1. What is the meaning of language?

Language is symbol of human to carry out activities such as interacting in social environment.
As A.A HILL ( 1958:9) say language is part of humant symbolic activity . the symbol consist of the saunds
prodused by the vocal apparaturs and arraged in classes.

= bahasa adalah simbol manusia untuk melakukan aktifitas berinteraksi sosial seperti pendapat hil
mengatakan bahasa sebagai bentuk aktifitas simbolik manusia yang utama. Simbolnya terdiri dari suara
yang dihasilkan oleh alat vokal dan di atur di kelas.

bahasa adalah sistem lambang bunyi yang arbitrer yang digunakan oleh para anggota kelompok sosial
untuk bekerja sama, berkomunikasi, dan mengidentifikasikan diri

language is a system of arbitrary, vocal symbols which permit all people in a given culture, or other
people who have learned the system of that culture, to communicate or interact.

2. Enitis of language?
Language entitis are symbols. That is have meaning, but the relationship between symbol and object is
fickle and socially controlled.
=Hakikat bahasa adalah sismbol. Mereka memiliki makna tapi hubungan antara simbol dan objek bersifat
berubah ubah dan dikontrol secara sosial.

3. The requirements for a language?

The requirements for a language must meet the characteristics of a language. The are characteristic of
language:
1. Language is set of saund
2. Language is social phenomenom
3. Language is symbol
4. Language is system
5. language is meaning

4. How to characterize language?

a) Language is a set of saund ( bahasa adalah sekumpulan suara)
How to pronounce a language according to the phonologycal system of the language and
pronauntation is an important aspect which is actually also the main characteristic of language.
Cara melafalkan suatu bahasa menurut sistem fonologi bahasa dan pengucapannya merupakan
aspek penting yang sebenarnya juga merupakan ciri utama bahasa.
b) language is social phenomenom
In a sense, language should be considered a social phenomenon. Language is social that's inside
humant society. it is a means of developing culture and establishing human relations.
Dalam arti tertentu, bahasa harus dianggap sebagai fenomena sosial. Bahasa adalah sosial yang ada
dalam masyarakat manusia kita. itu adalah cara memelihara dan mengembangkan budaya dan
membangun hubungan antarmanusia.
c) Language is symbol
Language signifies a symbolic system. Language have sounds and words as symbols. sound symbols
are meant for concepts, object and ideas.
 =Bahasa menandakan sistem simbolik. Bahasa memiliki bunyi dan kata sebagai simbol. simbol suara
dimaksudkan untuk konsep, objek dan ideas.
d) Language is systematic
Every language is a system structure. For example, in the linguistic system we have a system of
modphology and syntax and in morphology and syntax we have a system too.
=Setiap bahasa adalah susunan sistem. Misalnya di dalam sistem linguistik kita memiliki sistem
modphology dan syntax dan di dalam morphology dan syntaks juga memiliki sistem.
e) Language is a System of Communication
Language is a Communication System
Through language we as humans express our thoughts, desires, emotions and feelings.
= Melalui bahasa kita sebagai manusia mengekspresikan pikiran, keinginan, emosi dan perasaan kita.

5. What is the linguistic function?

The main function of language is communication function. The are five function of language (G. Leech):
1. information function is conveying information.
2. expressive fuction is expressing the feelings or attitudes of speakers and writes
3. directive function is direkting or influensing attitudes of others
4. aestetic function is creating an aestetic effect
5. phatic function is maintaning social bonds.

6. Ragam atau variasi bahasa

a. Dialek
dialect is a variety of English that is related to a particular area or social class that affects the way
they speak.
=dialek adalah berbagai bahasa Inggris yang berhubungan dengan daerah tertentu atau kelas sosial
yang mempengaruhi cara bicara mereka. Ex: dua anak yang terpisah, yg satu di sekolahkan di sekolah
swasta dan yang satu di sekolahkan di sekolah negeri. Pasti dalam cara bicara merekapun juga
berbeda.
b. Register
The way people speak in different languages and in different situations, such as how to talk to friends
is different from attending formal events.
=Cara orang berbicara menggunakan bahasa yang berbeda serta dalam situasi yang berbeda, seperti
cara berbisara dengan teman berbeda dengan menghadiri acara yang formal.
c. Jargon
A special language used by a group and not everyone knows. Example, gabut, mager
Bahasa khusus yang dipakai oleh kelompok tertentu dan tidak semua orang tau misalnya : gabut,
mager

7. Theory lahirnya bahasa dan tokohnya

Terdapat beberapa teori tentang asal usul bahasa, di antaranya bersifat mistis. Misalnya, ada yang
beranggapan bahwa bahasa adalah hadiah para dewa yang diwariskan secara turun temurun kepada
manusia, sebuah ungkapan yang sulit diterima kebenarannya secara ilmiah dan nalar logis.
para filsuf Yunani kuno, seperti Pythagoras, Plato, dan kaum Stoika berpendapat secara logis. bahwa
bahasa muncul karena “keharusan batin” atau karena “hukum alam”. Disebut “keharusan batin”, karena
bahasa hakikatnya adalah perwujudan atau ekspresi dunia batin penggunanya. Bisa dilihat bagaimana
bahasa seseorang ketika sedang marah, bahagia, gelisah. Semuanya tergambar dalam bahasa yang
diucapkan.

There are several theories about the origin of language, some of which are mystical. For example, there
are those who claim that language is a gift from the gods that has been handed down from generation
to generation to humans, an expression that is difficult to accept scientifically and logically.
the greats of ancient Greece, such as Pythagoras, Plato, and the Stoics argued logically. that language
arises because of "necessity of the mind" or because of "natural laws". It is called "inner necessity",
because language is essentially the embodiment or expression of the user's inner world. It can be seen
how a person's language is when he is angry, happy, nervous. Everything is described in the spoken
language

o Traditional
Penelitian Antropologi telah membuktikan bahwa kebanyakan kebudayaan primitif meyakini
keterlibatan Tuhan atau Dewa dalam permulaan sejarah berbahasa. Teori-teori ini dikenal
dengan istilah divine origin (teori berdasarkan kedewaan/kepercayaan) pada pertengahan abad
ke-18. Namun teori-teori tersebut tidak bertahan lama. Teori yang agak bertahan adalah Bow-
wow theory, disebut juga onomatopoetic atau echoic theory Menurut teori ini kata-kata yang
pertama kali adalah tiruan terhadap bunyi alami seperti nyanyian ombak, burung, sungai, suara
guntur, dan sebagainya. Ada pula teori lain yang disebut Gesture theory yang menyatakan
bahwa isyarat mendahului ujaran.

Anthropological research has proven that most primitive cultures believed in the involvement
of God or gods in the beginning of language history. These theories were known as divine origin
in the mid-18th century. But these theories did not last long. A rather enduring theory is the
Bow-wow theory, also called onomatopoeic or echoic theory. According to this theory, the first
words were imitations of natural sounds such as the singing of waves, birds, rivers, thunder,
and so on. There is also another theory called Gesture theory which states that gestures
precede speech.
Tokoh :
Andreas Kemke (ahli filologi dari Swedia), pada abad ke-17. Kemke menyatakan bahwa di surga
Tuhan berbicara dalam bahasa Swedia, Nabi Adam berbahasa Denmark, sedangkan naga
berbahasa Perancis. Sebelumnya orang Belanda Goropius Becanus juga telah mengemukakan
teori bahwa bahasa di surga adalah bahasa Belanda

Andreas Kemke (Swedish philologist), in the 17th century. Kemke stated that in heaven God
spoke in Swedish, Prophet Adam spoke Danish, while the dragon spoke French. Previously the
Dutchman Goropius Becanus had also put forward the theory that the language in heaven was
Dutch

Dingdong theory atau nativistic theory diperkenalkan oleh Max Muller (1823-1900). Teori ini
sejalan dengan yang diajukan Socrates bahwa bahasa lahir secara alamiah. Teori ini
menyatakan bahwa manusia memiliki insting yang istimewa untuk mengeluarkan ekspresi
ujaran bagi setiap kesan dari luar
 Dingdong theory or nativistic theory was introduced by Max Muller (1823-1900). This theory is
in line with what Socrates proposed that language was born naturally. This theory states that
humans have a special instinct to issue speech expressions for every impression from the
outside

o Modern Approach

Faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi perkembangan manusia menjadi homo sapiens juga

mempengaruhi perkembangan bahasanya. Dengan kata lain, kemampuan berbahasa pada
manusia berkembang sejalan dengan proses evolusi manusia. Perkembangan otak manusia
mengubah dia dari agak manusia menjadi manusia sesungguhnya. Hingga akalnya manusia
mempunyai kemampuan berbicara. Pembicaraan tentang asal-usul bahasa dapat dibicarakan
dari dua pendekatan, pendekatan tradisional dari modern para ahli dari beberapa disiplin ilmu
masing-masing mengemukakan pandangannya dengan berbagai argumentasi. Diskusi tentang
hal ini hingga sekarang belum menemukan kesepakatan, pendapat mana dan pendapat siapa
yang paling tepat.

The factors that influence the development of humans into homo sapiens also affect the
development of language. In other words, the ability to speak in humans develops in line with
the process of human evolution. The development of the human brain transforms him from a
somewhat human to a real human. Until the human mind has the ability to speak. Talks about
the origin of language can be discussed from two approaches, the traditional approach from
the modern experts from several disciplines each put forward their views with various
arguments. Discussions on this matter have not yet reached an agreement, which opinion and
whose opinion is the most appropriate.

Tokoh :
Otto Jespersen (1860-1943) melihat adanya persamaan perkembangan antara bahasa bayi
dengan bahasa manusia pertama dahulu. Bahasa manusia pertama hampir tak punya arti,
seperti lagu saja sebagaimana ucapan bayi. Lama kelamaan ucapan-ucapan tersebut
berkembang ke arah kesempurnaan (Alwasilah, 1985).

Otto Jespersen (1860-1943) saw the developmental similarities between infant language and
the first human language. The language of the first humans was almost meaningless, just like a
song as a baby's speech. Over time these utterances develop towards perfection (Alwasilah,
1985).

8. Rumpunan bahasa inggris

Rumpunan bahasa inggris adalah kumpulan bahasa-bahasa yang mencangkup bahasa inggris kuno dan
turunan bahasa tersebut. Bahasa-bahasa yang tergolong dalam rumpunan tersebut adalah bahasa
inggris awal, bahasa inggris moderent pertengahan dan bahasa inggris moderen. Kemudian ada pula
bahasa skot awal, bahasa skot pertengan dan bahasa skot moderent. Serta bahasa yang ada di irlandia.

The English language family is a collection of languages that include Old English and its derivatives. The
languages belonging to this family are Early English, Middle Modern English and Modern English. Then
 there is the early Scottish language, the Middle Scottish language and the modern Scottish language.
And the language in Ireland.
9. OBJECT OF LINGUISTIC STUDY?
The are two objek linguistic study
1. The first micro linguistic, in micro linguisting the are, phonology, morphology,syntax, and semantik.
2. And the second is macro linguistik, in the macro linguistic the are, phsycholinguistic and
sociolinguistic.
10. branch of linguistik?
Linguistic is the study of language
The are two branch of linguistic is micro linguistic and makro linguistik.
a) Micro linguistics is a sector of in linguistics about the analysis of language systems. The are:
1. Phonology is a part of linguistics that discusses about sound
2. Morphology is a part of linguistics that discusses about words
3. Syntax is a part of linguistics that discusses the preparation of a sentence or phrase about how a
sentence is formed.
4. Semantics is a part of linguistics that discusses about meaning.

b) Macro linguistic is deals with the way language is developed or aplikated in the social environment.
1. Physcoliguistic is a part of linguistics that discusses the relationship between linguistic behavior and
psychology.
2. Sociolinguistics is a part of linguistics that discusses society and the relationship between social
aspects, including differences in dialects in a language.

i. Main branches :
1. Phonetics, whose subject matter is sound-features or qualities and their
organization into speech sounds or phone. Fonetik adalah bagian dari
linguistik yang mempelajari proses ujaran. Fonetik ini akan berhubungan
dengan anatomi, khususnya organ-organ tubuh yang terlibat dalam proses
penghasilan ujaran.
2. Phonemics, whose subject matter is the organization of phones into groups
or families, called phonemes, whose members are the significant sounds of
speech. yang materi pokoknya adalah pengorganisasian bunyi-bunyi ke
dalam kelompok atau keluarga, yang disebut fonem, yang anggotanya adalah
bunyi ujaran yang signifikan.
3. Morphemics, whose subject matter Is the organization of phonemes into
meaningful groups called morph. It is also concerned with the organization of
these morphs into family groups called morphemes, and the organization of
morphemes into words. materi pelajarannya adalah pengorganisasian fonem
ke dalam kelompok bermakna yang disebut morf. Hal ini juga berkaitan
dengan organisasi morf ini ke dalam kelompok keluarga yang disebut
morfem, dan organisasi morfem menjadi kata-kata.
 4. Grammar, whose subject matter is the organization of words iinto various
combnaations, often representing many layers of structure, such as phrases,
sentences, and complete utterances. yang materi pelajarannya adalah
organisasi kata-kata ke dalam berbagai kombinasi, sering kali mewakili
banyak lapisan struktur, seperti frasa, kalimat, dan ucapan lengkap.
ii. Applied linguistics :

Applied linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which identifies, investigates, and

offers solutions to language-related real-life problems. Some of the academic fields
related to applied linguistics are education, psychology, communication research,
anthropology, and sociology.

semantic (the study of meaning), graphic (with the subject matter is all the
convention used in representing speech in writing , linguistics geography (interested
in the geographic distribution of dialects ), lexicography (the preparing dictionary )

11. Modern linguistic figures and their theories

Noam Chomsky (1928) aliran Transformational Generatif Grammar
Teorinya terkenal dengan nama, Transformational Generatif Grammar atau tata bahasa generative.
Transformasi adalah memberikan beberapa tanda yang memungkinkan penutur dan pendengar
memahami suatu kalimat.

Noam Chomsky (1928) School of Transformational Generative Grammar

The theory is known by the name, Transformational Generative Grammar or generative grammar.
Transformation is giving some signs that enable speakers and listeners to understand a sentence.
Language

1. Why is reflexivity considered to be a special property of language?

Reflexivity is the property that enables humans to use language to think and talk about language itself and
does not appear to be present in any other creature’s communication system.
2. What is the difference between a communication system with productivity and one with fixed reference?
- Is that productivity allows infinite sounds, whereas fixed reference is a signal in the system of language
that is fixed, and are not manipulated.

Phonology

3. What is the difference between acoustics phonetics and articulatory phonetics?

- Acoustic phonetics is the study of physical properties of speech sounds. As transmitted between
mouth and ear.
- Articulatory phonetics is the study of the way speech sounds are made or articulated by the vocal
organs.
4. What is the definition of phonetics?
Phonetics is the study of characteristics of speech sounds.
5. How to produce the voiced and voiceless sounds?
- Voiced sounds produced with vibration of the vocal folds.
- Voiceless sounds produced with vibration of the vocal folds.
Vocal Folds is thin strips of muscle in the larynx which can be open, in voiceless sounds, or close
together, creating vibration in voiced sounds.
6. Please mention and explain the place of articulation: Bilabials, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velars,
and glottal.
- Bilabials are consonants articulated with closure or near closer of the lips.
Voiceless: p (pet, tape)
Voiced: b, m, w. (bet, met, wet)
- Labiodentals are articulated by the lower lip and the upper teeth.
Voiceless: f (fat, safe)
Voiced: v (save)
- Dental are articulated by putting the tip of the tongue between the upper teeth and the lower teeth.
Voiceless: θ (thin, bath)
Voices: ð (then)
- Alveolar are articulated by raising the tip of the tongue against the teeth ridge.
Voiceless: [t], [s] (top, sit)
 Voiced: [d], [z], [n], [l], [r] (dog, zoo, nut, lap, rap)
- Palatal are articulated by raising the body of the tongue against the hard palate.
Voiceless: ʃ, ʧ (ship, chip)
Voiced: [ʒ], [ʤ], [j] (casual, gem, yet)
- Velars are articulated by raising the back of the tongue against the soft palate.
Voiceless: k (cat, back)
Voiced: [g], [ŋ] (gun, bang)
- Glottal are articulated by adjusting the glottal opening to states other than voicing or voicelessness.
Voiceless: [h] (hat, who)
7. Please mention, and explain the manner of articulation: stops, fricatives, affricatives, nasals, liquids,
glides, glottal stops and flaps.
- Stops or Plosives are made with a complete and momentary closure of the air-stream through the oral
cavity.
Voiceless: [p], [t], [k] (pet, talk)
Voiced: [b], [d], [g] (bed, dog)
- Fricatives are produced with a continuous air-stream through the mouth.
Voiceless: [f], [θ], [s], [ʃ], [h] (faith, house, she)
Voiced: [v], [ð], [z], [ʒ] (vase, the, rouge)
- Affricates is when a stop is released, the tongue moves rapidly away from the point of articulation.
Voiceless: [ʧ] (cheap. Rich)
Voiced: [ʤ] (jeep, rage)
- Nasals are produced hindering the air-stream from the lungs in the mouth so that the air-stream cannot
pass out through the mouth, and in the meantime, the velum is lowered so that the air-stream passes
through the nose cavity.
Voiceless: -
Voiced: [m], [n], [ŋ] (morning, name)
- Liquids are continuants, but the vocal tract obstruction formed when producing them is not as great
as it is for the fricative consonant.
Voiceless: -
Voiced: [l], [r] (load, light, road, write)
- Glides is the type of sound that shows properties of both consonant and vowels.
Voiceless: -
Voiced: [w], [j] (we, want, yes, you)
8. How to produce vowels? Mention the kinds of vowel.
 Vowel sounds are produced with a relatively free flow of air. They are all typically voiced. To
describe vowel sounds, we consider the way in which the tongue influences the shape through which the
airflow must pass. To talk about a place of articulation, we think of the space inside the mouth as having
a front versus a back and a high versus a low area.
Kinds of vowels:
- Front Vowels are vowels produced in the front part of the mouth.
[i] bead, beef, key, me
[ɪ] bid, myth, women
[ε] bed, dead, said
[æ] bad, laugh, wrap
- Central vowels are vowels produced in the central part of the mouth.
[ə] above, oven, support
[ʌ] butt, blood, dove, tough
- Back vowels are vowels produced in the back part of the mouth.
[u] boo, move, two, you
[ʊ] book, could, put
[ɔ] born, caught, fall, raw
[α] Bob, cot, swan
9. What are phoneme and phonology?
- Phoneme the smallest meaning-distinguishing sound unit in the abstract representation of the sounds
of a language.
Example: Cat and Cut, See and Sea, Kiss and Kill, But and Bit.
- Phonology the study of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in languages.
10. What are phones and allophones? Give examples.
- Phone is a physically produced speech sound, representing one version of a phoneme.
Example: [n], [m], [t], [k] (Sound)
The word ”cat” [kæt]
- Allophones is one of a closely related set of speech sounds or phones.
Example: /K/ The allophones are [k] and [kh], Skill [Kh]/Aspirated and Skip [K]/Unaspirated.
11. What is minimal pairs and give examples.
Minimal Pairs are two (or more) words that are identical in form except for a contrast in one phoneme in
the same position in each word.
Example: fan – van, bath – math, sit –sing myth –Mick, bat –beat math – myth.

12. What is assimilation? Examples.

 Assimilation is the process whereby a feature of one sound becomes part of another during speech
production.
Example: “Don’t be silly” where the /n/ and /t/ are assimilated to /m/ by the following /b/, in many accents
the natural sounds is ‘dombe silly”. “I have to go”, In this phrase, as we start to say the /t/ sound in to,
which is voiceless, we tend to produce a voiceless version of the preceding sound, resulting in what sounds
more like /f/ than /v/. So, we typically say [hæftə] in this phrase and you may even see it written informally
as “hafta,” showing how the assimilation from a voiced to a voiceless sound is perceived.

Morphology

13. Please explain and give examples the following :

a. What is Coinage and give examples
Coinage is the invention of new words.
Example: name of product from a specific reference to a more general one such as Kleenex, Xerox,
and Kodak. And in some cases, the meaning of these words is broadened. Others, complicated
chemical or technical terms like Aspirin: acetylsalyclic acid are adopted as the trademark term and
often replace standard terms for e.g. in this example, painkillers. This also happened to words like
Xerox, Klenex or the German Nutella. Klenex for facial tissue.
b. What is Borrowing and give examples.
Borrowing is the process of taking words from other languages.
Example:
- Anonymous (Greek), this word comes from the Greek word “anonumos”. It defines as something or
someone without a name, similar to the English meaning which defines the word as someone who
does not reveal their identity.
- Loot (Hindi), it pronounced and defined in the exact same manner in English as it is in the origin
language Hindi, the word “loot” refers to stolen goods or property.
- Entreprenur (French), in the 13th century, the term “entrepneur” is derived from the French verb
‘entreprendre’ which meant to undertake or do something. History suggests that by the 16th century,
the verb had transformed to form the noun ‘entreprenur’ which referred to someone who undertook a
business venture.

c. What is Compounding and give examples.

Compounding is the process of combining two or more words to form new words.
Example: Common English compounds are bookcase, doorknob, fingerprint, sunburn, textbook,
wallpaper, wastebasket and waterbed. All these examples are nouns, but we can also create compound
 adjectives (good-looking, low-paid) and compounds of adjective (fast) plus noun (food) as in a fast-
food restaurant or a full-time job.
d. What is blending and give examples.
Blending is the process of combining the beginning of one word and the end of another word to form
a new word.
Example: Smoke and fog, we can use the word smog. Smaze (smoke+haze), smurk (smoke+murk).
Brunch (breakfast/lunch), motel (motor/hotel), telecast (television/broadcast), Oxbridge
(Oxford/Cambridge) for both universities considered together and the Chunnel (Channel/tunnel)
connecting England and France.
e. What is clipping and give examples.
Clipping is the process of reducing a word of more than one syllable to a shorter form.
Example: fax (facsimile), ad (advertisement), bra (brassiere), cab (cabriolet), condo (condominium),
fan (fanatic), flu (influenza), perm (permanent wave), and pub (public house).
f. What is backformation and give examples.
Backformation is the process of reducing a word such as a noun to a shorter version and using it as a
new word such as a verb.
Example: Donate (from “donation”), emote (from “emotion”), enthuse (from “enthusiasm”) and liaise
(from “liaison”), automation (from “automate”), bulldozer (from “bulldoze”), choreography (from
“choreograph”).
g. What is conversion and give examples.
Conversion is the process of changing the function of a word, such as a noun to a verb, as a way of
forming new words, also known as “category change” or “functional shift”.

Example:
- Noun to Verb = Did you dust the living room?. I’ll have to glue it together. Would you water my
plants?
- Verb to Noun = He’s a cheat. We had some doubts. We have two new hires.
h. What is acronym and give examples.
Acronym is a new word formed from the initial letters of other words.
Example: CD (“compact disk”), SPCA (“Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals”), laser
(“light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation”), radar (“radio detecting and ranging”),
scuba (“self-contained underwater breathing apparatus”), a SIM (“subscriber identity module”) card
and zip (“zone improvement plan”) code, MADD (mothers against drunk driving”) and WAR (women
against rape). ATM (“automatic teller machine”), and PIN (“personal identification number”).
 i. What is derivation and give examples?
Derivation is the process of forming new words by adding affixes
Example: unhappy, misrepresent, prejudge, joyful, careless, boyish, terrorism, and sadness.
j. What are morpheme and Morphology?
Morpheme is a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function.
Morphology is the analysis of the structure of words.
k. Mention the kinds of morphemes. Give example.
- Free Morpheme is morphemes that can stand by themselves as single words. (e.g., weak, happy,
healthy)
- Bound Morpheme is a morpheme such as un- or -ed that cannot stand alone and must be attached to
another form. (e.g., weakness, happily, unhealthy)
l. What are lexical and functional morphemes? Example.
- Lexical Morpheme is a free morpheme that is a content word such as a noun or verb. (e.g., ordinary
nouns (girl, house), verbs (break, sit), adjectives (long, sad) and adverbs (never, quickly) that we think
of as the words that carry the “content” of the messages we convey)
- Functional Morpheme is a free morpheme that is used as a function word, such as a conjunction
(and) or a preposition (in) (e.g., but, when, near, above, in, the, that, if)
m. What are derivational and inflectional morphemes. Give examples.
- Derivational Morpheme is morpheme that transform words into different grammatical categories
from the root word (a free morpheme).
Example: Nouns = critic-ism, encourage-ment, Verbs = critic-ize, class-ify, Adjectives = critic-al,
wonder-ful
- Inflectional Morpheme is morpheme that indicate aspects of the grammatical function of a word,
such as changing word into a plural or possessive form.
Example: Noun = Jim-‘s, sister-s, Verbs = like-s, laugh-ing, enjoy-ed, be-en, Adjectives = quiet-
er, loud-est.
n. What is allomorph. Give examples.
Allomorph is one of a closely related set of morphs.
Example: /-s/ (“cats”), /-z/ (“dogs”), /-əz/ (“horses”).
14. What is syntax?
Syntax is a study of an attempt to produce an accurate description of the sequence or ordering
“arrangement” of elements in the linier structure of the sentence.
15. What is Deep Structure? Give example.
 Deep structure is an abstract level of structural organization in which all the elements determining
structural interpretation are presented. The same deep structure can be the source of many other surface
structures such as :
It was Charlie who broke the window or
Was the window broken by Charlie?
16. What is Surface Structure? Give example.
Surface structure is the different syntactic forms of sentence and they still related each other. For
example:
Charlie broke the window.
The window was broken by Charlie.
17. What is Phrase and mention the kind of Phrase!
- Phrase is the combination of more than two words.
- Kind of Phrase: Noun phrase (NP), Verb phrase (VP), Adjective Phrase (AdjP), and Adverb Phrase
(AdvP).

18. Give examples of Noun Phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), Adjective Phrase (Adj P) and Adverb Phrases
(AdvP) !
- Noun Phrase (NP)
a. NP as the modifier and a noun which is the head of the group, example: a man, the student, his
book, their father, one book, that book, etc.
b. NP consists of a determiner, an adjective or a noun as modifier, and noun as a head, example: a
clever student, the young man, the good character, the table legs, many diligent workers, etc.
c. NP consists of a determiner, an adjective or a noun as modifier, a noun as a head, and a
prepositional phrase or a clause as modifier, example: the good students in the class, a new house
in the area, the new books on the table, the new car in the garage, etc.
- Verb Phrase (VP)
a. VP consists of auxiliary as modifier and a verb as head, example: can speak, may go, must study,
would buy, will come, etc.
b. VP as head may be preceded by two or three auxiliaries, example: will be coming, will have gone,
should have visited, may have rained, may have played, etc.
- Adjective Phrase (AdjP)
 It may be consists of an intensifier, an adverb as modifier, an adjective as head, example: very
positively significant, so sensitively felt, so widely accepted, etc.
- Adverb Phrase (AdvP)
It has preceded by an intensifier, example: very quickly, rather slowly, so late, quite well, etc.

19. Tree diagram is the most common ways to create a visual representation of syntactic structure.

NP NP

Art N
[The] [girl] Art N

The Girl

The girl saw the dog.

NP VP

Art N V Np

Art N
The girl saw a dog