Osmoregulasi dan Ekskresi

Osmoregulasi adalah
keseimbangan
Limbah nitrogen
mencerminkan
filogeni dan habitat
Beragam sistem
ekskretoris
Nefron dan pembuluh
darah yang terkait
Ginjal Mamalia
Adaptasi dari ginjal
vertebrata

Osmoregulasi
Osmoregulasi tergantung pada serapan
dan kehilangan keseimbangan air dan zat
terlarut
Osmosis: difusi air, menuruni gradien
konsentrasi, melintasi membran
Sel Hewan lisis jika terlalu banyak air
masuk
Osmolaritas: tekanan osmosis (dasarnya
konsentrasi zat terlarut)

Tantangan Osmotik
Isoosmotik dengan lingkungannya:
osmokonformer
Osmolaritas internal adalah identik dengan
lingkungan eksternal
Hidup di air dengan konsentrasi garam yang
stabil
Pengendalian internal osmolaritas:
osmoregulator
Harus kelebihan debit air jika di habitat
hipoosmotik
Harus mengambil air jika di habitat hiperosmotik

Tantangan Osmotik
Osmoregulasi memiliki biaya energik
Stenohaline: tidak dapat mentolerir
perubahan yang mendasar terhadap
osmolaritas internal
Euryhaline: bisa bertahan fluktuasi besar
dalam osmolaritas internal
Contoh: salmon, tilapia

Hewan Laut
Kebanyakan invertebrata laut adalah
osmokonformer
Sering berbeda dalam konsentrasi zat terlarut
tertentu, tetapi konsentrasi zat terlarut total sama

Vertebrata laut adalah osmoregulator

Pada umumnya, air laut sangat dehidrasi
Menyeimbangkan kehilangan air dengan banyak
minum air laut
Mengeluarkan garam melalui kulit dan insang
Ekskret terkonsentrasi dalam bentuk urine

Hewan Laut
Hiu, Condricthyan lainnya
Ginjal mengeluarkan sejumlah garam,
sisanya melalui kelenjar dubur dan feses
Mempertahankan tinggi konsentrasi urea
internal-zat terlarut diperlukan untuk membuat
ini aman berarti habitat solut konsentrasi lebih
tinggi dari internal (kebocoran air dalam
sangat lambat)

Hewan Air Tawar

Hewan air tawar terus-menerus
mendapatkan air dengan osmosis,
kehilangan garam dengan difusi
Kebanyakan memiliki konsentrasi internal
terlarut rendah dari hewan laut
Mengeluarkan urin yang sangat encer
Aktif menyerap Ca pada insang

Hewan dalam jumlah air yang

temporer
Anhydrobiosis: kemampuan untuk pergi
tertidur dalam situasi kekeringan
Tardigrades: beruang air, invertebrata
berukuran kurang dari 1 mm
85% air dari berat saat aktif
Bisa bertahan hidup dg 2% air menurut
beratnya saat dorman (selama puluhan
tahun)

Hewan Darat
Kekeringan merupakan masalah utama bagi
hewan darat dan tanaman
Manusia mati jika kehilangan 12% dari air tubuh
Tumbuhan memiliki lilin kutikula, hewan memiliki
penutup untuk mencegah kehilangan air
Banyak hewan yang aktif di malam hari
Tambahan air metabolik dengan makan / minum

Epitelium Transport
Lapisan atau lapisan sel-sel yang terspesialisasi
yang mengatur pergerakan larutan
Diikat oleh junction ketat (tight junctions),
membentuk pembatas- larutan harus melewati
membran selektif permeabel untuk memasuki
organisme
Contoh: kelenjar garam pada burung laut
Meminum air laut, mengekskresikan garam melalui
kelenjar garam

Sampah Nitrogen
Kebanyakan harus diencerkan dalam air
sebelum diekskresikan
Merupakan hasil pemecahan protein dan
asam nukleat
Nitrogen dikeluarkan sebagai ammonia
(NH3)- racun
Beberapa hewan mengubah ammonia
menjadi ekskret lain (membutuhkan biaya)

Pembentukan sampah Nitrogen

Ammonia
Membutuhkan banyak air
Pada ikan (umumnya pada air tawar), umumnya
berupa ammonium (NH4+) dikeluarkan melalui insang

Urea
Hasil dari kombinasi ammonia dan CO2
Dihasilkan di hati
Keuntungan: tingkat racun rendah (100,000x <
ammonia)
Kerugian: membutuhkan biaya

Pembentukan sampah Nitrogen

Asam urat (uric acid)
Insecta , siput tanah, reptil, burung
relatif tidak beracun
Tidak larut dalam air, diekskresikan berbentuk
pasta
Biaya sangat mahal!

Kontribusi Evolusioner
Jenis limbah nitrogen yg dikeluarkan sangat
ditentukan oleh sejarah dan habitat
Mode reproduksi penting
- Limbah yg larut dapat dihilangkan dalam amfibi
(tidak ada cangkang telur) dan mamalia (sistem
peredaran darah)
- Asam urat tidak larut, sehingga tidak merusak
embrio burung, reptil
Jenis limbah mungkin dapat berubah
berdasarkan kondisi

Proses Ekskretori
Cairan Tubuh dikumpulkan (darah, hemolymph,
dll) - biasanya melibatkan penyaringan
Filtrat harus dibersihkan dari partikel kecil yang
penting atau penting (partikel besar tidak
melewati filter)
Transportasi aktif digunakan untuk menyerap
kembali secara selektif
Sekresi Selektif dapat menambahkan untuk
filtrat (membuang partikel yang lebih besar)

Sistem Ekskresi
Protonephridia: Flame-bulb systems
Platyhelminthes
Dead-end tubules (no internal openings)
Smallest units capped by flame bulb: tuft of
cilia projecting into tubule
Beating cilia draws water from interstitial fluid
through bulb (filtration), into tubule system
Urine moved outward through tubules until
exit through nephridiopores

Excretory Systems
Metanephridia:
Internal openings that collect body fluids
Annelids
Each segment has pair of metanephridiabathed in fluid, wrapped in capillaries
Internal opening surrounded by ciliated
funnel: nephrostome
Fluid enters nephrostome, passes through
coiled collecting tube

Excretory Systems
Malpighian Tubules:
Insects, terrestrial arthropods
Remove nitrogenous wastes, osmoregulation
Open into digestive tract and dead-end tips
(immersed in hemolymph)
Transport epithelium secretes solutes into
tubules, water follows
Solutes pumped back into hemolymph at
rectum, water follows

Excretory Systems
Vertebrate kidney:
Osmoregulation and excretion
Built of tubules, arranged in highly organized
manner
Dense network of capillaries associated with
tubules

Structure of Vertebrate Kidneys

Kidneys are bean shaped, about 10 cm

Supplied with blood by renal artery
Drained by renal vein
Urine exits through ureter merge into
urinary bladder
Urine leaves bladder
through urethra
Urination regulated by
sphincter muscles

Nephrons
Two distinct regions:
Renal cortex: outer region
Renal medulla: inner region

Nephron: functional unit of the kidney

Single long tubule
Ball of capillaries: glomerulus
Surrounded by Bowmans Capsule

Each kidney contains ~1 million nephrons

Filtration of Blood
Blood pressure forces blood out of
capillaries in glomerulus and into lumen of
Bowmans Capsule
Permeable to water, small solutes; not blood
cells, plasma proteins

Filtration is non-specific
Everything small enough leaves the blood

Pathway of Filtrate
From Bowmans capsule proximal
tubule loop of Henle distal tubule
collecting duct
Collecting duct gets filtrate
from many nephrons
renal pelvis ureter

Pathway of Filtrate
80% of nephrons (cortical nephrons) have
reduced loops of Henle restricted to
renal cortex
20% of nephrons (juxtamedullary
nephrons) have long loops than extend
into renal medulla
Only mammals birds have juxta. nephrons
Allow to make urine that is hyperosmotic to
body fluids

Nephron Info
Nephron, collecting duct lined by transport
epithelium
Processes filtrate to form urine
Must also reabsorb solutes and water

Between 1 kL and 2 kL of blood flows

through kidneys each day
275x the bodys blood volume
Produce 180 L initial filtrate (2-3x body
weight)
Sugar, vitamins, organic nutrients, water
reabsorbed

Blood Vessels Associated with

Nephron
Each nephron supplied with blood by
afferent arteriole
Efferent arteriole: capillaries converge as
they leave glomerulus
Efferent arteriole subdivides: peritubular
capillaries
Surround proximal, distal tubules

Vasa recta: capillaries that extend down

and surround loop of Henle

Blood Vessels Associated with

Nephron
Excretory tubules and capillaries do not
exchange materials directly
All immersed in interstitial fluid
Materials diffuse between plasma and
filtrate through interstitial fluid

From Filtrate to UrineThe Proximal Tubule

Transport epithelium:
Controls pH (controls secretion of H+)
Produces and secretes ammonia (keeps
filtrate from becoming too acidic)
Reabsorb 90% of bicarbonate (buffer)
Drugs enter tubule lumen
Glucose, amino acids, K+ actively or
passively transported from filtrate to the
peritubular capillaries

From Filtrate to UrineThe Proximal Tubule

Re-absorption of sodium and water from
initial filtrate
Salt diffuses into transport epithelium
actively transported into interstitial fluid
Cl- passively follows
As salt moves, water moves passively
Exterior side of epithelium has smaller
surface area (less area for salt to leak
back in) peritubular capillaries

From Filtrate to UrineDescending Loop of Henle

Reabsorption of water
Transport epithelium freely permeable to
water; not so much to salt, solutes
For water to leave the tubule, interstitial
fluid must be hyperosmotic to filtrate
Osmolarity of interstitial fluid increases as
the loop descends, so water continues to
leak out of tubule

From Filtrate to UrineAscending Loop of Henle

Ascending limb of loop is freely permeable
to salt, not to water
Two sections:
Thin section (near tip): salt diffuses out of
tubule and into interstitial fluid; increases
osmolarity of interstitial fluid
Thick section (near distal tubule): salt actively
transported into interstitial fluid

From Filtrate to UrineThe Distal Tubule

Plays key role in regulating K+ and NaCl
concentrations of body fluids
Varies the amount of K+ that is secreted
into filtrate and amount of NaCl
reabsorbed from filtrate
Contributes to pH regulation by controlling
secretion of H+ and reabsorption of
bicarbonate

From Filtrate to UrineThe Collecting Duct

Carries filtrate through medulla into renal
pelvis
Transport epithelium actively reabsorbs
NaCl
While degree of permeability under
hormonal control, permeable to water; not
permeable to salt, urea (in renal cortex)
In inner medulla, becomes permeable to
urea

Mammalian Kidney as Terrestrial

Adaptation
Osmolarity of human blood: 300 mosm/L
Urine: 1200 mosm/L
Ability to excrete very concentrated urine
an adaptation to terrestrial habitats

Solute Gradients and Water

Conservation
Nephrons require great expenditure of
energy to maintain gradients
Primary solutes:
NaCl: deposited in renal medulla by loop of
Henle
Urea: leaks across collecting duct to inner
medulla

Filtrate Flow
Filtrate moving from Bowmans capsule to
proximal tubule: 300 mosm/L
In proximal tubule, water and salt removed
(in renal cortex), osmolarity remains same
In descending loop of Henle, water leaves
by osmosis, osmolarity increases
Highest osmolarity exists at elbow of loop
of Henle

Filtrate Flow
Ascending loop permeable to salt, not
water
Salt now helps to maintain high osmolarity
of kidney medulla
Kidney exhibits many characteristics of
countercurrent exchange
Vasa recta also has countercurrent
exchange characteristics:
Descending vessel loses water, gains salt
Ascending vessel gains water, loses salt

Energy Use
Without energy input, renal cortex and
renal medulla osmolarity will stabilize
Energy maintains that gradient primarily
by actively transporting salt OUT of
ascending loop of Henle
As a result, kidney has high ATP use

Filtrate Flow
When filtrate reenters cortex, it is
hypoosmitic to body fluids
Descends again in collecting duct:
permeable to water, not salt
Water leaves filtrate by osmosis (high
osmolarity of renal medulla)
Some urea leaks out, but most is
concentrated with salt into the filtrate

Regulation of Kidney Function

Antidiuretic hormone: ADH
Produced in hypothalamus, stored and
released from anterior pituitary gland
When osmolarity of blood rises, production
and release of ADH increases
ADH targets distal tubules and collecing ducts
Increases permeability of epithelium to water
(amplifies water reabsorption)

Regulation of Kidney Function

Juxtaglomerular apparatus: JGA
Near afferent arteriole that supplies blood to
glomerulus
When BP or blood volume in afferent arteriole
drops, converts angiotensinogen to
angiotensin II
Raises BP by constricting arterioles,
decreasing blood flow to capillaries (inc.
kidneys)
Stimulates proximal tubules to reabsorb more
salt and water

Regulation of Kidney Function

Agiotensin also stimulates adrenal glands
to release aldosterone
Acts on distal tubules: reabsorb more Na+
and water
Atrial natriuretic factor: ANF
Produced due to increase in BP and volume
Counteracts angiotensis, etc.