Pertumbuhan dan Perkembangan Hewan

Diferensiasi Sel
N A B IL A S W A R N A P U S P A H E RM A N A , S. S I ., M . S I .
What is cell?
Diferensiasi sel
Diferensiasi sel adalah proses ketika sel kurang khusus menjadi jenis sel yang
lebih khusus, terjadi beberapa kali selama perkembangan organisme
multiselular ketika organisme berubah dari zigot sederhana menjadi suatu
sistem jaringan dan jenis sel yang rumit.
Diferensiasi adalah proses yang lazim pada makhluk dewasa: sel punca dewasa
terpisah dan menciptakan sel anak yang terdiferensiasi sepenuhnya selama
perbaikan jaringan dan perputaran sel normal.
Diferensiasi secara dramatis mengubah ukuran, bentuk, potensial membran,
aktivitas metabolis, dan ketanggapan sel terhadap sinyal.
Perubahan-perubahan itu sebagian besar diakibatkan oleh modifikasi ekspresi
gen yang sangatterkontrol.
Diferensiasi sel hampir tidak pernah mengubah urutan DNA-nya sendiri. Karena
itu, beberapa sel bisa memiliki ciri khas fisik yang sangat berbeda meski memiliki
genom yang sama.
Diferensi sel
Sebuah sel yang mampu mendiferensiasikan dirinya ke semua jenis sel
organisme dewasa disebut pluripoten.
Sel-sel seperti itu disebut sel punca embrio pada hewan dan sel
meristem pada tumbuhan yang lebih tinggi.
Sebuah sel yang mampu mendiferensiasikan diri ke semua jenis sel,
termasuk jaringan plasenta, disebut totipoten.
Pada mamalia, hanya zigot dan blastomer akhir yang totipoten,
sementara pada tumbuhan banyak sel diferensiasi yang menjadi
totipoten melalui serangkaian teknik laboratorium sederhana.
Dalam sitopatologi, tingkat diferensiasi sel dipakai untuk mengukur
perkembangan kanker. "Grade" adalah penanda diferensiasi suatu sel
di dalam tumor.
 De-diferensiasi sel
Dediferensiasi adalah proses seluler yang sering terjadi pada makhluk hidup basal
seperti cacing dan amfibi ketika sel terdiferensiasi sebagian atau penuh kembali ke
tahap perkembangan awal, biasanya sebagai bagian dari proses regeneratif.
Dediferensiasi juga terjadi pada tumbuhan, disamping hewan. Sel di dalam kultur sel
dapat kehilangan ciri-ciri aslinya, seperti ekspresi protein, atau berubah bentuk.
Proses tersebut juga tergolong diferensiasi.
Sejumlah ahli yakin dediferensiasi adalah aberasi siklus perkembangan normal yang
mengakibatkan kanker, sementara para ahli lainnya percaya dediferensiasi adalah
bagian alami dari respon imun yang hilang pada manusia akibat evolusi.
Sebuah molekul kecil bernama reversin, sebuah analog purin, ditemukan mampu
melakukan dediferensiasi di dalam miotube. Sel-sel yang terdediferensiasi ini
kemudian mampu merediferensiasi diri menjadi osteoblas dan adiposit.
Mikrograf liposarkoma dengan
sejumlah dediferensiasi yang
De-diferensiasi sel
tidak teridentifikasi sebagai
liposarkoma (pinggir kiri) dan
komponen yang terdiferensiasi
(dengan lipoblas dan
vaskularitas yang meningkat
(kanan)). Jaringan adipose
(tengah) yang terdiferensiasi
penuh (jinak secara morfologis)
memiliki sedikit pembuluh
darah
 Stem cell
differentiation
into various
tissue types
Mammalian cell types
Three basic categories of cells make up the mammalian body: germ
cells, somatic cells, and stem cells. Each of the approximately 37.2
trillion (3.72x1013) cells in an adult human has its own copy or copies
of the genome except certain cell types, such as red blood cells,
that lack nuclei in their fully differentiated state.
Most cells are diploid. Such cells, called somatic cells, make up most
of the human body, such as skin and muscle cells. Cells differentiate
to specialize for different functions.
Germ line cells are any line of cells that give rise to gametes—eggs
and sperm—and thus are continuous through the generations.
Stem cells, on the other hand, have the ability to divide for indefinite
periods and to give rise to specialized cells.
Mammalian cell types
Development begins when a sperm fertilizes an egg and creates a
single cell that has the potential to form an entire organism.
In the first hours after fertilization, this cell divides into identical
cells. In humans, approximately four days after fertilization and
after several cycles of cell division, these cells begin to specialize,
forming a hollow sphere of cells, called a blastocyst.
The blastocyst has an outer layer of cells, and inside this hollow
sphere, there is a cluster of cells called the inner cell mass. The cells
of the inner cell mass go on to form virtually all of the tissues of the
human body. Although the cells of the inner cell mass can form
virtually every type of cell found in the human body, they cannot
form an organism. These cells are referred to as pluripotent
Pluripotent stem cell
undergo further specialization into multipotent progenitor cells that
then give rise to functional cells. Examples of stem and progenitor cells
include:
1. Radial glial cells (embryonic neural stem cells) that give rise to
excitatory neurons in the fetal brain through the process of
neurogenesis.
2. Hematopoietic stem cells (adult stem cells) from the bone marrow
that give rise to red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets
3. Mesenchymal stem cells (adult stem cells) from the bone marrow
that give rise to stromal cells, fat cells, and types of bone cells
4. Epithelial stem cells (progenitor cells) that give rise to the various
types of skin cells
5. Muscle satellite cells (progenitor cells) that contribute to
differentiated muscle tissue.
Differentiation of cellular blastomere
was guided by the cell adhesion
molecules consisting of four amino
acids, arginine, glycine, asparagine,
and serine,
Blastomere is differentiated from the
single-layered blastula to the three
primary layers of germ cells in
mammals, namely the ectoderm,
mesoderm and endoderm (listed from
most distal (exterior) to proximal
(interior)).
The ectoderm ends up forming the skin
and the nervous system, the
mesoderm forms the bones and
muscular tissue, and the endoderm
forms the internal organ tissues.
Mechanisms of Cell Differentiation
Organogenesis
The organs of the animal body form form
the three embryonic germ layers

ECTODERM GERM LAYER

Epidermis of skin, and its derivatives
Epithelial lining of the mouth and rectum.
Cornea and lens of the eyes.
The nervous system; adrenal medulla;
tooth enamel; epithelium of the pineal and
pituitary glands
ENDODERM GERM LAYER
CONTRIBUTES TO:
The epithelial lining of the
digestive tract (except the
mouth and rectum).
The epithelial lining of the
respiratory system.
The pancreas; thyroid;
parathyroids; thymus; the
lining of the urethra, urinary
bladder, and reproductive
systems
MESODERM GERM LAYER
CONTRIBUTES TO:
The notochord.
The skeletal and
muscular systems.
The circulatory and
lymphatic systems.
The excretory system.
The reproductive
system (except germ
cells).
And the dermis of skin;
lining of the body
cavity; and adrenal
cortex
Body segmentation
Controlled by Hox
genes, expressed
along the anterior-
posterior axis of
the embryo in the
same order as their
arrangement
between the 3' and
the 5' ends of the
gene complex
Body segmentation
Controlled by Hox
genes, expressed along
the anterior-posterior
axis of the embryo in
the same order as their
arrangement between
the 3' and the 5' ends of
the gene complex
Twinning
Fraternal twins
are the result of fertilization of
two oocytes. The two zygotes
develop and implant themselves
separately. They have separate
placentae and amniotic cavities.
Like all sibs born to the same
couple, they have half their genes
in common. They may be of
different sex or of the same sex.
Identical twins
are derived from a single zygote,
which during early development
divides into two groups of cells
that continue to develop
independently. Identical twins are
always of the same sex, and have
identical genes. Identical twins are
in fact clones as the two individuals
are derived from the same cell.
Fraternal twins
 may share the same placenta or amniotic cavity,

Identical twins
or they may have different placentae and
amniotic cavities, depending on the
developmental stage at which the separation of
the conceptus into two twins occurs:

Separation of the blastomeres into two groups which develop and implant
separately. They result in two separate placentae and gestational sacs
(dichorionic, diamniotic)
Separation of the inner cell mass or embryoblast into two groups forms two
amniotic cavities but one chorion and placenta (form monochorionic,
diamniotic twins)
Separation of the bilaminar disc into two groups of pluripotent cells forms two
embryos sharing a single amniotic cavity, chorion and placenta (form
monamniotic, monochorionic twins)
Incomplete separation of the inner cell mass gives rise to conjoined twins.
Trophoblast A thin layer of cells that helps a developing embryo
attach to the wall of the uterus, protects the
embryo, and forms a part of the placenta.

•Syncytiotrophoblast is acellular and does not expand

mitotically. The syncytiotrophoblast produces human
chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG), a glycoprotein hormone that
stimulates the production of progesterone by the corpus
luteum.
•Cytotrophoblast is cellular and expands mitotically into the
syncytiotrophoblast to form primary chorionic villi. Cells
from these villi can be removed for early genetic testing at
some risk to the fetus (chorionic villus sampling).
The origin of placenta
Derived from two sources:
1. The foetal chorion
2. The maternal decidual
Extraembryonic
In birds and most reptiles, the embryo
with its extraembryonic membranes
develops within a shelled egg.

membranes The amnion protects the embryo in a sac

filled with amniotic fluid.
The yolk sac contains yolk — the sole
source of food until hatching. Yolk is a
mixture of proteins and lipoproteins.
The chorion lines the inner surface of the
shell (which is permeable to gases) and
participates in the exchange of O2 and
CO2 between the embryo and the
outside air.
The allantois stores metabolic wastes
(chiefly uric acid) of the embryo and, as
it grows larger, also participates in gas
exchange.
3 groups of animals based on the way
they use the amniotic egg
Monotremes
produce a shelled
egg. Only three
species exist
today: two species
of spiny anteater
(echidna) and the
duckbill platypus.
Marsupials
Marsupials not produce a shelled egg. The egg, which is poorly supplied with
yolk, is retained for a time within the reproductive tract of the mother. The
embryo penetrates the wall of the uterus. The yolk sac provides a rudimentary
connection to the mother's blood supply from which it receives food, oxygen,
and other essentials. However, this interface between the tissues of the uterus
and the extraembryonic membranes never becomes elaborately developed,
and the young are born in a very immature state.
Very tiny size, crawling into a pouch on the mother's abdomen, attaching
themselves to nipples, and drink milk from her mammary glands. Marsupials
are still abundant in Australia, but only the opossum is found in North America.
Placental Mammals
The extraembryonic membranes form a placenta and umbilical cord, which
connect the embryo to the mother's uterus in a more elaborate and efficient way.
The blood supply of the developing fetus is continuous with that of the placenta.
Thank You
FOR LISTENING!