f þ pÞ&! : We can represent the energies of the four types of
(3:22) molecule as
Since the numbers are all very large, we can use For AX1 : EA; 9
Stirling’s formula to calculate logarithms of the AX : E A E ; >
þ
2 A >
= (3:31)
factorials, BX 1 : EB ; E; >
þ
BX E
;
2 : B B >
ln N! N ln N N; (3:23)
This is convenient, as it is really the differences, DEA
to obtain
and DEB, that interest us. For the isotopic distribution
ln W ¼ nð 1 pÞ lnð 1 pÞ np ln p given by Eq. (3.20) the total energy, which we can
nð2f pÞ ln ð2f pÞ equate to internal energy, U, because it is the only
nð1 2fþ pÞ lnð 1 2f þ pÞ: (3:24)
component of U that is variable in this situation, is
3.9ISOTOPICFRACTIONATION
59
U ¼ n½ EA þ EB þ p EA þ ð 2f pÞ 2 2
1 þ 3x þ 5x þ ¼ ð 1 þ xÞ = ð1 xÞ ; (3:38)
EB&; (3:32)
maka
and therefore
Thus, substituting Eqs. (3.30) and (3.33) in (3.19), we ¼ h cothð h =2kTÞ =2: (3:39)
have Kita bisa melihat mengapa kuantisasi dari tingkat
energi penting untuk masalah ini dengan
EBEA ; (3:34)
¼ kT mempertimbangkan-ing batas klasik Persamaan.
(3,39), yang h =kT ! 0. Untuk situasi ini, dengan energi
which says that ¼ 0 if DEA ¼ DEB, but not
otherwise. tingkat kabur ke dalam kontinum, E !kT, inde-secara
The average energies of isotopically different independen dari. Energi ini kemudian independen dari
molecules differ only because their energy levels are massa isotop, baik DESEBUAH dan DEB are zero and is
quantized. We are concerned with the vibra-tional zero by Eq. (3.34). At the other extreme, h =kT! 1, the
energy levels that are affected by the masses of the only state occupied is the lowest one, with zero point
constituent atoms. A molecule with a natural vibration energy h /2, and so E ! h =2. Then
frequency may vibrate only with energies h =2; 3h =2;
5h =2; . . . ; where h is Planck’s constant. The excitation
¼ h½ ð B2 B1Þ ð A2 A1Þ&=2kT: (3:40)
occurs in multiples of h , but there is a zero point
energy, h /2, which is the unavoidable minimum. Thus, More generally, for arbitrary values of h /kT but a
at low temperature, at which molecules vibrate with limited range of T, a quadratic relationship between
their zero point energies, these energies vary with and T suffices. Vibration frequencies of all modes are
isotopic mass according to its effect on vibrational needed, in principle. It would be
frequency. In general, there is a Boltzmann distribution impractical/impossible to calculate them from first
in the occu-pation of the alternative energy levels, so principles for molecules bonded to neigh-bours in
that, at temperature T, the relative probabilities of solids and liquids but, as H. Urey first pointed out, if
occupation are e h =2kT ; e 3 h =2kT ; e 5h =2kT ; : : :. A1 (say) can be measured spectro-scopically, then A2
Mengalikan masing-masing probabilitas oleh energi or ( A2 A1) can be calcu-lated from it because the bond
negara itu dan menjumlahkan, kita memperoleh energi
forces are the same for both isotopes and only the
rata-rata
vibrating masses differ. The partitioning of oxygen iso-
topes between the shells of marine creatures and sea
water has also been examined experi-mentally by
1
X growing them at controlled temper-atures, allowing an
E ¼ ð2i 1Þ h exp½ ð2i 1Þh =2kT& =2Z; empirical approach.
saya¼1
(3:35) The use of oxygen isotopes in paleotempera-ture
dimana studies, as well as investigations of mantle-derived
X
1 volcanic rocks, refers to the fractiona-tion of18O
Z ¼exp½ ð2i 1Þh=2kT& (3:36) relative to the common 16O. 18O is about 0.2% of
saya¼1
common oxygen. The reference ratio is from Standard
adalah fungsi partisi dan muncul di sini sebagai faktor Mean Ocean Water (SMOW) and all quoted 18O values
normalisasi untuk membuat jumlah semua prob- are given as departures from the SMOW ratio in parts
kemampuan sama dengan persatuan. Persamaan (3.36) per thousand. Thus the 18O value of a marine shell
merupakan rangkaian geometris sim-ple, memberikan implies that it grew at a particular temperature, with the
sa assumption that it grew in SMOW.
h ya
Oxygen isotopes fixed in carbonate with the crystal
Z ¼ e h =2kT= 1 e h =kT ; (3:37)
structure calcite give consistent values,
dan Persamaan. (3.35) dapat ditulis dalam hal jumlah
standar lain (Dwight 1961, barang 33,1)
60 RADIOACTIVITY,ISOTOPESANDDATING
indicating stability of the calcite, but the alterna-tive has fewer of the heavy molecules than does sea water.
form, aragonite, is subject to re-crystallization and is The reverse selection of heavier isotopes for
unsuitable for paleotemperature studies. A series of precipitation in rain and snow is less effective because
samples identified as calcite and laid down under the fraction of atmospheric water pre-cipitated is much
apparently identical conditions by the same species higher than the fraction of sea water evaporated. The
allows the variation of temperature with time to be result is an accumulation of light water in polar ice and
inferred. However, the isotopic composition of sea a consequent greater enrichment of heavier isotopes in
water has not been constant. The value of fresh water is sea water during ice ages, confusing the18O/16O
sys-tematically lower by about 6‰ than ocean water, studies of paleotemperatures.
and since climatic changes are associated with variable
volumes of fresh water ice locked in polar regions, a A third isotope of oxygen, 17O, has an abun-dance
bias is introduced. This can be avoided only by using of 0.038%, slightly less than 20% of the abundance of
two cogenetic minerals, such as calcite and calcium 18
O, and is not normally consid-ered in
phosphate, with different isotopic partitioning, so that
paleotemperatures but has become important in
both tem-perature and 18O can be determined for the planetary and meteoritic studies. Having a mass that is
sea water in which shells formed. half way between16O and 18O, the partitioning of 17O
in physical and chem-ical processes gives 17O
variations that are pre-cisely half of the 18O variasi dan
The difference in isotopic composition between sea
water and fresh water or polar ice is caused by the tidak memberikan informasi tambahan. Grafik17O vs
18
selective evaporation of light molecules of water, that O untuk sampel oksigen terestrial memiliki
is those with only 1H and 16O, leaving the remaining 1
gradien /2. Ini disebut sebagai garis fractiona-tion
liquid slightly enriched in 2H and 18O. The lighter terestrial. sampel bulan jatuh pada baris ini tetapi banyak
sampel meteorit, termasuk identi-fied dengan Mars, tidak.
atoms and molecules, having higher vibrational
Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa nebula surya tidak
frequen-cies and therefore energies, require slightly
isotopically homogene-ous ketika badan ini bertambah,
less thermal energy to escape from the binding to subjek Bagian 4.5.
neighbours in the liquid. Atmospheric water