Ebook Community Counseling 50-100.en - Id

30 BAB 2
Catatan otobiografi tentang pengalaman Beers ini menarik minat banyak orang dalam profesi
medis serta pendukung lain untuk perawatan manusiawi bagi orang yang sakit jiwa. Seperti yang
ditunjukkan Glosoff (2009):
Penerbitan buku ini berfungsi sebagai katalisator untuk gerakan kesehatan mental dan
studi orang-orang dengan masalah emosi dan perilaku. Studi awal tentang anak-anak
dengan masalah emosional mendukung konsep pemberian konseling untuk semua anak di
sekolah. (hal. 8)
Intinya, buku Beers menghasilkan implementasi layanan penjangkauan baru untuk anak-anak
yang tertekan dan terpinggirkan serta inisiatif advokasi lainnya. Layanan penjangkauan dan
advokasi awal ini telah berkembang dari waktu ke waktu menjadi komponen penting dari model
konseling komunitas.
Buku Beers juga menarik perhatian seorang dokter yang dihormati bernama Dr. William Healy.
Terinspirasi oleh karya Beers, Dr. Healy berhasil menganjurkan pendirian klinik psikiatri komunitas
pertama untuk remaja di Amerika Serikat. Klinik ini bernama, The Juvenile Psychopathic Institute,
kemudian didirikan di Chicago pada tahun 1908. Untuk mencapai tujuannya, institut tersebut
“menggunakan pengujian, psikoanalisis yang dimodifikasi, dan keterlibatan anggota keluarga” dalam
perawatan remaja yang bermasalah (Glosoff, 2009, hal. 9).
Pekerjaan Healy termasuk advokasi untuk perubahan tingkat makro untuk mendukung kebutuhan
remaja dan keluarga mereka juga. Inisiatif advokasi ini menghasilkan pendanaan legislatif untuk
pembentukan klinik bimbingan anak di seluruh wilayah di Illinois pada tahun 1909 (Glosoff, 2009).
Jesse Davis, Frank Parsons, Clifford Beers, dan William Healy semuanya memahami cara
yang ampuh dari faktor sosial, ekonomi, politik, dan kelembagaan yang memengaruhi
perkembangan masyarakat. Dampak yang dimiliki individu-individu ini dalam mendorong
perubahan lingkungan yang luas sebagai hasil dari upaya advokasi mereka disorot di bagian ini
karena mereka mewakili faktor sejarah penting yang berkontribusi pada asal mula profesi
konseling secara umum dan evolusi teori konseling komunitas khususnya.
THE 1910 S DAN 1920 S
Profesi konseling pemula mengambil sejumlah liku-liku selama tahun 1910-an dan 1920-an. Minat
dalam layanan bimbingan dan konseling kejuruan meningkat setelah Parsons dan Davis melakukan
terobosan baru di bidang ini. Akibatnya, layanan bimbingan sekolah tambahan diperkenalkan di
sekolah umum di Seattle pada tahun 1910 (Brewer, 1942) dan New York pada tahun 1916 (Reed,
1916).
Meningkatnya minat dalam layanan bimbingan selama era ini menyebabkan pembentukan
National Vocational Guidance Association (NVGA) di Grand Rapids, Michigan, pada tahun 1913.
Menekankan pentingnya pekerjaan yang dilakukan oleh konselor bimbingan bagi bangsa pada saat
itu, Frank Leavitt , presiden pertama NVGA, menyatakan bahwa "tuntutan ekonomi, pendidikan, dan
sosial untuk bimbingan dan konseling yang diperlukan untuk pelestarian masyarakat itu sendiri"
(dikutip dalam Glosoff, 2009, hlm. 9).
EVOLUT ION OF THE COMMUNI TY COUNSEL ING MODEL 31
Meningkatkan dukungan untuk layanan bimbingan konseling berbasis sekolah dan

pembentukan organisasi bimbingan nasional membantu profesi baru yang masih muda
mengamankan pijakan di berbagai lingkungan sekolah dan komunitas di seluruh Amerika Serikat.
Akibatnya, pendidikan dan intervensi preventif menjadi layanan pilihan dalam memelihara
perkembangan anak dan remaja yang sehat dan membantu individu lain untuk membuat keputusan
kejuruan.
Dampak Perang Dunia I
Peristiwa paling signifikan yang berdampak pada evolusi profesi konseling saat ini terkait dengan
dimulainya Perang Dunia I. Hollis (2000) merangkum pengaruh peristiwa bersejarah ini terhadap
perkembangan awal profesi, dengan mencatat bahwa “konseling menjadi lebih dikenal luas ketika
militer mulai mempekerjakan orang untuk praktik pengujian dan penempatan bagi sejumlah besar
personel militer ”(hlm. 45).
Meningkatnya permintaan untuk pengujian dan praktik penempatan memang meningkatkan identitas
profesional konselor selama waktu itu, tetapi, dengan biaya. Dengan mengarahkan upaya konselor untuk
mengelola dan menilai tes psikologis di antara sejumlah besar orang yang direkrut menjadi tentara, konselor
yang baru dipekerjakan bertanggung jawab untuk mencocokkan minat dan keterampilan wajib militer dengan
pekerjaan militer tertentu. Hal ini mengakibatkan praktisi menjauh dari peran dan layanan multifaset yang
diterapkan oleh para pionir awal dalam profesi konseling karena praktisi merangkul peran dan fungsi
profesional yang lebih sempit di masyarakat.
TAHUN 1920 S –1930 S
Tahun 1920-an dan 1930-an, para konselor perlahan-lahan meningkatkan visibilitas dan pekerjaan mereka dalam
berbagai pengaturan. Ini termasuk meningkatnya jumlah konselor yang dipekerjakan sebagai pekerja pembimbing
dalam sistem sekolah umum, pekerja personel pelajar di perguruan tinggi dan universitas, konselor pekerjaan
yang dipekerjakan di berbagai lembaga ketenagakerjaan pemerintah, pekerja personel dalam pengaturan bisnis
dan industri swasta, konselor rehabilitasi di klinik kesehatan dan rumah sakit, dan penyedia layanan pengujian dan
penempatan untuk veteran perang (Aubrey, 1986).
Meningkatnya jumlah konselor yang bekerja di bidang ini dibarengi dengan upaya awal untuk
mempromosikan identitas profesional mereka. Upaya tersebut diwujudkan dalam pengembangan
standar sertifikasi awal untuk konselor bimbingan di Boston dan New York selama tahun 1920-an.
Dukungan tambahan untuk pengembangan profesional konselor datang dari Universitas Harvard,
yang mulai menawarkan kursus bagi orang-orang yang bekerja di bidang konseling bimbingan yang baru
muncul pada tahun 1921. Namun, penawaran kursus baru ini dikritik karena terlalu sempit karena hampir
secara eksklusif ditujukan. masalah bimbingan kejuruan di pengaturan sekolah (Gladding, 2009).
Pandangan sempit tentang peran dan fungsi konselor ini ditentang oleh praktisi lain yang
tidak puas dengan perspektif yang membatasi ini.
32 BAB 2
Apa yang terjadi dari ketidakpuasan ini adalah individu yang mengalihkan perhatian ke masalah yang lebih luas
terkait dengan pekerjaan yang dilakukan banyak konselor di lapangan. Hal ini mengakibatkan perhatian konselor
diarahkan pada masalah kepribadian, perkembangan manusia, dan dampak dinamika keluarga pada kehidupan
klien mereka (Gladding,
2009).
Abraham dan Hannah Stone membahas masalah terakhir dengan mendirikan pernikahan pertama
dan pusat konseling keluarga di New York City pada tahun 1929. Penekanan bahwa pernikahan dini dan
konselor keluarga ditempatkan pada kebutuhan untuk mengatasi masalah kontekstual ketika bekerja
dengan klien melengkapi model konseling komunitas. konseling dalam konteks konsep yang dibahas dalam
Bab 1.
Prestasi lain yang membantu memperluas pandangan konselor sebagai spesialis pengembangan
profesional dan perubahan sistem berasal dari karya John Brewer pada tahun 1930-an. Dalam buku
berjudul, Pendidikan sebagai Bimbingan, Brewer (1932) menjelaskan bagaimana guru dapat dilatih untuk
memperluas pekerjaan yang telah dilakukan oleh konselor bimbingan. Brewer merekomendasikan agar
para guru dilatih untuk menangani pengetahuan dan keterampilan yang dibutuhkan anak-anak untuk
menjalani kehidupan yang produktif dan memuaskan dalam inti kurikulum sekolah. Ide yang dianjurkan
Brewer dalam hal ini konsisten dengan intervensi advokasi preventif, perkembangan, dan sistem berbasis
luas yang kemudian menjadi bagian integral dari model konseling komunitas.
Berurusan dengan Tantangan Depresi Besar
Di luar pekerjaan penting yang telah dilakukan untuk memperluas konsep konseling bimbingan di era
ini, Depresi Besar tahun 1930-an menantang para konselor untuk mengatasi kesengsaraan kolektif
yang dialami jutaan orang selama periode ini dalam sejarah rakyat Amerika Serikat. Salah satu cara
praktis yang digunakan konselor untuk mengatasi tantangan ini ditunjukkan oleh anggota fakultas
dan praktisi di University of Minnesota. Orang-orang ini mengembangkan dan melaksanakan Proyek
Stabilisasi Karyawan, pendekatan multifaset untuk konseling dan pengembangan karir di awal tahun
1930-an (Fouad et al., 2006).
Proyek multi-layanan ini mencakup pendidikan karier, konseling, penilaian, dan layanan advokasi
untuk mendukung kesehatan mental dan kesejahteraan psikologis banyak orang yang terkena
dampak negatif Depresi Besar. Sifat multifaset dari intervensi ini mencerminkan penekanan model
konseling komunitas pada penggunaan berbagai layanan untuk secara efektif mendorong
perkembangan manusia yang sehat.
Faktor-faktor lain berkontribusi pada pemikiran konselor yang diperluas tentang peran potensial yang
dapat mereka mainkan dalam mempromosikan kesehatan mental klien mereka dengan menerapkan berbagai
layanan advokasi selama tahun 1930-an. Salah satu faktor ini melibatkan penerbitan buku lain, berjudul, Pria,
Wanita, dan Pekerjaan ( Patterson, Darley, & Elliott, 1936).
Publikasi inovatif ini membahas bagaimana faktor sistemik mempengaruhi perkembangan manusia
dan kejuruan dan menggambarkan peran konselor dalam menangani variabel-variabel ini. Pertimbangan
semacam itu memperluas pemikiran konselor tentang peran yang dapat mereka mainkan sebagai agen
perubahan organisasi sosial.
Mereka juga melengkapi penekanan model konseling komunitas pada kebutuhan untuk mengimplementasikan
layanan advokasi sistemik untuk mempromosikan pembangunan manusia yang sehat.
Evolusi profesi konseling semakin ditingkatkan dengan pencetakan buku teks teori konseling
pertama pada tahun 1939. Gladding (2009) membahas pencapaian bersejarah ini dengan
mencatat bahwa:
Depresi Hebat memengaruhi para peneliti dan praktisi, terutama di lingkungan universitas dan
kejuruan, untuk menekankan strategi membantu dan metode konseling yang terkait dengan
pekerjaan. Sorotan dekade ini adalah perkembangan teori konseling pertama, yang
dirumuskan oleh EG Williamson dan rekan-rekannya (termasuk John Darley dan Donald
Paterson) di University of Minnesota. Williamson memodifikasi teori Parson dan
menggunakannya untuk bekerja dengan siswa dan pengangguran. Penekanannya pada
pendekatan direktif kemudian dikenal dengan beberapa nama — misalnya, sebagai Sudut
pandang Minnesota dan konseling faktor sifat. Pendekatan pragmatisnya menekankan pada
pengajaran konselor, pendampingan, dan keterampilan mempengaruhi. (Williamson, 1939,
hlm.11)
Penekanan Williamson dan rekan-rekannya ditempatkan pada memiliki konselor menggunakan strategi
pendidikan untuk mempromosikan pengembangan klien adalah pendahulu lain untuk penekanan model
konseling komunitas pada layanan serupa. Sebagaimana dibahas dalam Bab 1, penggunaan layanan
pendidikan semacam itu sangat penting ketika konselor menggunakan kerangka konseling komunitas untuk
memfasilitasi perkembangan manusia dan perubahan kontekstual lingkungan.
1940 S –1950 S
Empat faktor bersejarah berkontribusi besar pada evolusi profesi konseling selama tahun 1940-an dan
1950-an. Faktor-faktor ini termasuk (1) dampak teori konseling Carl Rogers; (2) tantangan baru yang
dihadapi para konselor dalam menangani kebutuhan para veteran yang kembali dari Perang Dunia II;
(3) pengaruh Perang Dunia II terhadap perubahan peran seks tradisional, terutama yang terkait
dengan pengembangan karir / kejuruan perempuan; dan (4) terobosan besar dalam profesionalisasi
konseling.
Dampak Teori Konseling Carl Rogers
Terobosan paling signifikan untuk profesi konseling selama tahun 1940-an adalah penerbitan buku Carl
Rogers (1942) yang berjudul Konseling dan Psikoterapi. Buku ini mengantarkan era konseling yang
berpusat pada klien (kemudian berganti nama menjadi berpusat pada orang) yang menyingkirkan
model konseling faktor-sifat dan direktif yang ada (Williamson, 1939).
Teori Rogers membuat banyak konselor fokus pada teknik spesifik yang dapat mereka gunakan untuk
membangun hubungan empati tanpa syarat dengan klien yang menghasilkan
34 BAB 2
dalam hasil konseling yang positif. Fokus utama dari pendekatan membantu populer ini adalah
pengalaman intrapsikis klien (D'Andrea, Ivey, & Ivey,
2011).
Meningkatnya popularitas teori konseling Rogers secara dramatis meningkatkan
profesionalisasi bidang konseling pada saat itu (Aubrey,
1986). Namun, penekanan individu dan intrapsikis yang menjadi ciri konseling Rogerian di tahun
1940-an dan 1950-an mengalihkan banyak perhatian konselor dari stresor lingkungan kontekstual
eksternal yang berdampak buruk pada kehidupan orang-orang ke pengalaman internal klien.
Menarik untuk dicatat bahwa Carl Rogers mengalami evolusi pribadi dan profesionalnya sendiri selama
kariernya. Dalam melakukan itu, Rogers mendemonstrasikan berapa banyak prinsip yang terkait dengan teori
konselingnya dapat digunakan dalam berbagai inisiatif keadilan sosial dan advokasi perdamaian yang ia
terapkan di kemudian hari (Kirschenbaum, 2009). Perkembangan terakhir dalam karir Rogers ini konsisten
dengan evolusi penekanan model konseling komunitas pada penggunaan layanan advokasi serupa untuk
mempromosikan perkembangan manusia yang sehat dan keadilan sosial dalam pengaturan lingkungan yang
berbeda.
Mengadvokasi Dukungan Pemerintah untuk Veteran Perang Dunia II
Konselor juga terlibat dalam sejumlah intervensi yang menangani kebutuhan ribuan veteran
Perang Dunia II di tahun 1940-an. Mengatasi kebutuhan psikologis para veteran, yang
mengalami cedera fisik dan emosional akibat perang, termasuk di antara layanan yang
semakin diminta oleh konselor selama era bersejarah ini.
Selain membantu orang-orang ini mengatasi cedera mereka, konselor juga membantu para
veteran dalam menyesuaikan diri dengan kehidupan sipil dan mendapatkan pekerjaan yang
menguntungkan di angkatan kerja pascaperang. Sementara ini sering melibatkan penggunaan
intervensi konseling individu, banyak konselor juga mengadvokasi peningkatan dukungan pemerintah
untuk manfaat pendidikan dan pelatihan kejuruan veteran (Fouad et al., 2006). Sebagai hasil dari upaya
advokasi tersebut, terjadi sejumlah perkembangan sistemik yang berkontribusi pada evolusi profesi
konseling di tahun 1940-an. Melaporkan perkembangan ini, Glosoff (2009) menunjukkan itu
Pada tahun 1944, Departemen Perang membentuk Program Klasifikasi dan Konseling Pemisahan
Angkatan Darat sebagai tanggapan atas kebutuhan emosional dan kejuruan para prajurit yang
kembali. Administrasi Veteran (VA) mendirikan pusat konseling di dalam rumah sakit untuk para
veteran yang terluka (Shertzer & Stone, 1986). VA menciptakan istilah tersebut Psikologi konseling
dan menetapkan posisi psikologi konseling dan program pelatihan untuk mengisi posisi ini.
Institut Kesehatan Mental Nasional (NIMH) didirikan tepat setelah Perang Dunia II dan
menciptakan serangkaian tunjangan pelatihan untuk program pascasarjana dalam konseling
profesional
dan psikologi. (hal.12)
Upaya advokasi lainnya menghasilkan pembentukan US Employment Service yang dimulai di

bawah War Manpower Commission pada tahun 1944. Program yang didanai pemerintah ini mendirikan
1.500 kantor di seluruh negeri di mana para konselor menyediakan sejumlah tes kejuruan, pelatihan,
dan layanan penempatan (Glosoff , 2009).
Pengesahan Undang-Undang George-Barden pada tahun 1944 adalah contoh lain dari upaya advokasi
legislatif yang berhasil. Tindakan federal ini memberikan dukungan pemerintah untuk pembentukan program
pelatihan konseling tambahan. Program-program yang didanai dari tindakan ini terutama berfokus pada pelatihan
individu untuk memberikan bimbingan kejuruan dan layanan konseling kepada para veteran Perang Dunia II.
Memperluas Layanan Konseling Kejuruan
untuk Wanita Selama 1940-an
Selain menangani kebutuhan veteran, masyarakat sipil lainnya juga membutuhkan bantuan untuk
menghadapi tantangan unik selama tahun 1940-an. Sebagai akibat dari PD II, banyak orang di Amerika
Serikat menghadapi gangguan keluarga selama bertahun-tahun, perpindahan geografis, dan pemicu
stres serius yang terkait dengan kematian dan kecacatan anggota keluarga akibat perang. Lalu, tiba-tiba,
waktu damai datang. Tetapi dengan itu muncul ketidakpastian tentang perubahan sosial dan ekonomi
besar-besaran yang terjadi selama periode itu dalam sejarah rakyat Amerika Serikat (Aubrey, 1986).
Salah satu perubahan sosial-ekonomi penting yang terjadi selama dan setelah Perang Dunia II terkait
dengan peran baru yang dimainkan perempuan dalam angkatan kerja. Dengan tidak adanya banyak pekerja
laki-laki, perempuan dipanggil untuk memenuhi kebutuhan basis industri dan manufaktur masa perang. Seperti
yang ditunjukkan Gladding (2009):
Banyak wanita bekerja di luar rumah selama perang, dicontohkan oleh kepribadian seperti Rosie
the Riveter. Kontribusi perempuan untuk bekerja dan kesejahteraan Amerika Serikat selama
krisis perang memberikan dampak yang bertahan lama. Peran seks pekerjaan tradisional mulai
dipertanyakan, dan lebih banyak penekanan ditempatkan pada kebebasan pribadi perempuan.
(hal. 13)
Kebebasan pribadi yang dialami beberapa wanita sebagai akibat dari fenomena bersejarah ini menghasilkan
perasaan baru pembebasan psikologis yang berkontribusi pada keinginan untuk bergerak melampaui peran seks yang
membatasi yang secara tradisional diabadikan dalam masyarakat. Dinamika ini menantang para konselor untuk
memikirkan kembali layanan yang mereka gunakan ketika sebelumnya menangani kebutuhan klien perempuan.
Menyadari bahwa faktor sistemik berkontribusi pada perlakuan yang tidak setara terhadap perempuan di
masyarakat pada umumnya dan di angkatan kerja pada khususnya, beberapa konselor menerapkan layanan
advokasi sistem baru untuk mengatasi ketidakadilan ini dan merangsang perkembangan perempuan selama tahun
1940-an (Gladding, 2009). Layanan advokasi keadilan sosial ini serupa dengan upaya serupa yang dilakukan
kemudian oleh konselor yang beroperasi dari model konseling komunitas.
36 BAB 2
Perkembangan Organisasi Konseling Baru pada 1950-an
Peristiwa tambahan yang berdampak pada sejarah profesi konseling termasuk inisiatif organisasi
yang berlangsung selama awal 1950-an.
Ketika profesional konseling berkembang dalam cakupan dan tujuan pada 1940-an dan
1950-an, menjadi jelas bahwa ada kebutuhan organisasi profesional untuk menyatukan
beragam perhatian konselor. Ini tentu saja bukan American Psychological Association
(APA) karena banyak konselor praktik bukan psikolog, juga tidak memenuhi syarat untuk
menjadi anggota APA. Juga, pada konferensi yang menentukan pada tahun 1950 di
Boulder, Colorado, psikologi klinis terkait erat dengan komunitas psikiatri. Ini berarti
fokus yang dekat dan hampir eksklusif pada penggunaan model medis yang terbukti
menjadi fokus yang terlalu sempit untuk sebagian besar konselor praktik di tahun
1950-an.
Akibatnya, pada Juli 1952, American Personnel and Guidance Association

(APGA) (sekarang disebut American Counseling Association) dibentuk. APGA mewakili
penggabungan berbagai organisasi bimbingan, pendidikan, dan konseling. Ini termasuk
National Vocational Guidance Association (sekarang disebut National Career
Development Association) dan American College Personnel Association dengan kerja
sama National Association of Guidance and Counseling Trainers (sekarang disebut
Association for Counselor Education and Supervision) dan Student Personnel
Association untuk Pendidikan Guru (sekarang disebut Asosiasi Konseling Humanistik,
Pendidikan dan Pengembangan). Satu tahun kemudian, pada tahun 1953, Asosiasi
Konselor Sekolah Amerika bergabung dengan APGA. (Aubrey, 1986, hlm.13)
These organizational initiatives greatly increased the professionalization of counseling as

well as the perceived legitimacy of the field among people in other disciplines and the general
public. One of the mainstays of these organizational initiatives was the acknowledgement of the
ways that the counseling profession was distinguished from other professional groups. Among
the differences emphasized were the ways that counselors implemented prevention services to
foster human development and their commitment to working to promote both individual and
environmental changes in their practices (Aubrey,
1986).
As previously discussed, the impact of Carl Rogers’s counseling theory at this time led many
counselors to direct increasing attention to individual-intrapsychic factors when working with clients.
Despite the popularity of Rogers’s theory, numerous counseling practitioners employed in diverse
settings (especially school counselors) implemented intervention strategies that were intentionally
designed to stimulate both individual and environmental changes. In doing so, these practitioners
contributed to the evolution of the community counseling model that is described in this book.
THE EVOLUT ION OF THE COMMUNI TY COUNSEL ING MODEL 37
Unprecedented Growth of Counselor Education
Programs in the 1950s
Another historic phenomenon occurring in the 1950s was the anxiety, fear, and concern the
general citizenry experienced in response to the perceived scientific and technological superiority
of the Soviet Union. This national concern was greatly heightened when the Soviet Union
successfully launched the first earthorbiting satellite, called Sputnik, in October of 1957.
The heightened national anxiety associated with the launching of Sputnik led to bipartisan
legislative support for the passage of the National Defense Education Act (NDEA) of 1958 by the
Congress of the United States. As a result of this legislative action, the number of counselors in
our nation’s public schools quadrupled in a few short years. The ratio of counselors to students in
public schools decreased from 1 to 960 in 1958–1959 to 1 in 450 by the middle of the next
decade. There were also unprecedented gains in the number of counselor education programs
instituted across the United States during this historic period as a result of fiscal support
appropriated by the NDEA (Aubrey,
1986).
The significant expansion in the number of counselor education programs and practitioners in
the late 1950s was accompanied by substantial advancements in the knowledge-base from which
they operated. The expanding knowledgebase included new thinking about human development
and psychological distress from research findings generated in such diverse disciplines as
psychiatry, psychology, sociology, and social work.
Psychodynamic counseling theories were also gaining popularity in the mental health professions
during this time. These theories generally stressed individualintrapsychic approaches to mental health
care. However, in the 1950s a number of psychodynamic theorists described how these theories could
be used to promote environmental changes in schools, workplaces, and communities-at-large so that
larger numbers of people would realize increased mental health and psychological well-being (Fromm,
1955; Sullivan, 1953).
About the same time, Lewin’s (1951) field theory further delineated the interactional nature
of human development, mental health, and people’s environmental settings. Lewin’s simple
formula, B = f(P, E,), noted that one’s behavior (B) is a function of the individual’s personal
characteristics (P) and environmental interactions (E). Lewin’s theoretical perspective further
affected the way counselors conceptualized the etiology of people’s problems and the need to
promote environmental changes to foster healthy human development in the 1950s.
The insights gained from this expanded knowledge-base led counseling theorists and
practitioners to explore how new intervention strategies might be used in school settings to
stimulate the development of larger numbers of clients than could be achieved by using
individual counseling interventions alone. One of the first writers to formally publish guidelines
related to the use of a developmental framework in counseling was Robert Mathewson (1949).
38 BAB 2
Pandangan perkembangan Mathewson berbeda dari pendekatan faktor sifat dan konseling Rogerian
yang digunakan oleh kebanyakan konselor pada saat itu. Dalam membedakan pendekatannya dari
orientasi teoretis lainnya, Mathewson menulis:
Of crucial importance in this stage of cultural development in American democracy is the

question of whether we can any longer depend solely upon the individual’s natural
motivation for such essentials as civic responsibility, effectiveness in human relations, and
the congruent matching of talents and tasks in work settings. (p. 66)
Mathewson (1949, 1962) outlined guidelines that counselors were encouraged to use in
creating environmental conditions in schools and communities that nurtured healthy human
development. Growing interest in the roles counselors could play to promote such conditions was
an important factor that contributed to the on going evolution of the community counseling model.
THE 1960 S AND 1970 S
Tahun 1960-an dan 1970-an mewakili masa perubahan substansial dalam profesi konseling
dan evolusi model konseling komunitas. Perubahan ini terjadi selama era yang ditandai dengan
banyaknya pertanyaan tentang banyak lembaga sosial, politik, dan budaya bangsa kita dan
cara operasi yang mapan.
Mendeskripsikan dampak dari zaman bersejarah ini pada profesi konseling, Aubrey (1986)
menunjukkan itu
The counseling profession in the 1960s faced a number of serious questions and
challenges. One of these problems centered on clientele. Should the profession deal
exclusively with the normal developmental concerns (and their ups and downs) of
individuals, or should it tend to the psychological problems of a smaller and needier
portion of the population? On the surface, this dilemma seemed clear and amenable to
resolution. Events in the 1960s, however, would blur this simple dichotomy by suddenly
expanding counseling audiences to include minority groups, dissenters to the war in
Vietnam, returning veterans, alienated hippie and youth movements, experimenters and
advocates of the new drug culture, disenchanted students in high schools and colleges,
victims of urban and rural poverty, and disenfranchised women. Like all societal
institutions, the counseling profession was being subjected to its own questioning and
challenges from individuals within and outside of the field. (pp. 16–17)
Ada dua faktor yang secara khusus menantang dalam menangani kebutuhan populasi klien baru yang
disebutkan di atas. Pertama, sebagian besar orang dalam kelompok ini membutuhkan dukungan dalam
mengembangkan pengetahuan dan keterampilan yang diperlukan untuk mewujudkan pemberdayaan individu dan
kolektif mereka. Membantu klien dalam
becoming empowered meant supporting these persons in acquiring new competencies that
enabled them to make the individual-intrapsychic and environmental changes that were necessary
to lead healthy and satisfying lives. Unfortunately, many counselors were unable to effectively
implement counseling strategies that resulted in these outcomes, largely due to a second, related,
historic phenomenon occurring at the time.
The second phenomenon was that the counseling profession had become inundated with a
plethora of new theories that gained much popularity during the 1960s. The new theoretical
models used by many counselor educators and practitioners at the time included behavioral
counseling, reality therapy, existential therapy, person-centered counseling, and psychodynamic
counseling theories.
Teori-teori ini memperluas keterampilan dan teknik konseling konselor dalam banyak hal.
Namun, mereka tidak sesuai dengan kebutuhan dan minat banyak konselor klien baru yang dipanggil
untuk melayani. Ini sebagian besar disebabkan oleh fakta bahwa teori-teori baru yang disebutkan di
atas terlalu menekankan pentingnya membantu klien membuat jenis penyesuaian pribadi yang
diperlukan untuk memenuhi tuntutan konteks lingkungan mereka. Namun, masalah yang dialami
banyak klien dalam hidup mereka seringkali berakar pada kondisi lingkungan yang beracun, tidak
adil, dan menindas yang perlu diubah sendiri. Akibatnya, ketidaksesuaian antara strategi konseling
yang digunakan oleh banyak praktisi dan kebutuhan banyak klien sering mengakibatkan hasil yang
tidak efektif dan frustrasi yang meningkat di antara klien dan konselor.
Pelajaran yang Dipetik
In hindsight, it is clear that the overuse of counseling strategies that focused on the clients’
intrapsychic experiences without addressing other relevant environmental-contextual factors
greatly contributed to the abovementioned ineffective outcomes and frustrations. These negative
outcomes represented important learning opportunities that contributed to the evolution of the
community counseling model.
The primary lesson learned in this regard related to the need for counselors to use multifaceted
approaches in their work. Implementation of such multifaceted approaches included the use of
outreach services to distressed and marginalized clients, client advocacy services, social/political
advocacy initiatives to foster macro-level changes, and new developmental/preventive interventions.
New Developmental Counseling Approaches
The evolution of the community counseling concept in the 1960s was further enhanced by
advancements made in the application of human development theories in counseling practices.
The first book on this subject, bearing the title
Developmental Counseling, was written by Donald Blocher in 1966. Other counseling theorists
began increasing their attention to lifespan development theories as a basis for their counseling
interventions as well.
40 CHAPTER 2
Like the plethora of new counseling theories discussed above, developmental counseling
strategies focused on stimulating individual changes that reflected clients’ growth potential. The
new developmental counseling approaches that were increasingly used by counselors in the 1960s
distinguished counselors from many other practitioners in the mental health professions. This
distinction would be further illuminated in the 1970s when the community counseling theory formally
emerged as a multifaceted helping framework in the field.
Broadening the Counseling Profession’s
Perspective and Effectiveness
Aubrey (1986) explained why the counseling profession worked to broaden its perspective and
effectiveness in the following way.
Perluasan perspektif konseling pada akhir 1960-an dan awal 1970-an dicapai sebagian besar melalui
tekanan langsung oleh mereka yang mencari bantuan. Banyak dari orang-orang ini mencari bantuan
dari mereka yang mengaku memiliki keterampilan dalam konseling dan psikoterapi. Konselor,
psikiater, pekerja sosial, psikolog, konselor pastoral — semuanya didekati sebagai calon penolong.
Namun, hanya sedikit dari calon pembantu yang mampu memuaskan individu-individu ini. Faktanya,
banyak pencari bantuan menemukan lebih banyak kelegaan dalam kelompok mereka sendiri
(Alcoholics Anonymous, Synanon, Daytop, kelompok perempuan dan swadaya lainnya) daripada
yang mereka lakukan dari konselor profesional. Banyak dari hal ini diakibatkan oleh kegagalan
konselor untuk mengatasi faktor penyebab yang mendasari masalah klien sementara banyak dari
kelompok swadaya yang baru muncul membuat kemajuan penting dalam menghadapi kondisi
lingkungan seperti itu. (hal.21)
Faktor lain yang berkontribusi pada perluasan perspektif profesional konselor melibatkan
pengakuan yang berkembang tentang cara-cara intervensi kelompok digunakan untuk mendorong
pemberdayaan banyak klien yang mengalami masalah serupa dalam hidup mereka. Faktor ketiga yang
membuat konselor memperluas perspektif profesional mereka adalah kemauan yang meningkat untuk
berhubungan kembali dengan tradisi lama dalam menggunakan strategi pencegahan, advokasi, dan
perubahan lingkungan di lapangan.
The Passage of the Community Mental Health Centres Act
Efforts to expand the use of prevention and advocacy services in the 1960s and 1970s were
bolstered by the passage of the 1963 Community Mental Health Centers Act. This legislative action
was considered “to be one of the most crucial laws dealing with mental health that has been
enacted in the United States” (Glosoff, 2009, p. 15). The passage of this historic legislation
occurred, in part, because of the advocacy efforts of many counselors, psychologists, social
workers, and their professional organizations.
Undang-undang Pusat Kesehatan Mental Komunitas mengamanatkan pembentukan lebih dari 2.000
pusat kesehatan mental di seluruh negeri. Hal ini memungkinkan para konselor untuk memberikan layanan
konseling langsung kepada puluhan ribu orang di komunitas lokal serta melaksanakan berbagai layanan
advokasi, konsultasi, penjangkauan, pendidikan preventif, dan pelatihan. Layanan ini tidak hanya memiliki
potensi untuk berdampak positif pada kesejahteraan psikologis klien tetapi juga untuk meningkatkan
kesehatan mental seluruh komunitas. Begitulah maksud konselor yang bekerja dari teori konseling
komunitas yang dijelaskan dalam buku ini; untuk mendorong perkembangan yang sehat dari klien individu
dan kesehatan mental dari konteks lingkungan yang lebih luas di mana mereka berada (lihat Bab 1).
Sayangnya, kurangnya pendanaan berkelanjutan untuk inisiatif berbasis komunitas nasional ini merusak
upaya konselor untuk mewujudkan potensi penuh dari sistem perawatan kesehatan mental di Amerika Serikat.
Rencana awal untuk memperluas dan memelihara sistem perawatan kesehatan mental berbasis komunitas
yang komprehensif di negara ini digantikan oleh organisasi perawatan terkelola (MCO) yang baru. MCO yang
dioperasikan secara pribadi ini meningkat pesat selama tahun 1970-an dan setelahnya.
Managed Care Organizations (MCOs) di tahun 1970-an
MCO telah ada di Amerika Serikat selama beberapa dekade. Namun, ada dorongan yang cukup besar untuk
pengaturan keuangan yang dibuat untuk penggantian perawatan medis pada umumnya dan layanan perawatan
kesehatan mental pada khususnya selama awal tahun 1970-an. Pengesahan Undang-Undang Organisasi
Pemeliharaan Kesehatan tahun 1973 adalah faktor utama yang berkontribusi pada peningkatan pembayaran
finansial untuk layanan perawatan kesehatan mental kepada MCO yang dioperasikan secara pribadi pada waktu
itu.
These shifting financial arrangements for mental health care payments resulted in an
agreement for MCOs to reimburse licensed practitioners for services rendered. The specific
payment agreements were limited to qualified mental health professionals who adopted a
medical model in their work. Adopting such a model for financial reimbursement from MCOs
resulted in increasing provision of individual, intrapsychic-focused counseling and psychotherapy
services for clients in need (Cooper & Gottlieb, 2000).
The rising medicalization of mental health care in the 1970s and the decades that followed
was, in many ways, antithetical to the community counseling perspective. This was largely due to
the fact that reimbursable services from MCOs did not include many of the other interventions that
are associated with the community counseling model. Among the services not reimbursed by these
financial entities included contextually based counseling services, outreach services to marginalized
and distressed clients, client and system advocacy services, developmental/preventive
interventions, and social/political macrosystem-change services.
Despite these barriers, two factors contributed to the ongoing evolution of the community
counseling model. The first factor involved the publication of the first two textbooks on
community counseling in the 1970s (Amos &
42 CHAPTER 2
Williams, 1972; Lewis & Lewis, 1977). The second factor was the birth of the multicultural
movement in the late 1960s and early 1970s (D’Andrea et al.,
2001).
At this time, a small group of Black counselors and psychologists publically called for
changes in the mental health professions to ameliorate the cultural biases and institutional racism
that was perpetuated by the fields of counseling and psychology. These professional advocacy
efforts resulted in the founding of the Association for Non-White Concerns (now referred to as the
Association for Multicultural Counseling and Development [AMCD]) in the American Counseling
Association and an independent organization called the Association for Black Psychologists in the
early 1970s.
Para pemimpin dalam organisasi profesional yang baru berkembang ini sangat kritis terhadap cara
praktisi terus menerapkan pendekatan yang bias secara budaya terhadap kesehatan mental. Pendekatan
semacam itu melibatkan mengarahkan sejumlah besar waktu dan energi pada masalah intrapsikis klien
individu sementara gagal juga mengatasi faktor lingkungan dan ketidakadilan sosial yang diketahui
berdampak buruk pada kesehatan mental jutaan orang dalam kelompok yang terpinggirkan secara
budaya dan rasial dan merendahkan nilai di Amerika Serikat.
Researchers affiliated with these organizations provided evidence that substantiated the
ineffective and harmful counseling outcomes that ensued from such practices. These multicultural
researchers also supported proposals for increasing the use of preventive, outreach, educational,
client, and system advocacy services as well as macro-system change strategies to increase
counselors’ effectiveness when working within a culturally diverse society.
The critical analysis and recommendations made by multicultural advocates led to the
creation of numerous multicultural counseling competencies that all counselors were encouraged to
acquire to work more effectively and ethically with culturally diverse clients (Ivey et al., 2007).
These competencies called for new forms of individual counseling as well as the implementation of
the kinds of advocacy, educational, preventive, and environmental change services that are key
components of the community counseling model (Sue & Sue, 2007).
THE 1980 S AND 1990 S
According to Aubrey (1986), the public that counselors faced in the 1980s was largely
characterized by “apathy, rootlessness, fear and despair” (p. 26). The tumultuous times of the
preceding two decades contributed to these psychological reactions as millions of people
continued to face
steady challenges related to changes in family structures, an everincreasing divorce rate,

two futile wars, an increase in the possibility of nuclear annihilation, drug abuse on an
unprecedented scale, a rise in street crime, excessive political transgressions, erosions
in our economic system coupled with high unemployment, the spectrum of high
technology forcing people out of work or into lower-paying jobs, an
increase in school dropouts for the first time in two decades, and new forms of media
that bring instantaneous change to one’s attention around the clock during the 1980s.
(Aubrey, 1986, p. 26)
The apathy, rootlessness, fear, and despair exhibited by many people in the general public
proved to be fertile terrain for an increasingly conservative mood in our society. The rising
conservative zeitgeist was manifested in many ways including the election of Ronald Reagan as
president of the United States in 1980 and 1984 as well as popular support for a steady flow of
conservative governmental policies and legislative actions. This broad-based conservative
sentiment served as a balm that soothed many people’s frustration and fatigue with the
transformative changes that occurred during the 1960s and 1970s.
Many counselors found solace from the growing sense of apathy, rootlessness, fear, and
despair that plagued much of the nation in the 1980s by embracing a myopic professional identity
in their work. As a result, many counselor educators and practitioners based their professional
efforts on intrapsychicfocused, rehabilitative counseling approaches without directing much time
and energy in supporting or implementing ecological, habilitative, and culturally responsive
practices. In short, it seemed as though these counseling professionals found refuge from the
controversies and revolutionary spirit of the 1960s and 1970s by embracing helping strategies that
maintained the existing status quo (Sue & Sue, 2007).
The Continued Professionalization of Counseling
Reaksi konservatif ini disertai dengan berbagai upaya yang dimaksudkan untuk meningkatkan
profesionalisasi konseling selama tahun 1980-an. Di antara upaya tersebut termasuk pelaksanaan
sejumlah proyek pengembangan organisasi dan advokasi profesional yang dirancang untuk (a)
membakukan program pelatihan konseling, (b) menciptakan mekanisme sertifikasi konselor nasional,
dan (c) melobi dukungan untuk undang-undang lisensi konselor baru di badan legislatif negara
bagian di seluruh negeri. Gladding (2009) merangkum pencapaian ini sebagai berikut:
Pergerakan menuju pelatihan dan sertifikasi standar adalah salah satu yang dimulai
pada awal dekade dan tumbuh lebih kuat setiap tahun. Pada tahun 1981, Dewan
Akreditasi Konseling dan Program Pendidikan Terkait (CACREP) dibentuk sebagai
organisasi afiliasi APGA (The American Personnel and Guidance Association
[sekarang disebut American Counseling Association]). Ini menyempurnakan standar
yang pertama kali diusulkan oleh ACES (Asosiasi Pendidik dan Pengawas Konselor)
pada akhir 1970-an dan awalnya mengakreditasi empat program dan mengakui
program lain yang telah diakreditasi oleh asosiasi konselor negara bagian California
dan ACES (Steinhauser & Bradley, 1983). Pada tahun 1987, CACREP mencapai
keanggotaan di Council of Postsecondary Accreditation (COPA),
44 CHAPTER 2
1985, p. 399). CACREP standardized counselor education programs for master’s and
doctoral programs in the areas of school, community, mental health, and marriage and
family counseling as well as for personnel services for college students.
Melengkapi upaya CACREP, Dewan Nasional untuk Konselor Bersertifikat (NBCC), yang dibentuk pada
tahun 1982, mulai mensertifikasi konselor di tingkat nasional. Ini mengembangkan tes standarisasi dan
mendefinisikan delapan bidang subjek utama di mana konselor harus memiliki pengetahuan: (a) pertumbuhan
dan perkembangan manusia, (b) dasar sosial dan budaya, (c) membantu hubungan, (d) kelompok, (e) gaya
hidup dan pengembangan karir, (f) penilaian, (g) penelitian dan evaluasi, dan (h) orientasi profesional. Untuk
menjadi Konselor Bersertifikat Nasional (NCC), peserta ujian harus lulus tes standar dan memenuhi kualifikasi
referensi pengalaman dan karakter. Pada akhir 1980-an, ada sekitar 17.000 profesional NCC di Amerika Serikat.
Terakhir, bekerja sama dengan CACREP, National Academy of Certified Clinical Mental Health Counselors
(NACMHC), afiliasi dari AMHCA (American Mental Health Counselors Association), terus menetapkan standar
pelatihan dan mensertifikasi konselor dalam konseling kesehatan mental, sebuah proses yang telah dimulai pada
akhir 1970-an (Seiler , Brooks, & Beck, 1987; Wilmarth, 1985). Itu juga menarik ribuan profesional baru ke dalam
konseling dan meningkatkan kredensial mereka yang sudah ada di lapangan. (Gladding, 2009, hlm. 18–19) Itu
juga menarik ribuan profesional baru ke dalam konseling dan meningkatkan kredensial mereka yang sudah ada
di lapangan. (Gladding, 2009, hlm. 18–19) Itu juga menarik ribuan profesional baru ke dalam konseling dan
meningkatkan kredensial mereka yang sudah ada di lapangan. (Gladding, 2009, hlm. 18–19)
Mengakui Kontradiksi Profesional
Upaya untuk memprofesionalkan konseling di atas berdampak positif dan negatif terhadap
evolusi model konseling komunitas. Pada catatan positif, pencapaian CACREP di atas
menghasilkan legitimasi konsep konseling komunitas pada umumnya dan program pelatihan
profesional yang berfokus pada bidang khusus ini meningkat.
Pada catatan negatif, perspektif konservatif yang tercermin dalam beberapa upaya advokasi
profesional tahun 1980-an menghasilkan pandangan yang lebih sempit tentang nilai konseling komunitas
daripada yang sebelumnya dimanifestasikan oleh sekutu dari perspektif membantu ini. Aubrey (1986)
menunjukkan hal itu
Dari perspektif 1980-an, apa yang tampaknya merupakan lompatan evolusioner besar
tampaknya masih belum lengkap. Konselor telah belajar untuk merasa nyaman berurusan
dengan kelompok maupun individu. Mereka juga menganggap pelatihan sebagai sekutu
alami konseling. Mereka telah berkelana ke pengaturan baru dan berurusan dengan
audiens baru. Terlepas dari peningkatan jumlah dan fokus intervensi ini, perspektif dasar
konselor tidak berubah sejauh yang diharapkan. Konselor masih cenderung mengabaikan
dampak faktor lingkungan pada fungsi individu, tidak mempercayai kemanjuran intervensi
pencegahan, dan mempersempit ruang lingkup perhatian mereka pada individu.
jiwa. Jika ada, pengamat yang cermat dapat mulai melihat kembalinya tren dari "memberikan
keterampilan" dan menuju perlindungan profesional, jauh dari pendekatan pendidikan dan
menuju konsep terapi tradisional vis-à-vis model medis. Karena masa ekonomi yang sulit
mengancam kelangsungan hidup mereka, para konselor seperti banyak profesional kesehatan
mental lainnya, tampaknya menggunakan metode yang tampaknya aman dan familiar. (hlm.
26–27)
Bangkitnya Gerakan Kompetensi Konseling Multikultural
The safe and familiar methods Aubrey (1986) referred to largely involved the continued overuse of
individual-intrapsychic counseling theories that were based on culturally biased assumptions about
mental health and human development. Despite the conservative backlash at this time,
multicultural counseling advocates remained united in expressing concern about this situation.
They did so by noting how the continued overuse of culturally biased counseling interventions
resulted in ineffective and even harmful outcomes when used in multicultural settings.
These expressed concerns frequently resulted in antagonistic and hostile resistance by

conservative counselor educators and practitioners. The negative reactions to the growing
multicultural movement during the 1980s and 1990s suggested that many counseling professionals
were more interested in perpetuating individual counseling practices that were grounded in a host
of cultural biases than supporting the paradigm shift that was being promoted by multicultural
advocates as well as supporters of the community counseling model (D’Andrea et al., 2001).
Multicultural counseling advocates responded constructively to the reactionary antagonisms

that many counseling professionals manifested during the 1980s and 1990s. These responses
included efforts to develop more detailed professional competencies that counselors were urged to
acquire to work more effectively and ethically in a culturally diverse 21st-century society.
The culmination of these efforts resulted in the publication of a set of 31 multicultural

competencies that were developed and formally endorsed by the Association for Multicultural
Counseling and Development (AMCD) in 1992 (Sue, Arredondo, & McDavis, 1992). Three
additional multicultural competencies focusing on organizational development, advocacy, and
racial identity development issues emerged from a multicultural competency task force convened
by Division 17 The Society of Counseling Psychology in the American Psychological Association
in the mid-1990s (Sue et al., 1998). A copy of the 34 multicultural counseling competencies that
have been developed and formally endorsed by various counseling organizations are included in
Appendix A.
Setelah meninjau Lampiran A, Anda akan melihat bahwa beberapa kompetensi multikultural
melengkapi berbagai aspek model konseling komunitas. Ini termasuk kompetensi konseling
multikultural yang menggarisbawahi pentingnya memiliki konselor yang mahir dalam
melaksanakan advokasi, pendidikan,
46 BAB 2
pemberdayaan, dan layanan perubahan sistem dalam pekerjaan mereka. Kompetensi konseling
multikultural spesifik yang melengkapi model konseling komunitas dalam hal ini meliputi:
Kompetensi Multikultural # 27. Konselor yang kompeten secara budaya dapat melatih keterampilan
intervensi institusional atas nama klien mereka.
Kompetensi Multikultural # 31. Konselor yang kompeten secara budaya berusaha untuk menghilangkan bias,
prasangka, dan praktik diskriminatif. Mereka sadar akan konteks sosial politik klien saat melakukan evaluasi dan
memberikan intervensi. Mereka juga terus berupaya mengembangkan kepekaan yang lebih besar terhadap
masalah penindasan, seksisme, dan rasisme, terutama karena hal itu memengaruhi kehidupan klien mereka.
Kompetensi Multikultural # 32. Konselor yang kompeten secara budaya bertanggung jawab
dalam mendidik klien mereka untuk proses intervensi psikologis dengan berbicara tentang tujuan,
harapan, hak hukum, dan orientasi konselor di awal proses membantu.
Kompetensi Multikultural # 34. Konselor yang kompeten secara budaya dapat terlibat dalam peran
psikoedukasi dan intervensi sistem, selain peran klinis mereka. Meskipun konseling konvensional
dan peran klinis sangat berharga, peran lain seperti konsultan, advokat, penasihat, guru, dan
fasilitator praktik penyembuhan adat mungkin terbukti lebih sesuai secara budaya untuk banyak klien
yang beragam budaya yang dilayani oleh konselor.
Inisiatif Konseling Sekolah Baru pada 1990-an
Konselor sekolah profesional memprakarsai sejumlah proyek transformatif selama tahun

1990-an yang menolak tren rabun terkait dengan profesionalisasi bidang yang dijelaskan di
awal bab ini. Seperti gerakan kompetensi konseling multikultural, inisiatif konseling sekolah ini
berkontribusi pada evolusi model konseling komunitas dalam beberapa cara. Di antara inisiatif
ini adalah Transformational School Counseling Initiative (TSCI). Toporek dan rekan-rekannya
(2009) menjelaskan inisiatif ini sebagai berikut:
Tahun 1990-an membawa konsep baru tentang peran konselor sekolah. TSCI dari
Education Trust melibatkan pengembangan visi baru untuk konseling sekolah yang
intinya adalah advokasi (House & Martin, 1998; Martin & House, 1999).
As described by Martin and House (1999), the Education Trust model views school
counseling as “a profession that focuses on the relations and interactions between
students and their school environment with the expressed purpose of reducing the effect of
environmental and institutional barriers that impede student academic success” (p. 1). This
focus on systemic change and advocacy is central to the American
Model Nasional Asosiasi Konselor Sekolah (2003). Untuk mencapai tujuan ini, konselor
sekolah harus menjadi pembela yang tegas bagi semua siswa, dengan fokus terutama pada
anak-anak miskin dan minoritas yang jika tidak akan terus mengalami kesenjangan prestasi.
Pemikiran ulang tentang tujuan utama program konseling sekolah ini membawa serta
sekumpulan ide baru tentang lingkup pekerjaan konselor. Selain itu, model kemitraan antara
program pendidikan konselor dan distrik sekolah telah membawa banyak konselor baru ke
dalam profesi dengan kompetensi advokasi dalam perbendaharaannya. Ketika satu
spesialisasi atau pengaturan konseling bergerak ke arah inovasi, efek yang menyebar ke
area praktik lain dapat diharapkan. (hal.261)
The TSCI emphasizes the need for school counselors to expand their role and function
beyond providing one-to-one counseling for students’ experiencing problems and fulfilling
quasi-administrative responsibilities that occupy an inordinate amount of their time, energy, and
attention (House & Martin, 1998). Its emphasis on implementing advocacy services to foster
environmental changes in school settings to stimulate the healthy development of all students
builds on the precedent set by Jesse Davis, Frank Parsons, and supporters of the community
counseling model. In doing so, the TSCI counteracted the narrower views of the role and function
of professional counselors that resurfaced during the 1980s and 1990s.
Counselors for Social Justice (CSJ)
Sejumlah konselor bertemu beberapa kali selama tahun 1990-an untuk membahas secara informal keprihatinan
mereka tentang tren konservatif dalam profesi konseling. Orang-orang, yang menghadiri pertemuan, secara
khusus berbicara tentang perlunya menangkap kembali preseden bersejarah untuk peran dan layanan
profesional yang lebih luas dalam pekerjaan yang dilakukan konselor. Pertemuan-pertemuan ini berkontribusi
pada pengembangan profesi konseling dan model konseling komunitas yang sedang berlangsung dalam
beberapa cara yang dibahas secara singkat di bawah ini.
First, the meetings provided opportunities for counselors from across the country to come
together to discuss the present and future directions of the counseling profession. Such
discussions involved reminders of the history of the profession as a force that advocated for both
individual-intrapsychic and progressive environmental changes to foster healthy human
development.
Second, these meetings provided a chance for concerned counselors to analyze the
conservative social-political zeitgeist of our society in general and its impact on the counseling
profession in particular.
Ketiga, pertemuan tersebut pada akhirnya mengarahkan para peserta untuk membuat
komitmen untuk melaksanakan sejumlah inisiatif pengembangan organisasi formal. Inisiatif ini
ditujukan untuk menggerakkan profesi melampaui perspektif sempit yang diartikulasikan selama
tahun 1990-an. Para konselor yang terlibat dalam melaksanakan inisiatif organisasi yang muncul
dari pertemuan tersebut berharap dapat membangun warisan progresif profesi konseling serta
48 CHAPTER 2
contemporary multicultural counseling movement by developing a new organizational entity.
The initiatives described above ultimately resulted in the formation a new division in the
American Counseling Association (ACA) called Counselors for Social Justice (CSJ). Initially
organized as an ACA Interest Group in the late 1990s, CSJ was later accepted as a formal ACA
division in 2001.
Alasan utama untuk berpindah dari status luar menjadi resmi adalah bahwa, sebagai divisi
dari asosiasi konseling terbesar di dunia, CSJ akan berada dalam posisi yang baik untuk
(a) bertindak sebagai clearinghouse untuk penyebaran beasiswa mengenai dampak
penindasan. pada pembangunan manusia, (b) mengembangkan kolaborasi dengan entitas
lain, dan (c) memelihara jaringan dukungan yang terlihat dan dapat diakses untuk konselor
yang terlibat dalam kegiatan advokasi keadilan sosial. Adanya CSJ sebagai salah satu
divisi dari ACA berarti konselor akan selalu memiliki wadah untuk mengembangkan dan
menyebarkan informasi mutakhir tentang sistem makro yang mempengaruhi klien dan
mahasiswanya. CSJ berkomitmen untuk menyebarkan informasi, termasuk informasi terkait
Kompetensi Advokasi ACA, melalui kolaborasi dengan konselor di semua pengaturan dan
organisasi. Kehadiran entitas yang mengabdikan diri pada upaya tersebut memperkuat
pengakuan sentralitas advokasi keadilan sosial dalam pekerjaan konselor. (Toporek dkk.,
2009, p. 266)
Professional initiatives like the TSCI and CSJ provided an alternative view of counseling goals
and methods than those espoused by more conservative members of the profession during the
1980s and 1990s. This alternative perspective was not new but, rather, built on many of the historic
precedents described earlier in this chapter.
SUMMARY
In closing, this chapter describes the history of the counseling profession in general and the
antecedents of the community counseling model in particular. As a result of reading this chapter
you will better understand how the evolution of the community counseling model has been an
inherent part of the profession for more than a century.
Bab-bab berikut akan memperluas pengetahuan Anda tentang aspek-aspek khusus dari model
ini. Perhatian khusus diarahkan pada cara konselor dapat menerapkan layanan berbeda yang
menyusun model ini saat bekerja dengan populasi klien yang beragam. Kami berharap bahwa
pemahaman Anda yang meningkat tentang anteseden historis dan evolusi model konseling komunitas
akan lebih merangsang minat dan motivasi Anda untuk menggunakan model ini saat menangani
kebutuhan dan keadaan unik orang-orang yang akan bekerja dengan Anda di masa depan.
EXHIBIT 2.1 Competency-Building Activity
Developing New Awareness, Knowledge, and Skills
Instructions: This competency-building activity encourages you to reflect on and further develop
your professional competencies as they relate to the community counseling model. In doing so,
you are encouraged to direct your attention to three components of your current level of
professional competence. These components include issues related to your professional
awareness, knowledge, and skills as they relate to the community counseling model.
This competency-building activity will require about 20–30 minutes to complete and should
be done in a place where you can reflect on the following points without interruption. You will
need a pen and paper to write down how your awareness and knowledge of the community
counseling model has been impacted by reading this chapter and in describing one action
strategy you will implement in the near future that will further increase your competence in this
area.
Step #1: Take a few minutes to reflect on the information presented in Chapter 2. After
you have had a chance to think about the new information you have gained as a result of
reading this chapter, write down how your awareness of the counseling profession has
changed by learning about the history of the counseling professional and the evolution of the
community counseling model.
Step #2: Setelah Anda menyelesaikan Langkah # 1, luangkan waktu untuk menuliskan
bagaimana menurut Anda pekerjaan Anda sebagai konselor profesional mungkin terpengaruh
sebagai hasil dari pembelajaran tentang sejarah profesi konseling dan evolusi model konseling
komunitas di Bab 2.
Langkah # 3: Your awareness of the evolution of the community counseling model is likely
to have been expanded by the new knowledge you acquired about the specific events and
interventions that various persons have been involved in and used throughout the history of the
counseling profession. Take a few minutes to write down as specifically as you can how your
thinking about the role and function of the professional counselor has changed as a result of
reading Chapter 2. It is particularly important to describe the specific actions, skills, and
interventions that various people used in contributing to the history of the counseling profession
in general and the evolution of the community counseling model in particular when completing
Step #3.
Step #4: Setelah Anda meluangkan waktu untuk merenungkan beberapa kesadaran dan
pengetahuan baru yang Anda peroleh sebagai hasil membaca Bab 2, penting untuk beralih ke
komponen keterampilan kerangka kompetensi profesional. Dengan mengingat hal ini, luangkan
beberapa menit untuk memikirkan berbagai strategi intervensi yang mendasari model konseling
komunitas dan keterampilan khusus yang perlu digunakan saat memanfaatkan intervensi ini secara
efektif di masa depan. Kemudian, tulis satu strategi tindakan yang akan Anda lakukan
50 CHAPTER 2
take in the next 30 days that is intentionally designed to increase your competence in one of
the interventions that has evolved over time as a part of the community counseling model.
Among the actions that one can take in completing Step #4 include:
[a] Reviewing the multicultural counseling competencies that are presented

in Appendix A and deciding to take specific action to increase your competence level
on one of these competencies in the next 30 days; [b] Reviewing the ACA Advocacy
Competencies listed in Appendix B and
making a commitment to try out one of the specific advocacy competencies in your
work as a practitioner or as a student in your professional training program;
[c] Making a list of the specific preventive education programs and services
you might be interested in using in your work as a mental health professional and
doing an Internet search on one specific preventive intervention to find information as
to how other professionals implemented this sort of intervention among a client
population you are likely to work with in the future; and/or
[d] Taking time to make a telephone call, send an email message, or write
a letter to an elected official in your area to express your support for or position against
an issue that is of particular relevance for your community.
The suggestions listed above represent only a few examples of the many concrete actions
you can take to exercise different skills that are necessary to effectively implement the
community counseling model in your future professional practices.
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CHAPTER 3
Counseling in Context
D counseling
espite interventions
the importance remain an outreach,
of prevention, essential part
and of the community
advocacy, direct
counseling model. Counselors, by definition, do counsel, helping clients directly through
individual, family, or group counseling. Although the provision of direct, one-on-one services
should not be viewed as the only avenue toward promoting clients’ mental health, it should be
seen as a basic building block in the community counseling framework.
In order for direct counseling to complement the overall framework of the community perspective, it
would have to be characterized bymulticultural competence, a strengths-based approach, and a strong
focus on context. The discussion in this chapter will emphasize theoretical perspectives and counseling
strategies that adhere to these criteria. The RESPECTFUL approach (D’Andrea & Daniels, 1997, 2001)
lays the groundwork for an approach to assessment and counseling that is based on a broad and deep
appreciation for multiculturalism, diversity, and social context.
THE RESPECTFUL COUNSEL ING FRAMEWORK
The RESPECTFUL counseling framework (a) recognizes the multidimensional nature of human
development and (b) addresses the need for a comprehensive model of human diversity that has
practical utility for the work of mental health professionals (D’Andrea & Daniels, 1997, 2001).
Because the community counseling model addresses many concerns that have been raised by
multiculturalists over
54 CHAPTER 3
the past several years, it is important to clarify what we mean by cultural diversity in terms of its practical
application in direct services.
The RESPECTFUL model of assessment and counseling embraces a broad and inclusive
definition of the term cultural diversity. This comprehensive diversity framework consists of 10
factors. These factors were selected because they are noted to affect clients’ psychological
development and personal well-being in many important ways. It is important to realize, however,
that the components contained in this model do not represent an exhaustive listing of all the factors
that impact human development. Following are the specific factors to which the RESPECTFUL
framework directs attention:
R—religious/spiritual identity
E—economic class background
S—sexual identity
P—level of psychological maturity
E—ethnic/racial identity
C—chronological/developmental challenges
T—various forms of trauma and other threats to one’s sense of well-being F—family
background and history
U—unique physical characteristics
L—location of residence and language differences
The 10 factors that make up the RESPECTFUL counseling framework represent what we
consider to be important aspects of “cultural diversity.” Thus, although ethnic/racial considerations
are indeed addressed in the community counseling model that is presented in this book, many
other factors are viewed as representing vital “cultural” considerations that counselors need to
address when working with persons from diverse client populations.
In presenting this perspective, it is acknowledged that women constitute a cultural group that is
uniquely distinguishable from the way men are generally socialized in our society. The differences
that are typically manifested in the language usage, unique life situations, and challenges that poor,
middle-class, and upperclass persons routinely experience represent what we consider to be
additional cultural distinctions that markedly distinguish persons in these groups. Additional cultural
differences are noted between gay/lesbian/bisexual persons and heterosexual individuals, physically
challenged persons and people who are temporarily able, and individuals who develop within
different geographic/regional locations. The following description of the 10 components of the
RESPECTFUL counseling framework is provided to enhance understanding of the various factors
that are associated with our broad definition of cultural diversity.
Religious/Spiritual Identity
The first component of the RESPECTFUL counseling model focuses on the way that individuals
personally identify with established religions or hold beliefs
COUNSEL ING IN CONTEXT 55
about extraordinary experiences that go beyond the boundaries of the strictly objective,
empirically perceived world that marks Western, modern, psychological thought (D’Andrea,
2000; D’Andrea & Daniels, 2001). As used in the RESPECTFUL counseling framework, religion
and spirituality generally refer to a person’s belief in a reality that transcends physical nature and
provides individuals with an “extra-ordinary” meaning of life in general and of human experience
in particular (Kelly, 1995).
Because clients’ religious/spiritual identity may play an important role in the way they construct
meaning-of-life experiences, interpret personal difficulties they encounter in life, and cope with
stressful situations, it is important that counselors assess the degree to which this factor impacts a
client’s psychological development early in the counseling process. Beyond making such individual
assessments within the context of counseling, it is also apparent that individuals who exhibit
different religious/spiritual identities (e.g., those persons who adhere to Jewish or Muslim beliefs)
are often stereotyped, discriminated against, and oppressed by persons who identify with various
Christian groups in American society. Because this stereotyping, discrimination, and oppression
often result in unique stressors that have the potential to adversely impact the psychological
wellbeing of those persons who identify with these and other religious/spiritual groups, it is
important to use intervention strategies that are intentionally designed to promote ecological
changes that foster positive changes among larger numbers of people in our society. This includes
using preventive psycho educational interventions with school-aged youngsters that are aimed at
increasing a more respectful and accurate understanding of persons who come from diverse
religious groups and backgrounds, organizing community projects that involve persons from diverse
religious groups, and advocating for the development and implementation of laws and institutional
policies in schools, universities, workplaces, and communities that support the rights and dignity of
persons who manifest different religious/spiritual identities.
Besides thinking about the types of intervention strategies that are useful in promoting the
mental health of persons who manifest different religious/spiritual identities, it is equally important
for counselors to recognize that they are susceptible to developing negative attitudes and views
about persons whose religious/ spiritual identities are different from their own. For this reason, it is
vital that counselors take time to consider how their religious/spiritual identity and beliefs may
positively or negatively impact on the work they do with clients who embrace different perspectives
in these areas.
Economic Class Background
Numerous researchers have explained how a person’s attitudes, values, worldview, and behaviors
are all affected by one’s economic class standing and background. Recognizing the influence that
this aspect of clients’ multidimensionality has on their development, mental health practitioners
need to be attentive to the ways in which this factor contributes to individuals’ identified strengths
and expressed problems in direct counseling settings. However, because poverty
56 CHAPTER 3
clearly has an adverse physical and psychological effect on the lives of millions of persons in the
United States, it is important for counselors to use their advocacy skills to support various ecological
changes that are intentionally designed to eradicate the problems that poor people routinely
experience in their lives.
Ivey et al. (2002) also note that many counselors develop inaccurate and negative views and
prejudices about persons who come from economic class backgrounds that are different from
their own. For this reason, it is important that mental health professionals evaluate their own
class-based assumptions, biases, and stereotypes when working with individuals from diverse
economic class groups. It is particularly important for practitioners to examine closely how
economic factors impact the psychological health and personal well-being of poor clients and to
be mindful that traditional counseling theories were developed by middle-class individuals who did
not usually give these issues enough weight.
Sexual Identity
One of the most complex, though often understudied, aspects of an individual’s psychological
development involves the sexual identity development of persons from diverse groups and backgrounds
in our society. As used in the RESPECTFUL counseling model, the term sexual identity relates to a
person’s gender identity, gender roles, and sexual orientation. The term gender identity refers specifically
to an individual’s subjective sense of what it means to be either male or female. A person’s gender
identity is clearly affected by the different roles men and women are socialized to play within a given
cultural/ethnic context.
A person’s sexual identity is also influenced by one’s sexual orientation. There are a number of
ways to conceptualize this dimension of a person’s sexual identity. Generally, sexual orientation
includes such concepts as bisexuality, heterosexuality, and homosexuality. Bisexuality refers to
individuals who demonstrate a sexual interest in both males and females. Heterosexuality, in contrast,
relates to individuals whose sexual interest is directed toward persons of the opposite sex. A third way
of viewing this dimension of one’s sexual identity involves the concept of homosexuality, which is a
term that has been used to identify individuals whose sexual orientation involves persons of the same
sex. In light of the negative stereotypes that have historically been associated with the term homosexuality,
terms such as gay males, gays, and lesbians are considered more acceptable and respectful in
describing this dimension of a person’s sexual identity (D’Andrea & Daniels, 2001).
Ethical counseling practice necessitates respectful acknowledgment and acceptance of a

client’s unique sexual identity. However, given the intense negative views and reactions that many
people have toward feminist advocates and gay/lesbian/bisexual persons in our nation, counselors
must work beyond the confines of individual counseling settings if they are to promote the dignity
and healthy development of larger numbers of persons who exhibit diverse sexual identities. Such
efforts may include, but are not limited to, providing preventive education, outreach, consultation,
advocacy, and organizational development
services that are specifically designed to foster ecological changes that promote more respectful
treatment of persons who adhere to different sexual identities. Given the antifeminist and
heterosexist attitudes and beliefs that exist in our society, it behooves counselors to assess how
their own personal beliefs and biases about sexual identity may negatively impact the work they do
with persons who are different from themselves in this regard.
Psychological Maturity
Counselors often work with clients who share similar identities (e.g., religious/ spiritual, ethnic/racial,
and sexual identities) and demographic characteristics (e.g., age, gender, and economic class) but
who appear to be very different psychologically. In these situations, we might refer to one client as
being “more psychologically mature” than another client who is the same age, identifies with the
same ethnic/racial group, and shares a similar sexual and/or religious/spiritual identity as other
persons with whom one works. Some descriptors that are commonly used by mental health
professionals to describe “immature” clients include statements such as “He demonstrates limited
impulse control in social interactions” or “She has a low capacity for self-awareness.” Statements that
are commonly used to describe “more mature” clients include the following: “He is able to discuss his
problems with much insight,” “She is highly self-aware,” and “She has developed a much broader
range of interpersonal and perspective-taking skills than many of my other clients.”
Structural-developmental theories view psychological development as a process in which

individuals move from simple to more complex ways of thinking about themselves and their life
experiences. This movement can be traced along a set of invariant, hierarchical stages that reflect
qualitatively different ways of thinking, feeling, and acting in the world (Sprinthall, Peace, &
Kennington,
2001). From the perspective of the community counseling framework that is presented in this
book, we suggest that persons operating from these psychological stages reflect what might be
considered to be uniquely different psychocultural mind-sets that represent qualitatively different
attitudes, beliefs, and views of themselves and the world. When assessing clients’ levels of
psychological maturity, counselors are better positioned to design intervention strategies that are
more respectfully tailored to meet their unique psychological strengths and needs. It is also
important that mental health professionals take time to reflect on their own development, as the
helping process can easily be undermined when practitioners are matched with persons who are
functioning at a higher level of psychological maturity than they are themselves.
Ethnic/Racial Identity
Tremendous psychological differences exist among persons who come from the same
ethnic/racial groups. This sort of psychological variation is commonly referred to as
“within-group” differences. Given the within-group variation
58 CHAPTER 3
that is notably manifested among persons from the same ethnic/racial groups, it is important that
counselors develop the knowledge and skills necessary to assess accurately these important
differences and respond to them in effective and respectful ways in their work settings. It is also
very important that mental health practitioners understand how their own ethnic/racial experiences
have affected their development, the way they construct meaning of the world, and the types of
biases they have acquired toward others in the process.
Recent findings from the U.S. Census underscore the transformational changes that are
occurring in the ethnic/racial makeup of the United States. These findings indicate that the United
States is rapidly being transformed into a country in which most of its occupants will come from
nonwhite, non-western European, non-English speaking backgrounds (D’Andrea & Heckman,
2008).
Mental health care practitioners are increasingly realizing that it is not possible to work
effectively or ethically within the context of a pluralistic society without acquiring an awareness of
the broad range of issues related to human diversity and racial/ethnic group identity development.
Because many of the stressors that persons from different ethnic/racial groups routinely
experience emerge from various forms of stereotyping, discrimination, and racism that are
perpetuated in various forms in our contemporary society, counselors are increasingly expected to
work outside their offices. They are encouraged to do so to promote ecological changes that are
designed to eradicate these environmentally based social toxins. Given the rapid ethnic/racial
transformation that is occurring in the United States, it is expected that mental health professionals
will continue to be called on to promote both individual and contextual-environmental changes that
foster a greater level of respect for the rights and dignity of persons who come from ethnic/racial
groups that have historically been marginalized.
Chronological/Developmental Challenges
Age-related developmental changes represent what are referred to as “chronological challenges”

that individuals face at different points across the life span. Mental health practitioners are familiar
with many of these developmental challenges, because they represent characteristics commonly
associated with childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. The specific changes individuals
predictably develop from infancy through adulthood include physical growth (e.g., bodily changes
and the sequencing of motor skills development), the emergence of different cognitive
competencies (e.g., the development of perceptual, language, learning, memory, and other types
of thinking skills), and the manifestation of a variety of psychological skills (e.g., the ability to
manage one’s emotions and the demonstration of more effective interpersonal competencies) that
occur over time.
Human development researchers have greatly helped counselors refine their thinking
regarding the unique challenges individuals face at different points across the life span. Practically
speaking, this knowledge enables practitioners to work more effectively with persons who face
difficult chronological challenges in their lives by implementing age-appropriate intervention
strategies in the
counseling setting. This also allows practitioners to be mindful of the challenges they are likely to
encounter when significant chronological differences exist between themselves and their clients.
Elaborating on this point further, D’Andrea and Daniels (1997) suggest that many young
practitioners are likely to encounter major challenges in terms of gaining a high degree of trust,
respect, and professional validation when working with some clients who may be much older than
they are.
Much progress has been made in terms of gaining a greater understanding of the types of
counseling interventions that are thought to be appropriate when working with clients of different ages
in individual and small-group counseling settings. Despite the advanced understanding that has
occurred in this area, it is clear that many youngsters and older adults are subjected to various types
of environmental stressors (e.g., child abuse and neglect, physical assaults, and lack of financial
resources to secure basic needs among many older adults) that compromise the mental health and
personal well-being of millions of children, adolescents, and elderly persons in our society. Because
individual, remedial counseling services represent inadequate responses to the types of
environmental barriers that many youngsters and older adults encounter in their lives, other
intervention strategies are needed to positively impact the lives of large numbers of persons who are
subjected to various forms of age-related, environmentally based conditions that are unfair, unjust,
and oppressive.
The community counseling model describes numerous services and programs that are
intentionally designed to promote positive ecological changes that are specifically aimed at
fostering the overall health, well-being, and dignity of persons of all ages and particularly those
children, adolescents, and older persons who are vulnerable to a host of mental health problems as
a result of being subjected to the types of environmental stressors they face in their lives.
Trauma and Other Threats to One’s Well-Being
Trauma and threats to one’s well-being are included in the RESPECTFUL counseling model to
emphasize the complex ways in which stressful situations put people at risk of psychological danger
and harm. Such harm typically occurs when the stressors that individuals experience in their lives
exceed their ability to cope with them in constructive ways. One’s personal resources (coping skills,
selfesteem, social support, and an individual’s sense of personal power) may be overtaxed when one
is subjected to ongoing environmental stressors. Individuals who experience stressors for extended
periods of time are vulnerable to future mental health problems. Such problems are often grounded
in the different ways people are marginalized as a result of being a part of a devalued group in our
society.
Counselors are frequently called on to work with persons in various vulnerable groups,
including poor, homeless, and unemployed people; adults and children in families undergoing
divorce; pregnant teenagers; individuals with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) or acquired
immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS); persons with cancer; and individuals who are victimized by
various forms of ageism, racism, sexism, and cultural oppression.
60 CHAPTER 3
Because culturally competent mental health practitioners are aware of the ways environmental
stressors threaten personal well-being, they implement intervention strategies that can help
ameliorate these problems. For instance, counselors who work with persons from historically
marginalized ethnic/racial groups need to be particularly aware of the ways in which
intergenerational trauma is sustained over time. It is also important for practitioners to consider how
various life stressors and traumatic events may have had a lasting impact on their own
psychological development.
Family Background and History
The rapid cultural diversification of the United States includes an increasing number of families that
are very different from the traditional notion of “family” that many counselors have historically used
as a standard for determining “normal family life” and “healthy family functioning.” The different
types of families (e.g., single-parent families, blended families, extended families, and families
headed by gay and lesbian parents) that mental health practitioners increasingly encounter in their
work challenge them to reassess the traditionally held concept of the nuclear family that has been
typically used as a standard to which all other types of families have been compared.
In the 21st century, counselors are pressed to (a) understand the unique strengths that clients
derive from these diverse family systems and (b) implement interventions that are intentionally
designed to foster the healthy development of these familial units. In addition to learning about the
personal strengths that individuals derive from these diverse family systems, mental health
practitioners are encouraged to assess their own assumptions and biases about family life. If left
unexamined, these biases and assumptions may adversely impact the helping process that involves
clients who come from diverse family systems.
Unique Physical Characteristics
The RESPECTFUL counseling framework emphasizes the importance of being sensitive to the
ways in which our society’s idealized images of physical beauty negatively impact the
psychological development of many individuals whose physical characteristics may not fit the
narrow view of beauty fostered by our dominant culture. When working with clients whose physical
characteristics may be a source of personal stress and dissatisfaction, it is important for
counselors to consider how the myth of idealized physical beauty may lead many persons to
internalize negative views and stereotypes about themselves. It is also important for mental health
practitioners to consider how this myth may lead them to make inaccurate assessments and
misinterpretations of our clients’ personal strengths.
When counselors work with women and men whose psychological development is
negatively affected by some aspect of their unique physical nature, practitioners need to be able
to assist them in understanding the ways in which gender socialization contributes to irrational
thinking about their own sense of
self-worth. Counselors need to be particularly sensitive to and knowledgeable about issues

related to physical disabilities when working with persons who experience various types of
physical challenges in their lives. This includes being knowledgeable of the environmental barriers
that compromise physically challenged persons’ ability to realize their personal potential and
sense of wellbeing. To address all these considerations, counseling practitioners need to operate
from a comprehensive helping model, such as the community counseling framework that is
presented in this book.
Location of Residence and Language Differences
The location of one’s residence refers to the geographic region and setting where one resides.
D’Andrea and Daniels (2001) identify five major geographic areas in the United States: the
northeastern, southeastern, midwestern, southwestern, and northwestern regions. These
geographic areas are distinguished by the types of persons who reside there and differ in terms of
climate patterns, geological terrain, and to some degree the types of occupations and industry
available to workers who reside in these locations.
When mental health practitioners work with persons from geographic regions that are different
from their own (including rural, urban, and suburban settings), it is important to reflect on the
possible stereotypes and biases they may have developed about such persons and locations. This
is particularly important when working with persons who use a different dialect or language in
interpersonal interactions. As is the case with the other components of the RESPECTFUL
counseling model, this sort of self-assessment is very important because unexamined biases about
clients from different locations who use varied linguistic styles may unconsciously lead to
unproductive and even negative outcomes in the counseling process.
Relevance of the RESPECTFUL Framework
There are three aspects of the RESPECTFUL counseling model that are particularly relevant for
the community counseling framework. First, it repeatedly emphasizes the need for counselors to
address the multidimensional nature of human development in their work. As was mentioned
earlier, although the 10 factors that make up the RESPECTFUL counseling model do not
represent an exhaustive listing of all the factors that underlie the diversity that counselors
commonly face when working with clients, they do constitute important considerations that
practitioners are encouraged to keep in mind when working with persons from diverse groups and
backgrounds.
Second, this model underscores the need for counselors to use multiple helping approaches to
promote the psychological health and personal well-being of large numbers of persons from diverse
client populations. Although counselors will always be expected to provide individual counseling
services to persons who are having difficulty coping with various stressors in their lives, research
findings suggest that individual, remedial counseling is in and of itself insufficient to meet
62 CHAPTER 3
the rising mental health needs of persons in the United States. To this end, it is argued that
counselors will need to foster positive changes in clients’ environments by taking an ecological
approach in their work (Neville & Mobley, 2001). Failing to do so, professional counselors are likely to
be increasingly viewed in irrelevant and obsolete terms by many individuals whose personal
well-being is undermined by environmental toxins that are embedded in many of our institutions,
organizations, and communities (Locke et al., 2001).
Third, the RESPECTFUL framework repeatedly emphasizes the need for counselors to assess
themselves on each of the factors that make up this model. This is important because, like anyone,
counselors are vulnerable to developing inaccurate beliefs, stereotypes, and biases about persons
who are characterized by the various components of the RESPECTFUL model as a result of their
own life experiences. When left unexamined, these beliefs, stereotypes, and biases can
unintentionally and adversely affect the work that counselors do with persons who come from
diverse client populations. Thus, the adage, “Counselor, know thyself,” is a central consideration
that underlies the theory of counseling that is presented in this book. For this reason, the first
competency-building activity is designed to assist you in reflecting on your own development and
the multiple factors that have impacted your growth as a person.
The RESPECTFUL Counseling Model and Counselor
Self-Assessment
We are all “multidimensional” beings who have been and continue to be affected by the various
factors listed in the RESPECTFUL counseling model. All these factors influence the way we
construct meaning of ourselves, the people in our lives, and the world in which we live. Inevitably,
all of us make inaccurate assumptions and develop biases about others as a result of the way
these factors influence our own development. With this in mind, it is very important that counselors
take time to reflect on the assumptions and biases that they have developed regarding clients who
are different from them. In some cases, the assumptions and biases we have developed may be
helpful in terms of working with clients from diverse groups and backgrounds. On the other hand,
it is possible that some of the assumptions and biases we have acquired may result in ineffective
and even harmful outcomes when they are interjected into the work that counselors do. (See
Exhibit 3.1.)
ASSESSMENT
Because the community counseling framework operates from an empowerment perspective,

assessment is guided by the premise that clients are responsible for running their own lives.
Counselors can help identify problem areas and suggest possible solutions. To be most effective,
however, the assessment process must elicit the client’s active participation. By participating in
assessment, clients can
Using the RESPECTFUL Model for Counselor

Self-Assessment
Now that you have read about the RESPECTFUL counseling model, use this framework to
evaluate yourself on each of the dimensions. After reflecting on the 10 components that make
up the RESPECTFUL counseling framework, take a few minutes to write a short description of
how your own development has been impacted by the different factors that are listed on this
model (see the following list of factors). Be sure to identify as many personal strengths and
biases as you have acquired from being impacted by the 10 components in this framework.
Then briefly write a statement that describes the types of persons whom you are likely to be
most effective working with given your own development. Finally, briefly describe the types of
clients whom you are likely to be less effective with given the various assumptions and biases
you have developed during your life.
R—religious/spiritual identity
E—economic class background
S—sexual identity
P—level of psychological maturity
E—ethnic/racial identity
C—chronological/developmental challenges
T—various forms of trauma and other threats to one’s sense of well-being F—family
background and history
U—unique physical characteristics
L—location of residence and language differences
both learn about themselves and begin to increase their sense of control over their actions.
These benefits can occur only through a strengths-based, contextual, and culturally sensitive
assessment process that is easily understood by clients. Unlike client evaluation approaches
that are strictly diagnostic, the purpose of using this kind of assessment process is not just to
place clients in appropriate treatment. Rather, the primary aim of such evaluation is to help
clients devise a plan by which they can transcend problematic situations and improve the quality
of their lives. From this perspective, the question to be answered through assessment is not
“What is wrong with this person?” but “What is keeping this person from effectively managing
his or her life right now?” and “How can these barriers be overcome?”
The Collaborative Approach to Assessment
Regardless of what specific issues might bring people to a counselor’s office, most clients have in
common the need to increase their sense of control over events
64 CHAPTER 3
going on in their lives. What happens when the assessment process is taken out of a client’s hands to
be performed by “experts”? The client’s presenting problems might be identified, but his or her sense of
control and personal responsibility will ultimately be damaged. Assessment in the community
counseling context, then, is a mutual effort in which both counselors and clients strive to identify
barriers that can be overcome. Through this collaborative process, clients can make better use of their
personal resources and increase their sense of empowerment.
In the past, the clients who could benefit most from this respectful and collaborative approach
were sometimes the ones least likely to receive it. Even now, people who are part of stigmatized
groups or who are seen as particularly problematic are often distrusted, even by helping
professionals, and assumed to lack the ability to participate actively in decisions about their own lives.
In fact, however, the collaborative assessment process is demonstrably effective with these clients.
Consider, for example, the use of the Collaborative Assessment and Management of
Suicidality (CAMS) process with clients at risk for suicide (Jobes & Shneidman, 2006).
Within CAMS there is a basic belief that suicidal thoughts and behaviors represent a
fundamental effort to cope or problem-solve in pursuit of meeting legitimate needs (e.g.,
needs for control, power, communication of pain, or an end to suffering). From this
perspective, a CAMS counselor approaches suicidality in an empathic, matter-of-fact, and
non-judgmental fashion. Ironically, the counselor’s capacity to understand and appreciate
the viability and attraction of suicide as a means of coping provides the essential
ingredient for forming a strong therapeutic alliance where more adaptive methods of
coping can be evaluated, explored, and tested. Philosophically speaking, CAMS
emphasizes an intentional move away from the directive “counselor as expert” approach
that can lead to adversarial power struggles about hospitalization and the routine and
unfortunate use of coercive “safety contracts.” (Jobes, Moore, & O’Connor, 2007)
Clients at risk for suicide have clearly been among the people least likely to be trusted with
goal setting and decision making; yet, they can participate actively in a collaborative assessment
and problem-solving process.
Similarly, clients dealing with issues related to addictions have in the past been subjected to
coercive treatment based on the belief that they could not be trusted to make decisions about
their lives. Now, however, the research base showing the effectiveness of Motivational
Interviewing (MI) for clients with addictions is too broad and deep to ignore (Hettema, Steele, &
Miller, 2005; Rubak, Sanback, Lauritzen, & Christensen, 2005). A central purpose of MI is to help
individuals resolve the ambivalence they feel when considering the possibility of change.
Resolving ambivalence can be a key to change, and, indeed, once ambivalence has been
resolved, little else may be required for change to occur. However, attempts to force
resolution in a particular direction
(as by direct persuasion or by increasing punishment for inaction) can lead to a

paradoxical response, even strengthening the very behavior they were intended to
diminish. (Miller & Rollnick, 2002)
An assessment process that emphasizes diagnosis and attempts to move clients toward
accepting a label for their problem often leads to defensiveness rather than movement toward
change. In contrast, the spirit of MI is “ collaborative, evocative, and honoring of patient autonomy ”
(Rollnick, Miller, & Butler, 2008, p. 6).
Strengths-Based Assessment
Strengths-based and collaborative approaches to assessment are closely intertwined. Morgan

(2004), in his discussion of strengths-based practice, emphasizes that these practices are based on
building trusting relationships, empowering people to take the lead in decisions about their care,
working collaboratively, and tapping into personal resources of motivation.
Strengths-based assessment is “the measurement of those emotional and behavioral skills,

competencies, and characteristics that create a sense of personal accomplishment; contribute to
satisfying relationships with family members, peers, and adults; enhance one’s ability to deal with
adversity and stress; and promote one’s personal, social, and academic development” (Epstein &
Sharma,
1998, p. 3).
In applying strengths-based assessment to children and their families, Epstein and Rudolph
(2008) state that this approach is founded on four basic assumptions:
Every child, regardless of his or her personal and family situation, has strengths that
are unique to the individual.
Children are influenced and motivated by the way significant people in their lives
respond to them.
Rather than viewing a child who does not demonstrate a strength as deficient, it is
assumed the child has not had the opportunities that are essential to learning,
developing, and mastering the skill.
When treatment and service planning are based on strengths rather than deficits and
pathologies, children and families are more likely to become involved in the therapeutic
process and to use their strengths and resources (p. 5).
In support of strengths-based assessment, especially with children and youth, several

instruments have been developed. The Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale (BERS) ( Epstein &
Sharma, 1998) measures the domains of childhood strengths: interpersonal strength, family
involvement, intrapersonal strength, and school functioning. The Social Emotional Assets and
Resiliency Scales (SEARS) is “a strength-based assessment system, aimed at assessing positive
social-emotional attributes of children and adolescents, including social and emotional knowledge and
competence, peer acceptance and relationships, resilience in the face of
66 CHAPTER 3
difficulties, coping skills, problem-solving abilities, empathy, global self-concept, and other positive
traits” (Cohn, Merrell, Felver-Grant, Tom, & Endrulat, 2009, February 7, p. 1). The SEARS is
designed for children and adolescents from the ages of five to eighteen. The Youth Competency
Assessment (YCA) was designed by the Northwest Professional Consortium, Inc. (2004) with a focus
on youth in the juvenile justice systems, where strengths-based approaches can be especially
important. Whether they are young people or adults, clients who have traditionally been the
recipients of deficit-based assessment are the ones who are most likely to benefit from a
strengths-based approach.
Balancing Demands and Resources
Clients generally have no trouble understanding that anyone could, because of genetic or other
physiological factors, be vulnerable to specific stress-related problems or disorders. This
susceptibility might never be triggered, however, if the individual were not subjected to severe and
prolonged levels of stress.
Even under stress, people protect themselves from dysfunction by mobilizing social support,
using effective coping skills, and maintaining their self-esteem, all of which stimulate increased feelings
of personal power. Counselors and clients can use the assessment process to focus both on demands
and resources, stressors and strengths. Seeing their situations in this way helps clients to understand
that they can take steps to reduce stress and/or to strengthen their resources and personal power.
They can then more responsibly plan action strategies to address the issues that have come to light
during the assessment.
Purely personal change, without attention to context, may be impossible, impractical, or

damaging to the individual’s integrity. Counselors who use the community counseling
framework, therefore, should help clients do the following:
Identify and own their strengths and resources.

Make plans for increasing these resources if necessary. Identify and draw
on sources of help in the environment.
Make plans for reducing stressful elements in the environment, whether by avoiding them or
directly confronting and changing them.
The counselor and the client must jointly identify possible sources of support. No one can
tell another person what his or her support system should be. Relationships are supportive and
helpful only if people experience them that way. Thus, no objective standard can help one
distinguish between a “good” environment and a “bad” one. Rather, the interaction between
individuals and their surroundings determines this distinction; therefore, only the people involved
can know when their own needs are being met in ways that promote positive and constructive
psychological outcomes.
The attention given to the environment distinguishes the community counseling model from
other traditional counseling approaches. Most counselors have, in the past, assumed that the
attitudes, feelings, or behavior of the client
should be the objects of change. Counselors are becoming more aware, however, that the
obstacles to clients’ meeting their goals may lie in the environment rather than in the clients
themselves. Intervention in the environment is therefore often imperative if an individual’s
problems are to be truly resolved.
At the same time, even when environmental factors have clearly contributed to the
development of a problem, as when economic changes cause an individual’s unemployment, one
must separate responsibility for the etiology of the problem from responsibility for the resolution of
the problem. Otherwise, as Romano and Hage (2000) note, clients may suffer feelings of passivity,
helplessness, and immobilization if they are portrayed as victims of economic and social
circumstances beyond their control.
Personal and environmental factors are closely interrelated. To choose sides, that is, to insist
that most client problems arise either within the individual or from a destructive environment, is
unrealistic and counterproductive. An assessment process that addresses both clients and context
can lay the groundwork for practical and effective action plans.
Client Conceptualization
Although it is readily apparent that strengths-based and contextual approaches to assessment and
counseling are valuable, it is not always easy for counselors to put aside a natural inclination to
focus on deficits. Counselors are more likely to conceptualize their clients’ situations from a positive
and empowering perspective when they make purposeful efforts in that direction. The client
conceptualization (what is often called a case conceptualization) reflects the way the counselor
perceives the client, which in turn affects the helping strategies the counselor chooses. It takes
structure to move a counselor in a direction that is in harmony with the community counseling model.
Counselors should consider structuring their conceptualizations by asking themselves the following
questions about each of their clients:
1. How can this client’s issues or problems be redefined in an empowering way? What strengths
and competencies can be identified and encouraged?
2. How has this client been affected by oppression, injustice, or marginalization?
3. What counseling strategies can be used to overcome oppression-based barriers to healthy

functioning?
4. What positive environmental resources might be available to this individual?
Comparable questions can be asked not just about individual clients but also about families.
1. How can this family’s concerns be redefined in an empowering way? What strengths and
competencies can be identified in individual family members and in the family as a whole?
2. How has this family or its members been affected by oppression, injustice, or marginalization?
68 CHAPTER 3

functioning?
4. What positive environmental resources might be available to this family?
Carlson, Sperry, & Lewis (2005) make the following case for a family counselor’s use of this
type of conceptualization:
The value of these questions lies in the necessity of helping family members and the family
as a whole recognize their potential for strength. Oppression is insidious because external
discrimination is combined with socialization processes that bring about internalized
oppression; victims learn to accept the negative views of themselves that have been
inculcated by the mainstream society.… The therapist’s ability to view families as having
adaptive strengths … makes the first steps toward empowerment possible. (p. 137)
Consider, as an example, a family that was introduced in Chapter 1 of this book.
A family counselor has been working with a white middle-class family through the comingout process of their
only child, a fourteen-year-old son. The parents, George and Carla Sparks, are glad their son trusted them
enough to talk with them about his sexual orientation and they want to be supportive. At the same time, they feel
very cautious about the family’s privacy and wish secrecy might be possible in their small, conservative town.
Now their son, Chris, is having a problem with bullying at his middle school. The teachers and administrators
have not been helpful and have suggested that Chris might do well to modify his own behaviors in the direction
of masculinity. At this point, the parents’ feelings have begun to change from nervous protectiveness to helpless
anger.
Each member of this family is in pain, and it would be easy to fall into the trap of concentrating
the counseling process solely on identifying and alleviating the pain. The counselor’s work can be
enhanced, however, if he or she makes a conscious effort to identify strengths and to focus on the
larger systems affecting the nuclear family.
The Sparks family is clearly demonstrating that they have important strengths, including intense
loyalty to one another, mutual supportiveness, and courage in facing a very difficult social
environment. These strengths are clearly needed because of the fact that they are being forced to
take a stand against a virulent form of oppression: heterosexism. Chris is being marginalized within
the school, not just by other students but by educators as well. The family system is, in effect,
standing up to an assault.
This conceptualization of the situation carries implications regarding appropriate counseling

strategies. In working with this family, the counselor should make sure to emphasize the strengths
that the family has shown, helping to buoy up their courage. Oppression (in this case,
heterosexism) is a powerful stressor that often leads individuals to look within themselves for the
source of problems that are, in reality, externally based.
Oftentimes these questions lead queer clients/students to negatively internalize heterosexist

values, beliefs, and ideals. This is a process referred to as internalized heterosexism, and
addressing internalized heterosexism is an empowering form of client/student advocacy.
(Singh,
2010, p. 32)
The “helpless anger” that George and Carla Sparks are feeling is understandable, but might
interfere with their ability to achieve their primary goal: helping their son. Ideally, the counselor can
help the family members recognize that their strengths have the potential to make them a powerful
force. If their feelings of frustration can be channeled toward action, the quality of family life can be
enhanced.
It would of course be inappropriate for the counselor to press the family toward action that
they might find too risky for their security and well-being within the community. The best step
here is to follow up on the fourth question of the client conceptualization format: What positive
environmental resources might be available to this family? Their caution in reaching out to a
community characterized by conservatism might be warranted, but they should not assume that
no support at all is available. Part of the process of counseling within the community counseling
framework is to help clients assess their environments and seek positive sources of support.
Added to the potential for support from people they know are organizations that have specific
missions of advocacy. For example, Parents, Families, and Friends of Lesbians and Gays
(PFLAG) can provide valuable help and support to George and Carla. Even if there is no
PFLAG group in their own community, they can make use of the wealth of materials provided by
the national organization. Similarly, an organization like the Gay, Lesbian and Straight
Education Network (GLSEN) can provide significant help, given their mission of working toward
schools that are safe for everyone.
GLSEN envisions a world in which every child learns to respect and accept all people,
regardless of sexual orientation or gender identity/ expression. GLSEN seeks to develop
school climates where difference is valued for the positive contribution it makes to creating
a more vibrant and diverse community. (Gay, Lesbian and Straight Education Network,
2010)
The middle school attended by Chris may not have a gay-straight alliance in place, but
awareness of GLSEN could help the family access information about what they have the right to
expect from their school and what actions have proven useful to others. Through advocacy
organizations, clients like Chris and his parents can gain access to resources that might not
otherwise have reached their awareness, including such clearly applicable materials as Bullying
among Children and Youth on Perceptions and Differences in Sexual Orientation, a tip sheet
disseminated by the Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA) as part of its Stop
Bullying Now project (Health Resources and Services Administration,
70 CHAPTER 3
Client Conceptualization Exercise
Is there a person you know, either personally or professionally, who worries you? Someone
who seems to be dealing with difficulties that he or she cannot seem to overcome? Think about
that person—or, if no one comes to mind, choose one of the client examples in Chapter 1.
Conceptualize the person’s situation by using the Client Conceptualization Questions.
1. How can this client’s issues or problems be redefined in an empowering way? What
strengths and competencies can be identified and encouraged?
2. How has this client been affected by oppression, injustice, or marginalization?

functioning?
4. What positive environmental resources might be available to this individual?
2010). Finally, the Sparks family might be able to find sources of support within the school. An
especially promising possibility, of course, would be the school counselor, who would want to
help Chris directly and who might decide to move in the direction of impacting school policy.
Minority Identity Development
When working with clients from diverse populations, counselors must understand how a person’s
cultural, ethnic, and racial background affects his or her psychological development (Sue & Sue,
1999). The Minority Identity Development (MID) model (Atkinson et al., 1998) provides an
interesting explanation of how people from nonwhite minority groups develop a sense of personal
identity within the context of a social environment that frequently devalues their cultural, ethnic, and
racial background. In this model, minority refers to people who continue to be oppressed by the
dominant societal group “primarily because of their group membership” (Atkinson et al., 1998, p.
13). This model is extremely relevant to the RESPECTFUL counseling framework that was outlined
earlier in this chapter, as it directs attention to how a person’s group membership and
environmental experiences impact his or her psychological development. Although they focus on
people from diverse cultural/racial backgrounds, Atkinson et al. (1998) note that this definition
allows women to be considered “minority group members,” even though they constitute a numerical
majority in the United States, because they continue to endure various forms of oppression.
The MIDmodel is “anchored in the belief that all minority groups experience the common force of
oppression, and as a result, will all generate a strong sense of
self- and group-identity in spite of their oppressive conditions” (Ponterotto & Pedersen, 1993, p. 45).
Although the MID framework presents stages, the authors point out that one can best conceptualize it
as a continuous process in which the characteristics of the various stages blend into one another
without clear or abrupt demarcations (Atkinson et al., 1998).
The MID model comprises five stages. Each of these stages is defined with respect to one’s
(a) attitudes toward oneself, (b) attitudes toward others from the same racial/ethnic background, (c)
attitudes toward people in other minority groups, and (d) attitudes toward the white majority in the
United States.
Though not intended to serve as a comprehensive personality theory, the MID model serves
as a framework to help counselors understand minority clients’ attitudes and behaviors. The
model can help counselors become more sensitized to the following:
1. The role oppression plays in a minority person’s psychological development

2. The differences that can exist between members of the same minority group with respect to
their cultural identity
3. The potential developmental changes that people from various cultural, ethnic, and racial
groups may manifest during their life span
These developmental changes have been described in the following stages.
The Conformist Stage. Minority individuals operating at the conformist stage show an unequivocal
preference for the dominant cultural values over those of their own cultural-racial group. Their
choice of role models, lifestyles, and values all follow the lead of the dominant societal group. Those
physical and cultural characteristics that single them out as minorities cause them pain and
embarrassment; they often view these characteristics with disdain or repress them from
consciousness.
Unlikely to seek counseling services for issues related to their cultural identity, clients at the
conformist stage instead tend to seek out counselors from the dominant cultural group rather than
those with the same minority background as themselves. Such clients usually present issues
amenable to decision-making, problem-solving, and goal-oriented counseling approaches and
techniques.
The Dissonance Stage. In the dissonance stage, people from minority groups encounter information
and experiences inconsistent with the values and beliefs associated with the conformist stage. These
experiences and information stimulate an increased level of cognitive dissonance that leads these
people to question and perhaps even challenge attitudes acquired in the conformist stage.
At this stage, individuals are preoccupied with questions concerning their personal identity,
self-concept, and self-esteem. They typically perceive personal problems as related to their
cultural identity and background. Emotional problems may develop when they cannot resolve
conflicts that arise when dominant cultural views and values conflict with those of their minority
group. Clients at this stage prefer to work with counselors who possess a good working
knowledge of their cultural, ethnic, and/or racial group. Recommended counseling
72 CHAPTER 3
approaches for clients operating at this stage include those that facilitate selfexploration and the
acquisition of stress management skills.
The Resistance and Immersion Stage. In this stage of development, clients experience strong
discontent and discomfort with the views and values of the dominant cultural group. These feelings
are accompanied by a heightened desire to eliminate the oppression and injustice that minority
groups experience. At this stage, clients typically express negative reactions and anger toward
members of the dominant societal group.
The likelihood that people functioning at the resistance and immersion stage will seek formal
counseling is slim. However, those instances when counseling is sought tend to occur as responses
to immediate personal crises and with a counselor from the same minority group as the client’s.
Clients at this stage usually view all psychological problems as a product of their oppression. Useful
counseling strategies include group process interventions and referrals to community or social action
groups and organizations.
The Introspection Stage. Clients operating at this stage manifest discontent and discomfort with
many of the rigidly held views associated with the resistance and immersion stage. As such, they
often focus on their personal and psychological autonomy.
Clients at the introspection stage are torn between identification with their minority group and
the need to exercise greater personal freedom and decision making. Much more likely to seek
counseling than those at the resistance and immersion stage, people at the introspection stage
generally prefer counselors from their own cultural group. These clients, however, may view
counselors from other cultural backgrounds as credible sources of help if their worldviews resemble
those of the clients. Counseling approaches recommended at this stage include problem-solving
and decision-making methods as well as techniques that promote stress management skills and
encourage self-exploration of culturally relevant issues and concerns.
The Synergistic Articulation and Awareness Stage. At this stage, clients feel
self-fulfillment regarding their personal and cultural identity. The conflicts and discomforts
manifested at the introspection stage have generally been resolved, allowing individuals to
experience a greater sense of personal control and flexibility in their lives. Clients objectively
examine the cultural values of other minority groups as well as the dominant group and accept or
reject them on the basis of experience gained in earlier developmental stages.
Clients at the synergistic articulation and awareness stage manifest a heightened desire for
psychological freedom. Their sense of minority identity is wellbalanced by a genuine appreciation
of other cultures. Attitudinal similarity between the counselor and the client, rather than issues
related to the client and counselor’s group membership similarity, becomes an important
determinant of successful counseling outcomes (Atkinson et al., 1998).
The MID model complements the community counseling framework because it focuses on
how the broader sociopolitical environment influences
the psychological development of people from devalued groups. As mentioned in Chapter 1, the
community counseling model centers on the belief that counselors need to be keenly aware of the
ways in which the environment impacts clients’ development and be able to provide counseling
services that foster their ability to constructively negotiate oppressive environmental circumstances.
Using the MID model can greatly help counselors understand how participation in various
environmental institutions, organizations, and systems can affect culturally diverse clients’
psychological development.
COUNSEL ING APPROACHES WI TH A SOCIAL
JUST ICE ORI ENTAT ION
Ratts (2009) suggests that a social justice paradigm “is related to a growing need to connect
human development issues with toxic environmental conditions” (p. 163). Ratts accentuates the
fact that this paradigm has impact on the counselor’s view of the locus of client problems.
Environmental factors, such as racism, sexism, heterosexism, and classism, can delay
people’s growth and development and hinder people’s ability to reach their potential.
This is especially true for clients who have been historically marginalized in society, such
as people of color, those in poverty, and individuals who are
lesbian/gay/bisexual/transgender (LGBT). Helping clients recognize the presence of
oppressive factors is important because it prevents them from blaming themselves for
their plight. (Ratts, 2009, pp. 163–164)
Ratts emphasizes the social justice counselor’s role of advocacy and social activism, stating
that “a social justice counseling approach uses social advocacy and activism as a means to
address inequitable social, political, and economic conditions that impede on the academic, career,
and personal/social development of individuals, families, and communities” (Ratts, 2009, p. 160). It
is clear, however, that the assumptions underlying the social justice paradigm and the community
counseling model have relevance for direct counseling services as well. A social justice orientation
would lead a counselor toward (a) approaching each client with an understanding of the situation in
the broadest possible context, (b) helping the client gain this understanding as well, and (c) working
from a strengths-based perspective. In other words, the counselor would use the wideangle lens,
rather than the microscope.
This general paradigm leaves room for different theoretical perspectives. Among the
counseling theories or approaches that adhere to the social justice paradigm are (a)
empowerment-focused counseling, (b) ecological counseling, (c) feminist counseling, and (d)
relational-cultural counseling. Many other theories contain certain elements of this approach as
well, but these four have a social justice orientation at their core.
74 CHAPTER 3
Empowerment-Focused Counseling
In the past, counselors across most theoretical perspectives were encouraged to keep their
clients’ focus on the things they could control. Counselors were trained to pass on to clients the
belief that both the cause of problems and the solutions lay within the individual. But “problems
are not always developed or solved inside one person’s skin” (Ratts, 2009, p. 163).
As most counselors are aware, one’s mental health is affected by experiences of

oppression.…Traditional counseling, however, has focused on working with clients on
internal issues (e.g., depression, stress management) as opposed to external forces (e.g.,
racism, oppression, discrimination) that create stressors and disempowerment.
(Holcomb-McCoy & Mitchell, 2007)
Although it might seem counterintuitive at first, the fact is that clients can be more
empowered—not less empowered—if they learn to recognize the ways they are affected by their
environmental contexts. Exhibit 3.3 differentiates between empowerment and disempowerment.
The fact that “awareness of context, including oppression” versus “selfblame” appears first
in the empowerment-disempowerment table reflects the notion that dealing with this phenomenon
lays the groundwork for the client’s readiness to move on to action. As long as the client is mired
in self-blame, he or she will have difficulty meeting the challenges of developing life skills, finding
sources of support, getting beyond victimization, and perceiving options that seemed invisible
before. “Clients who recognize the role of oppression in their lives are most likely to be able to
move from the morass of self-blame to the solid ground of self-management” (Carlson, Sperry, &
Lewis, 2005, p. 128).
The impact of oppression remains insidious until it is recognized for what it is. Oppression can
be defined as “the systemic disadvantaging of one group by another group that holds the collective
power of the state or society” (Arnold,
Empowerment versus Disempowerment
Empowerment Disempowerment
Awareness of context, including oppression Skills for Self-blame
self-management Lack of self-management skill
Mutual support Isolation
Self-esteem Victimization
Ability to recognize options and make choices Perceived lack of choices

1997). Oppression differs from prejudice because, unlike prejudice, oppression has the power of
culture, society, and the state behind it. The power of systemic oppression is what makes internalized
oppression so pervasive.
Internalized oppression is the acceptance, most often unconscious, of the myths,

misinformation, and stereotypes the dominant culture constructs about a person’s own
group. Victims take on the values and norms of the dominant group and cast aspersions
on the experiences and traditional values of their own group. (Lewis & Arnold, 1998, p.
53)
Systemic oppression, with the accompaniment of internalized oppression, makes positive

individual action difficult. Consider, for example, the impact on women of sexism, which is one
form of oppression.
Many women lack awareness that the boundaries confining them are constructed as part
of the apparatus of oppression. Without this awareness, they become mired in
self-blame. “Why,” they ask, “can’t I get a job that’s good enough to support my kids?”
“What is it about me that makes me so disorganized that I can’t seem to do my job, take
care of the house, be patient with my children, and take better care of my aging
parents?” “What should I have done differently to keep my husband from hitting me?”
“Why did I make the mistake of going to a place that put me in danger of being raped?”
“Why do other people seem to be able to take action and get what they need when I
can’t?” “Why am I stuck?”
Empowerment involves, first, recognizing that these problems do not stem from a defect
within the individual but are instead violations of her selfhood. Perhaps what the client needs to
be asking is “How can we get past a situation in which women’s salaries are a fraction of white
men’s?” “How can we get past a situation in which women are expected to carry out all of these
family roles without the responsibilities being shared and without support from the community?”
“Why is even unpaid family leave being questioned by the government?” “How can women and
men work together to end the culture of violence and victimization?” “Now that I realize these
things that have happened in my life are not my fault, how can I get out of stuckness and into
action?” (Lewis, 2007,
p. 103).
The effect of sexism on women is no more or less than the effects of the other “isms” on
victims of oppression. In fact, everyone is hurt by oppression, even those in positions of power.
We often act as if oppression hurts only the victim of oppression. Therefore, we think that
sexism hurts women and not men, that racism wounds people of color and not White
people, and that gay oppression has no impact on heterosexuals. It is important to note
that victims and oppressors are hurt differently but that each is still hurt. People who
identify with their oppressor status often feel that they have a stake in maintaining what
they believe is their power. However, many persons
76 CHAPTER 3
are totally unaware that the cost of holding on to such “power” is disconnectedness and
alienation from one’s self and others. Another cost is having their own lives constrained
and limited by the prescriptions that oppression imposes. (Arnold, 1997, p. 42)
An empowerment approach, then, is appropriate for all clients, not just those whom the
counselor perceives as being minority-group members.
The competencies that underlie an empowerment-based approach to counseling are
explicated in the ACA Advocacy Competencies (Lewis et al.,
2002):
Advocacy-oriented counselors recognize the impact of social, political, economic, and

cultural factors on human development. They also help their clients and students
understand their own lives in context. This understanding helps to lay the groundwork for
effective self-advocacy.… In direct interventions with clients and students, the
advocacy-oriented counselor is able to:
Identify the strengths and resources that clients/students bring to the counseling
process.
Identify the social, political, economic, and cultural factors that affect the
client/student.
Recognize the signs indicating that an individual’s behaviors and concerns reflect
responses to systemic or internalized oppression.
At an appropriate developmental level, help the individual identify the external barriers
that affect his or her development.
Train clients and students in self-advocacy skills.
Help clients and students develop self-advocacy action plans.
Assist clients and students in carrying out self-advocacy action plans.
The situation of Jason, a 17-year-old African American high school student provides an example
of empowerment-based counseling (Lewis & Elder, 2010). Jason is an all-A student at a
predominantly white suburban high school. Jason and his parents chose this school because its
reputation for academic excellence seemed appropriate, given his goal of attending a good Ivy
League university. He has always seemed well adjusted in the school environment, but has in fact
had some problems being assigned to honors and advanced-placement classes.
He hasn’t always felt that he fit in, so when a popular, athletic, and academically superior
classmate invited him to join a group outside while his girlfriend was in the restroom he was
flattered and happy to do so. When it turned out that this group of male students was drinking
beer, he joined them even though he had no interest in drinking. When they reentered the school,
Jason was singled out by a teacher he didn’t know, accused of showing the effects of alcohol, and
referred to the principal for disciplinary action.
Jason was worried that he might actually get suspended or expelled and thereby lose all hope of
achieving his dreams for college. Fortunately, he was allowed to see
his counselor before being disciplined. The purpose of the counseling visit, he was told, was so that the
counselor could evaluate his drinking problem.
When the counseling appointment began, Jason expressed his anger that he had been singled
out for discipline, given that he was the only student of color included in the group and none of the
others had been confronted. Some counselors might have insisted that he focus on his own
mistakes, but this empowerment-oriented counselor knew how important it was to spend time
exploring the possibility that racism had played a part in this crisis. Counselor and client talked about
the fact that he had often experienced less-than-respectful treatment from people, whether students
or teachers, who did not know him. Those experiences were more subtle, of course, and this
situation was potentially disastrous.
Once the exploration of the role of race in this situation was explored in an open and respectful
way, Jason was ready to begin looking at plans for lessening the damage to his life plan (Lewis &
Elder, 2010, p. 165).
J ASON: My parents being disappointed in me might be the worst thing.

I can’t look my mother in the eye.
C OUNSELOR: So as much as you know that there’s racism involved in this and
you’re mad about that, you’re also mad at yourself for being in a position that this
teacher could get at you.
J ASON: I should never have let myself be in that position. Never … I’d
been feeling like I’d like to hang out with these other guys. Like maybe I didn’t
have to be so super-careful any more. What a joke. I wasn’t brought up to ever
think that.
At this point, the counselor could help Jason and his parents to develop some plans for
self-advocacy. Because the counselor had understood the urgency of exploring the racism
underlying this crisis, she was accepted as an advocate and able to play a strong role in helping
the family through an all-important conference with the principal.
Once the pervasive impact of racism is acknowledged as a force in a Black family’s

experience, the family can move on to confront other issues. But if the impact of racism
is ignored, it’s unlikely that therapy will go anywhere. (Franklin, 1993, p. 36)
Once Jason’s crisis situation was addressed the counselor would also need to look clearly at
what actions she would need to take to address what appeared to be a systemic problem in the school
as a whole.
Ecological Counseling
Conyne and Cook (2004) differentiate between a traditional, person-oriented focus, on the one
hand, and an ecological focus on the other.
A client’s behavior (or thinking or feelings) seems to be getting him or her into some type
of trouble. The obvious solution is to help the client change this problem so that the
difficulties ease. The target of the
78 CHAPTER 3
behavior change process is the client; the problem is some aspect of his or her
functioning; the goal of counseling is substitution of a more adaptive way of being. The
counselor serves as a remediation expert, skilled at identifying the nature of one’s
personal dysfunction and helping the client develop alternatives that are more satisfying.
This characterization of counseling has widespread support, and for good reason: it has
helped countless clients live happier lives. Yet this view is only part of a broader perspective on
what constitutes, maintains, and changes human behavior. This broader perspective … has the
potential to dramatically increase a counselor’s scope for action—and his or her success with a
broad range of client concerns (pp. 3–4).
It is noteworthy that Conyne and Cook are respectful in their assessment of person-oriented
counseling. They recognize that counseling has always been, and continues to be, a power for good.
They also recognize, however, that viewing clients from a broader perspective adds value to the
counselor-client interaction and to the effectiveness of the counseling profession as a whole. This
attitude is in keeping with the notion of social justice counseling as the “fifth force” in counseling,
following chronologically the predominance of the psychodynamic, cognitive-behavioral,
existential-humanistic, and multicultural forces (Ratts, D’Andrea, & Arredondo, 2004). Social justice
counseling does not serve as a replacement for what came before, but rather adds a key ingredient
that might previously have been overlooked. This new ingredient can give added meaning to the
forces that came before. That process certainly describes what took place with the advent of
multicultural counseling as the fourth force: now every counselor, regardless of theoretical
perspective, is expected to be multiculturally competent. What was once perceived as a theory to be
differentiated from others is now recognized as a basic building block of all approaches to
counseling. Those approaches are not erased, but they are clearly enhanced.
Ecological counseling is “contextualized help-giving that is dependent on the meaning clients

derive from their environmental interactions, yielding an improved ecological concordance”
(Conyne & Cook, 2004, p. 6). The environmental interactions are many, since each individual is
part of an ecosystem that is the “sum total of interacting influences operating in a person’s life,
including such diverse factors as biological makeup, interpersonal relationships, the physical
environment, and the broader socio-cultural context” (Conyne & Cook, 2004,
p. 11). The concept of ecological concordance involves “a mutually beneficial interaction between
person and environment” (Conyne & Cook, 2004, p. 24).
The counseling process can help clients make changes—whether focused on themselves,
their environments, or the person-environment interaction—to enhance ecological concordance.
Just as important is the idea that the counselor working from an ecological framework has a
number of options in terms of intervention targets, including the following:
Counseling an individual client.

Carrying out counseling or educational interventions with a primary group,
e.g., a counseling group or a family.
Intervening at the level of an associational group, e.g., carrying out organizational

consultation.
Intervening at an institutional level by carrying out community development, social
advocacy, primary prevention, or system change.
The ecological counseling model gives further clarity to the case of Jason, which was
discussed in the previous section of this chapter. The concept of ecological concordance, for
instance, sheds light on Jason’s life in several aspects of his eco-system, including his family, his
friendships, and his school. His life had appeared to be going smoothly, with his trajectory toward
his life goals solidly in place. The situation he encountered opened up the need—and the
opportunity— for counselor and client to look more closely at his ecosystem and the meaning he
derived from it. At first glance, Jason’s goals are his own and his parents’ role is one of support.
Yet, it would be worth exploring his family niche to get a better sense of the balance between
support and pressure. The problems related to ecological concordance in Jason’s relationship to
his peers and his school are more obvious. Because his academic life had been going well, even
he, himself, thought his school was a comfortable fit for him. Did he hold to an expectation that he
could expect nothing more from his school than a first-class diploma and a good college
recommendation? Might this current predicament provide him with an opportunity to think more
about what kind of environment his school should provide and what kind of personal support he
should expect? The ecological model provides guidance for ways in which the counseling
experience can help in the search for answers to these questions. Moreover, the model lays the
groundwork for the counselor to decide on appropriate intervention targets. In this case,
interventions should clearly focus on the individual, the family, and the school. Moreover, because
Jason’s experience is far from unique, the counselor might focus on social advocacy and system
change at an institutional level.
Feminist Counseling and Therapy
The feminist wave of the 1960s and 1970s brought with it the concept that “the personal is
political.” Many women began to realize that problems that they perceived to be their own were, in
fact, systemic. They began to perceive that what they thought were personal shortcomings were
actually rooted in social/political realities. How else could they explain the coincidence of their
shared realities? The means for exploring this concept involved a network of
“consciousnessraising” groups through which women’s stories could be expressed—and
compared.
We are learning that it has to be more than coincidence that almost all of the bright,
competent women we know are bogged down by nagging doubts about their own
ability to think, work, or live effectively.
80 CHAPTER 3
We are learning that we don’t have to see ourselves as nit-picking weirdos doomed
to go through life without personal support because we object to being called Mrs. John
Jones…
We are learning that experiences we thought were unique to our own lives have
been shared by women of different ages, localities, and backgrounds—just because they
are women…
We are learning that we no longer have to accept male-oriented economic values
that classify men who work for bread as persons, women who work for bread as
semi-persons, and women who work in their homes as nonpersons.
We are learning that we do have options and role choices—personal as well as

vocational—and that these options and choices can be enhanced through our solidarity and
mutual support. (Lewis, 1972, p. 148)
The consciousness-raising groups followed an egalitarian model and did not make use of helping
professionals as leaders and did not take place in institutional settings.
We are going that route because we must, for fear of what would happen to us if
we depended on professionals.
We are afraid that counselors would try to make us content with being called Mrs.
John Jones.
We are afraid that counselors might force us to ignore the commonality of our
experiences.
We are afraid that counselors would “help” us adjust to values that are harmful to
our own self-concepts.
We are afraid that counselors would actually limit our options. And we know that,
even if we found professionals who wanted us to get strong individually, they might
never care whether we got strong collectively. (Lewis, 1972, p. 148)
These fears were all too often based in reality. “Therapy can easily take the political and make
it highly private and personal; a political stance of anger about discrimination can quickly be
transformed by a therapist into a ‘dysfunctional cognition’ or a sign of ‘issues with parents’” (Brown,
1994, p. 37).
Feminist counseling and therapy grew out of the realization among helping professionals that
the status quo in counseling and therapy was too damaging to continue.
The impact of cultural norms, social expectations, and political structures in the lives of
women was virtually ignored. Therapeutic approaches developed by and based on
culturally empowered White men were indiscriminately and systemically misapplied to
culturally disempowered women (and other disempowered people). (May, 2001, p. 6)
Feminism has always concentrated on gender as a political construct and still does to this day.
But the fact that “the personal is political” has obvious implications not just for women but for other
oppressed groups as well. Consider again,

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30 BAB 2

THE 1910 S DAN 1920 S

Meningkatkan dukungan untuk layanan bimbingan konseling berbasis sekolah dan

Dampak Perang Dunia I

TAHUN 1920 S –1930 S

Berurusan dengan Tantangan Depresi Besar

Dampak Teori Konseling Carl Rogers

Mengadvokasi Dukungan Pemerintah untuk Veteran Perang Dunia II

Upaya advokasi lainnya menghasilkan pembentukan US Employment Service yang dimulai di

Memperluas Layanan Konseling Kejuruan

untuk Wanita Selama 1940-an

Perkembangan Organisasi Konseling Baru pada 1950-an

Akibatnya, pada Juli 1952, American Personnel and Guidance Association

These organizational initiatives greatly increased the professionalization of counseling as

Unprecedented Growth of Counselor Education

Programs in the 1950s

Of crucial importance in this stage of cultural development in American democracy is the

THE 1960 S AND 1970 S

Pelajaran yang Dipetik

New Developmental Counseling Approaches

Broadening the Counseling Profession’s

Perspective and Effectiveness

The Passage of the Community Mental Health Centres Act

Managed Care Organizations (MCOs) di tahun 1970-an

THE 1980 S AND 1990 S

steady challenges related to changes in family structures, an everincreasing divorce rate,

The Continued Professionalization of Counseling

Mengakui Kontradiksi Profesional

Bangkitnya Gerakan Kompetensi Konseling Multikultural

These expressed concerns frequently resulted in antagonistic and hostile resistance by

Multicultural counseling advocates responded constructively to the reactionary antagonisms

The culmination of these efforts resulted in the publication of a set of 31 multicultural

Inisiatif Konseling Sekolah Baru pada 1990-an

Konselor sekolah profesional memprakarsai sejumlah proyek transformatif selama tahun

Counselors for Social Justice (CSJ)

contemporary multicultural counseling movement by developing a new organizational entity.

EXHIBIT 2.1 Competency-Building Activity

Developing New Awareness, Knowledge, and Skills

[a] Reviewing the multicultural counseling competencies that are presented

Herr, E. L. (1985). AACD: An association committed to unity through diversity. Journal

Parsons, F. (1909). Choosing a vocation. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Steinhauser, L., & Bradley, R. (1983). Accreditation of counselor education programs.

THE RESPECTFUL COUNSEL ING FRAMEWORK

L—location of residence and language differences

Economic Class Background

Ethical counseling practice necessitates respectful acknowledgment and acceptance of a

Structural-developmental theories view psychological development as a process in which

Age-related developmental changes represent what are referred to as “chronological challenges”

Trauma and Other Threats to One’s Well-Being

Family Background and History

Unique Physical Characteristics

self-worth. Counselors need to be particularly sensitive to and knowledgeable about issues

Location of Residence and Language Differences

Relevance of the RESPECTFUL Framework

The RESPECTFUL Counseling Model and Counselor

Because the community counseling framework operates from an empowerment perspective,

EXHIBIT 3.1 Competency-Building Activity

Using the RESPECTFUL Model for Counselor

The Collaborative Approach to Assessment

(as by direct persuasion or by increasing punishment for inaction) can lead to a

Strengths-based and collaborative approaches to assessment are closely intertwined. Morgan

Strengths-based assessment is “the measurement of those emotional and behavioral skills,

In support of strengths-based assessment, especially with children and youth, several