Konsep Dasar Ekosistem
Konsep Dasar Ekosistem
Konsep Ekosistem
Definisi Ekosistem
Sistem ekologi dapat didefinisikan sebagai suatu komunitas tumbuhan dan
binatang yang saling berinteraksi beserta lingkungan abiotik atau alamiahnya.
Ekosistem-ekosistem dapat dikelompokkan berdasarkan vegetasi dominannya,
topography, iklim atau beberapa criteria lainnya.
ini dikonsumsi oleh herbivora atau detritivores, yang pada akhirnya dikonsumsi oleh predator
atau detritivores lainnya.
4
Sumber: http://www.eoearth.org/article/Ecosystems_and_Human_Well-
Being:_Volume_1:_Current_State_and_Trends:_Coastal_Systems
Jaring-jaring Makanan
Organisme dapat diklasifikasikan berdasarkan banyaknya transfer energy melalui
jaring-jaring makanan. Produksi bahan organic secara foto-autotrofik mencerminkan
transfer energy yang pertama di dalam suatu ekosistem dan diklasifikasikan denagai
PRODUKSI PRIMER. Konsumsi suatu tumbuhan oleh by a herbivora merupakan transfer
energi ke dua , sehingga herbivore menempati tingkat trofik ke dua, juga dikenal sebagai
PRODUKSI SEKUNDER. Organiske konsumen yang merupakan transfer ke satu, dua atau
tiga dari foto-autotrof dikelompokkan sebagai konsumen primer, sekunder, dan tersier.
Bergerak melalui suatu jarring-jaring makanan, energy hilang selama proses transfer
sebagai panas, sebagaimana dijelaskan dengan Hukum Termodinamika ke dua. Oleh
karena itu, jumlah total transfer energy jarang yang melebihi empat atau lima; dengan
adanya kehilangan energy selama setiap proses transfer, maka sedikit sekali energy
yang tersedia untuk mendukung organism yang berada pada tingkat tertinggi dari suatu
jaring-jaring makanan.
Dalam suatu siklus biogeokimia, unsure-unsur hara anorganik yang diperlukan untuk pertumbuhan
dan perkembangan organism bersirkulasi dari komponen abiotik ke komponen biotic dan kembali
lagi ke komponen abiotik dari ekosistem (Source Flint, M.L and P. Gouveia, 2001)
Diagram jaring-jaring makanan dalam alfalfa. Setiap tanda panah mencerminkan transfer
makanan, atau energy dari satu organism ke organism lainnya. Jaring-jaring menjadi lebih
kompleks kalau semakin banyak spesies yang dimasukkan ke dalam system. (Flint, M.L. and P.
Gouveia. 2001).
Sumber: http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/ipm/index.php/ecosystem-ecology.. diunduh
29/6/2011
Sumber: http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/ipm/index.php/ecosystem-ecology..
diunduh 29/6/2011
8
Jaring makanan dalam tanah memiliki banyak organisme yang memangsa biomasa
tumbuhan hidup dan mati. Dengan demikian, banyak organisme memperoleh energi
untuk tumbuh dan berkembang biak dan akhirnya hara yang diikat dalam biomasa
tumbuhan dan hewan dapat tersedia kembali untuk pertumbuhan tanaman.
Sumber: http://www.touregypt.net/parks/linked_coastal_ecosystems.htm
Siklus Biogeokimia
Berbeda dengan energi, yang hilang dari ekosistem sebagai panas, unsur hara (atau
nutrisi) yang membentuk molekul dalam organisme tidak berubah dan dapat berulang-ulang
ber-siklus di antara organisme dan lingkungan hidupnya. Sekitar 40 unsur menyusun tubuh
organisme, dimana karbon, oksigen, hidrogen, nitrogen, dan fosfor yang paling banyak. Jika
salah satu dari unsure tersebut dalam lingkungan tumbuh suplainya kurang, pertumbuhan
organisme dapat terhambat, meskipun tersedia cukup banyak energi. Secara khusus,
nitrogen dan fosfor adalah elemen yang paling sering membatasi pertumbuhan organisme.
Keterbatasan ini ditandai oleh meluasnya penggunaan pupuk, yang diterapkan pada bidang
pertanian untuk mengatasi kurangnya ketersediaan hara.
The movement of energy from one level of the food web to the next. The
proportion of energy at one level of the food web that makes it to the next
level is called ecological efficiency - this is usually less than 10%. In an
agroecosystem, we also care about how well the energy consumed by
organisms, usually either the crop plants (the producers, with energy from
the sun) or livestock (herbivores, with energy from feed or pasture), is
converted into body tissue - this is conversion efficiency.
10
Sumber:
http://www.acad.carleton.edu/curricular/BIOL/classes/bio160/ClassResources/Case_Studies/Case3_E
nergy/Case3_Directions.htm .. diunduh 29/6/2011
Siklus karbon terjadi di antara atmosfer dan ekosistem darat dan laut. Siklus ini
terjadi ada kaitannya dnegan produksi primer dan dekomposisi bahan organik.
Tingkat produksi primer dan dekomposisi bahan organik, selanjutna dikendalikan
oleh pasokan nitrogen, fosfor, dan zat besi. Pembakaran bahan bakar fosil
merupakan perubahan terbaru siklus global yang melepaskan karbon yang telah
lama terkubur dalam kerak bumi ke dalam atmosfer. Karbon dioksida di atmosfer
menangkap panas pada permukaan bumi dan merupakan faktor utama yang
mengatur iklim. Perubahan siklus karbon global ini mengakibatkan dampak pada
iklim, isu-isu ini merupakan masalah besar yang sedang diselidiki oleh ahli ekologi
ekosistem.
Siklus Karbon
Organic chemicals are made from carbon more than any other atom, so
the Carbon Cycle is a very important one. Carbon between the biological
to the physical environment as it moves through the carbon cycle.
Karbon kembali ke lingkungan fisik melalui beberapa cara. Tanaman dan hewan
melakukan respirasi, sehingga mereka melepaskan CO2 selama respirasinya.
Tumbuhan dapat mengkonsumsi lebih banyak CO2 melalui fotosintesis daripada
yang dapat dihasilkannya melalui respirasi. Jalur lain kembalinya CO2 ke lingkungan
fisik terjadi melalui kematian tanaman dan hewan. Kalau organisme mati, bakteri
dekomposer mengkonsumsi biomasa. Dalam proses dekomposisinya, sejumlah
karbon dilepaskan kembali ke lingkungan fisik dengan cara fosilisasi. Sebagian
karbon tetap tinggal dalam lingkungan biologis kalau organisme lain memangsa
decomposer tersebut. Namun sejauh ini, sebagian besar karbon kembali ke
lingkungan fisik melalui proses respirasi CO2.
Sumber: http://www.starsandseas.com/SAS%20Ecology/SAS
%20chemcycles/cycle_carbon.htm ..... diunduh 29/6/2011
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Siklus Nitrogen
Protein, asam nukleat , dan bahan kimia organik lainnya mengandung nitrogen ,
sehingga nitrogen adalah unsur yang sangat penting dalam organisme biologis .
Nitrogen menyusun 79% dari atmosfer bumi , namun sebagian besar organisme
tidak dapat menggunakan gas nitrogen (N2). N2 memasuki sistem trofik melalui
proses fiksasi nitrogen . Bakteri yang ditemukan pada akar beberapa tanaman
legume dapat memfiksasi N2 menjadi molekul organik, membentuk protein.
Demikian juga, hewan mendapatkan nitrogen dengan jalan memakan biomasa
tanaman. Tetapi setelah titik ini , siklus nitrogen akan jauh lebih rumit daripada siklus
karbon. Hewan melepaskan nitrogen dalam urine-nya . Ikan melepaskan NH3 , tetapi
kalau konsnetrasi NH3 pekat, bersifat racun bagi organisme hidup . Jadi organisme
harus mengencerkan NH3 dengan banyak air . Kehidupan air , ikan tidak
menghadapi masalah dengan persyaratan ini, tetapi hewan darat memiliki masalah
serius. Mereka mengkonversi NH3 menjadi urine, atau senyawa kimia lainnya yang
tidak beracun seperti NH3 . Proses pelepasan NH3 disebut ammonification . Karena
NH3 bersifat racun , sebagian besar NH3 yang dilepaskan tidak tersentuh . Tetapi
bakteri tanah memiliki kemampuan untuk mengasimilasi NH3 menjadi protein .
Bakteri ini efektif memakan NH3 , dan membuat protein darinya. Proses ini disebut
asimilasi .
Some soil bacteria does not convert NH3 into proteins, but they make
nitrate NO3- instead. This process is called nitrification. Some plants can
use NO3-, consuming nitrate and making proteins. Some soil bacteria,
however, takes NO3-, and converts it into N2, returning nitrogen gas back
into the atmosphere. This last process is called denitrification, because it
breaks nitrate apart.
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Sumber: http://www.starsandseas.com/SAS%20Ecology/SAS
%20chemcycles/cycle_carbon.htm ..... diunduh 29/6/2011
Siklus Phosphorus
Fosfor adalah kunci untuk system energi dalam organisme, fosfor yang
menggerakkan energi dari ATP ke molekul lain , mengendalikan reaksi enzimatik,
atau transportasi seluler. Fosfor juga merupakan perekat yang memegang DNA
bersama-sama , mengikat gula deoksiribosa bersama-sama , membentuk tulang
punggung dari molekul DNA. Fosfor melakukan fugnsi yang sama di dalam RNA .
Faktor kunci untuk memasukkan fosfor ke dalam sistem tropik adalah tanaman.
Tanaman menyerap fosfor dari air dan tanah ke dalam tubuhnya, mensintesisnya
menjadi molekul P-organik . Setelah diambil oleh tanaman, fosfor yang tersedia bagi
hewan yang mengkonsumsi biomasa tanaman. Ketika tumbuhan dan hewan mati,
bakteri mendekomposisi biomasa, melepaskan sejunmlah fosfor anorganik kembali
ke tanah. Di dalam tanah , fosfor dapat bergerak sejauh 100 - 1.000 mil dari tempat
dimana P dilepaskan, melalui aliran air dan sungai. Dengan demikian siklus air
memainkan peran kunci dalam pergerakan fosfor dalam ekosistem . Dalam
beberapa kasus , fosfor diangkut memasuki danau , dan menetap di dalam sedimen
di bagian dasar danau. Di dasar danau ini, fosfor dapat berubah menjadi batuan
sedimen , batu kapur , yang akan dirilis jutaan tahun kemudian . Batuan sedimen
berfungsai sebagai cadangan, melestarikan banyak fosfor untuk digunakan di masa
depan .
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Sumber: http://www.starsandseas.com/SAS%20Ecology/SAS
%20chemcycles/cycle_carbon.htm ..... diunduh 29/6/2011
Fotosintesis
Organisme dan fungsi suatu sel hidup bergantung pada persediaan energi
yang tak henti-hentinya, sumber energi ini tersimpan dalam molekul-molekul
organik seperti karbohidrat. Organisme heterotrofik seperti ragi dan kita sendiri,
hidup dan tumbuh dengan memasukkan molekul-molekul organik ke dalam sel-
selnya. Untuk tujuan praktis, satu-satunya sumber molekul bahan bakar yang
menjadi tempat bergantung seluruh kehidupan ialah fotosintesis. Fotosintesis
menyediakan makanan bagi hampir seluruh kehidupan di dunia baik secara
langsung atau tidak langsung. Organisme memperoleh senyawa organik yang
digunakan untuk dan rangka karbon dengan satu atau dua cara utama: nutrisi
autotrofik atau heterotrofik. Autotro dapat diartikan bahwa dapat menyediakan
makanan bagi diri sendiri hanya dalam pengertian bahwa autotrof dapat
mempertahankan dirinya sendiri tanpa memakan dan menguraikan organisme
lain. Autotrof membuat molekul organik mereka sendiri dari bahan mentah
anorganik yang diperoleh dari lingkuannya. Oleh karena alasan inilah, para ahli
biologi menyebut autotrof sebagai produsen biosfer.
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Jalur Fotosintesis
Dengan keberadaan cahaya, bagian-bagian tumbuhan yang berwarna
hijau menghasilkan bahan organik dan oksigen dari karbon dioksida dan air.
Dengan menggunakan rumus molekul, persamaan kimia fotosintesis adalah:
Karbohidrat C6H12O6 ialah glukosa. Air muncul pada kedua sisi persamaan
itu karena 12 molekul dikonsumsi dan 6 molekul terbentuk lagi selama
fotosintesis. Persamaan itu dapat disederhanakan dengan memperlihatkan
selisih konsumsi air:
Kesehatan Ekosistem
Kesehatan Agro-ecosystem
Salah satu hipotesis dasar dalam suatu proposal penelitian adalah bahwa
paradigma kesehatan agro-ekosistem akan menyediakan kerangka kerja
konseptual yang bagus daripada paradigma keberlanjutan-pertanian, yang ' tidak
mengandung banyak fakta empiris karena kurangnya definisi yang komprehensif dan
metodologi analitis' (ILRI 1998). Kedua paradigm tersbeut memang dapat dibedakan,
tetapi untuk tujuan praktis biasanya keduanya dianggap sama, pada dasarnya identik
(perbandingan ini dikembangkan secara lebih rinci dalam Smit dan Smithers (1994).
Begitu istilah 'agro digabungkan dnegan ekosistem maka secara eksplisit
komponen manusia dilibatkan, sehingga agro-ekosistem pada dasarnya setara
dengan definisi yang luas dari pertanian, yang mencakup komponen ekologi dan
manusia.
Agri-food systems that are economically viable, meet society's need for
safe and nutritious foods, while conserving natural resources and the
quality of the environment for future generations (SCC 1992),
Agricultural system that can indefinitely meet demands for food and fibre
at socially acceptable economic and environmental costs (Crosson 1992).
scales (hence the different sizes of sets), and which can be employed in
numerous applications, including a) using indicators to compare systems or
document changes in AESH, b) identifying and specifying relationships among
dimensions to understand dynamics and determinants of AESH, and c) assessing
responses in AESH to stresses, both those associated with external environments
(such as climatic variations or macro-economic conditions) and those reflecting
interventions or policies.
In other respects as well, AESH and AS are very similar. Both are
applicable at different spatial and temporal scales. For both, considerable
effort has been expended in developing indicators, and similar kinds of
indicators (often very long lists) have been proposed. Indicators can take a
wide variety of forms, including state and functional indicators, diagnostic
and early warning indicators. There are also many examples of particular
empirical studies employing indicators, especially of sustainable
agriculture . However, neither of these frameworks can supply a single,
comprehensive measurable indicator which can adequately capture the
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Holistik
Terintegrasi = Disaggregated
Panen berlebihan
Overexploitation is commonplace when it comes to harvesting of wildlife,
fisheries, and forests. Over long periods of time, stocks of preferred
species are reduced. For example, the giant redwoods that once thrived
along the California coast now exist only in remnant patches because of
overharvesting. When dominant species like the giant redwoods (arguably
the world's tallest treeone specimen was recorded at 110 meters tall
with a circumference of 13.4 meters) are lost, the entire ecosystem
becomes transformed. Overharvesting often results in reduced biodiversity
of endemic species, while facilitating the invasion of opportunistic species.
Limbah / Residu.
Discharges from municipal, industrial, and agricultural sources into the air,
water, and land have severely compromised many of the earth's
ecosystems. The effects are particularly apparent in aquatic ecosystems.
In some lakes that lack a natural buffering capacity, acid precipitation has
eliminated most of the fish and other organisms. While the visual effect
appears beneficial (water clarity goes up) the impact on ecosystem health
is devastating. Systems that once contained a variety of organisms and
were highly productive (biologically) become devoid of most lifeforms
except for a few acid-tolerant bacteria and sediment-dwelling organisms.
Perubahan Global
Rapid climate change (or climate warming) is an emerging potential global
stress on all of the earth's ecosystems. In evolutionary time, there have of
course been large fluctuations in climate. However, for the most part
these fluctuations have occurred gradually over long periods of time.
Rapid climate change is an entirely different matter. By altering both
averages and extremes in precipitation, temperature, and storm events,
and by destabilizing the El Nio Southern Oscillation (ENSO), which
controls weather patterns over much of the southern Pacific region, many
ecosystem processes can become significantly altered. Excessive periods
of drought or unusually heavy rains and flooding will exceed the tolerance
for many species, thus changing the biotic composition. Flooding and
unusually high winds contribute to soil erosion, and at the same time add
to nutrient load in rivers and coastal waters.
These anthropogenic stresses have compromised ecosystem function in
most regions of the world, resulting in ecosystem distress syndrome (EDS).
EDS is characterized by a group of signs, including abnormalities in
nutrient cycling, productivity, species diversity and richness, biotic
structure, disease prevalence, soil fertility, and so on. The consequences
of these changes for human health are not inconsiderable. Impoverished
biotic communities are natural harbors for pathogens that affect humans
and other species.
Sumber: http://www.mindfully.org/Heritage/2005/Ecosystem-Degradation-
Threats9dec05.htm .. diunduh 1/7/2011
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Perubahan iklim global, terutama perubahan suhu dan curah hujan - sangat
berkorelasi dengan prevalensi vektor penyakit . Misalnya, virus yang dibawa oleh nyamuk ,
kutu , dan arthropoda lain penghisap darah, umumnya telah meningkatkan tingkat
transmisinya dengan adanya peningkatan suhu. Nyamuk Culex tarsalis membawa virus.
Persentase gigitan yang menghasilkan transmisi SLE tergantung pada suhu, laju transmisi
lebih besar pada suhu tinggi .
Ketergantungan vektor penyakit pada suhu ini juga dapat digambarkan dengan baik
pada penyakit malaria. Malaria adalah endemik di seluruh daerah tropis , dengan prevalensi
tinggi di Afrika , benua India , Asia Tenggara , dan sebagian dari Amerika Selatan, Amerika
Tengah dan Meksiko . Sekitar 2,4 miliar orang tinggal di daerah risiko , dengan 350 juta
infeksi baru terjadi setiap tahunnya , mengakibatkan sekitar 2 juta kematian , terutama pada
anak-anak . Malaria yang tidak diobati dapat menjadi penderitaan seumur hidup dengan
gejala seperti demam , sakit kepala , dan malaise .
The sensitivitas malaria terhadap iklim dapat terjadi karena sifat dari interaksi
parasit , vektor , dan host ; yang semuanya berdampak tingkat penularan pada manusia.
Waktu tumbuh yang diperlukan oleh parasit untuk berkembang penuh dalam host nyamuk
(suatu proses yang disebut sporogoni ) adalah 8-35 hari . Ketika suhu di kisaran 20 C
hingga 27 C , waktu tumbuh ini menjadi lebih singkat. Curah hujan dan kelembaban udara
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juga sangat berpengaruh. Kekeringan dan hujan lebat cenderung mengurangi populasi
nyamuk yang berfungsi sebagai vektor malaria . Di daerah kering daerah tropis , curah hujan
yang rendah dan kelembaban yang rendah membatasi kelangsungan hidup nyamuk . Banjir
parah dapat mengakibatkan rusaknya habitat berkembang biak bagi nyamuk vektor ,
sedangkan curah hujan medium dapat meningkatkan produksi vektor .
Tambak udang yang tidak dikelola lagi biasanya disebabkan oleh gangguan
penyakit, kualitas air tidak layak, sedimentasi tambak, atau karena pemiliknya
tidak mempunyai modal yang cukup. Kondisi tambak seperti ini masih dapat
direkayasa dan dikelola untuk memelihara ikan nila merah. Budidaya jenis ikan
ini ternyata mempunyai risiko yang lebih rendah.
Sumber: http://artaquaculture.blogspot.com/2010/09/nila-merah-untuk-tambak-
idle.html ...... Diunduh 15 desember 2011
Ketidak-seimbangan Ekologis
Kolera adalah penyakit serius dan berpotensi gangguan fatal, disebabkan oleh
bakteri Vibrio cholerae . Gejala kolera meliputi diare eksplosif, muntah, dan sakit perut.
Pandemi terbaru kolera melibatkan lebih banyak daerah daripada waktu-waktu sebelumnya
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pada abad kedua puluh. Peningkatan prevalensi V. cholerae sangat terkait dengan
degradasi lingkungan pesisir pantai dan laut. Perairan pesisir yang hangat dan kaya hara,
yang dihasilkan oleh perubahan iklim dan penggunaan pupuk , menyediakan lingkungan
yang ideal untuk reproduksi dan penyebaran V. cholerae . Wabah baru kolera di Bangladesh
, misalnya , berkorelasi erat dengan suhu permukaan laut yang lebih tinggi. V. cholerae
menempel pada permukaan copepoda ( krustasea ) air tawar dan laut, serta akar dan
permukaan terbuka dari tumbuhan ( tanaman air ) seperti eceng gondok yang paling
melimpah di Bangladesh.
Pengkayaan hara dan suhu hangat menimbulkan ledkaan populasi ganggang dan
kelimpahan makrofita . Melimpahnya ganggang menyediakan makanan yang berlimpah bagi
copepoda , dan banyaknya copepoda dan macrophyte menyediakan habitat yang bagus
bagi V. cholerae. Penyebaran selanjutnya dari V. cholerae ke muara dan badan air tawar
memungkinkan kontak dengan manusia yang menggunakan air ini untuk minum dan mandi .
Distribusi global patogen laut seperti V. cholerae lebih lanjut difasilitasi oleh air pembuangan
air limbah . Air limbah ini mengandung beragam patogen , termasuk V. Cholerae.
The most recent and spectacular example is mad cow disease, known as variant
Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in humans, a neuro-degenerative condition that, in
humans, is ultimately fatal. The first case of Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy
(BSE), the animal form of the disease, was identified in Southern England in
November 1981. By the fall of 2000, an outbreak had also occurred in France, and
isolated cases appeared in Germany, Switzerland, and Spain. More than one
hundred deaths in Europe were attributed to what has come to be commonly
called mad cow disease.
Restorasi Ekosistem
Patologi ekosistem dalam beberapa kasus dapat dengan mudah diatasi
dengan jalan menghilangkan sumber-sumber stress. Misalnya dalam kasus-
kasus degradasi ekosistem yang diakibatkan oleh penambahan bahan kimia
toksik, maka penghilangan stress ini dapat memulihkan kembali kesehatan
ekosistem.
Restorasi Agroekologis
Agriculture creates a conflict over the use of land between wildlife and
humans. Though the domestication of crop plants occurred 10,000 years
ago, a 500% increase in the amount of pasture and crop land over the last
three hundred years has led to the rapid loss of natural habitats. In recent
years, the world community acknowledged the value of biodiversity in
treaties, such as the 1992 landmark Convention on Biological Diversity.
Reintegration
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Biodiversitas
The FAO memperkirakan bahwa lebih dari 40% dari lahan di muka bumi
saat ini digunakan untuk pertanian. Begitu banyaknya lahan yang telah
dikonversi menjadi lahan pertanian, maka hilangnya habitat telah menjadi
pendorong hilangnya keanekaragaman hayati (FAO). Hilangnya
keanekaragaman hayati ini seringkali terjadi dalam dua tahap, dengan
system pertanian campuran yang dilakukan pada lahan-lahan sempit dan
kemudian dengan meluasnya penggunaan pertanian mekanik dan
monokultur. Penurunan keanekaragaman hayati lahan pertanian dapat
ditelusuri dari perubahan praktek pertanian dan peningkatan intensitas
pertanian.
Peningkatan keaneka-ragaman
Monokultur
Pertanian Organik
Degradasi Ekosistem
The coastal zone as an economic entity provides sites for a wide range of
activities, such as agriculture (e.g., rice, coco palm, bananas), forestry (e.g.,
mangrove, nypa palm), fisheries and aquaculture, human settlements,
manufacturing and extractive industries (e.g., sand mining, oil, minerals), waste
disposal, ports and marine transportation, land transportation infrastructure,
water control and supply projects, shore protection works, tourism and
recreation. The multiple resource uses or activities in coastal areas may produce
a variety of changes in environmental or socio-economic conditions, which in
turn may result in an impact of social concern.
Pertanian = Agriculture
Agriculture is the cultivation of animals, plants, fungi and other life forms
for food, fiber, and other products used to sustain life. Agriculture was the key
implement in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of
domesticated species created food surpluses that nurtured the development of
civilization. The study of agriculture is known as agricultural science. Agriculture
is also observed in certain species of ant and termite, but generally speaking
refers to human activities.
The major agricultural products can be broadly grouped into foods, fibers,
fuels, and raw materials. In the 21st century, plants have been used to grow
biofuels, biopharmaceuticals, bioplastics, and pharmaceuticals. Specific foods
include cereals, vegetables, fruits, and meat. Fibers include cotton, wool, hemp,
silk and flax. Raw materials include lumber and bamboo. Other useful materials
are produced by plants, such as resins. Biofuels include methane from biomass,
ethanol, and biodiesel. Cut flowers, nursery plants, tropical fish and birds for the
pet trade are some of the ornamental products.
Then the plot is left fallow to regrow forest, and the farmer moves to a new
plot, returning after many more years (10-20). This fallow period is shortened if
population density grows, requiring the input of nutrients (fertilizer or manure)
and some manual pest control. Annual cultivation is the next phase of intensity
in which there is no fallow period. This requires even greater nutrient and pest
control inputs.
Animals, including horses, mules, oxen, camels, llamas, alpacas, and dogs,
are often used to help cultivate fields, harvest crops, wrangle other animals, and
transport farm products to buyers. Animal husbandry not only refers to the
breeding and raising of animals for meat or to harvest animal products (like milk,
eggs, or wool) on a continual basis, but also to the breeding and care of species
for work and companionship. Livestock production systems can be defined based
on feed source, as grassland - based, mixed, and landless.
Landless systems rely upon feed from outside the farm, representing the
de-linking of crop and livestock production found more prevalently in OECD
member countries. In the U.S., 70% of the grain grown is fed to animals on
feedlots. Synthetic fertilizers are more heavily relied upon for crop production
and manure utilization becomes a challenge as well as a source for pollution.
4. Free-ranging pigs requiring more fibre in the diet have lower feed
conversion and more waste per unit of meat produced.
Pertanian-Ekologis = Ecoagriculture
Pohon ditanam pada guludan untuk memanfaatkan air hujan yang tertampung
pada parit (swale)
Sumber: http://climatelab.org/Ecoagriculture ..... diunduh 30/6/2011
Sustainability rests on the principle that we must meet the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs. Therefore, stewardship of both natural and human resources is of prime
importance. Stewardship of human resources includes consideration of social
responsibilities such as working and living conditions of laborers, the needs of
rural communities, and consumer health and safety both in the present and the
future. Stewardship of land and natural resources involves maintaining or
enhancing this vital resource base for the long term.
Plants produce plant matter from soil nutrients, water and carbon dioxide,
using the energy of light. It is called primary production. The diagram
shows the carbon flows (is equal to energy flows). At left one sees a plant
receiving light and CO2 from the air and returning oxygen. At night, when
there is no sunlight, plants respire like animals do, taking up oxygen and
returning CO2. Surprisingly, a large proportion of a plant's primary
production (50%) disappears underground, where it grows the root system
and feeds soil organisms. Only 50% is used for above-ground growth. Of
this, between 10 and 40% is used for growing, depending on plant type,
age and kind of harvesting. If the plant is grazed regularly, the grown
biomass will be grazed, amounting to no more than 40%. The remaining
10% is lost by leaf drop. This leaf litter is decomposed by fungi and
bacteria, contributing energy to the soil biota, while returning nutrients to
the plant
48
Udara dan sinar matahari tersedia di mana-mana di muka Bumi ini, namun tanaman
juga tergantung pada ketersediaan hara dalam tanah dan ketersediaan air dalam tanah. Ketika
petani menanam dan panen tanaman , mereka mengambil sejumlah hara dari dalam tanah .
Tanpa pengembalian sejumlah hara ke tanah, maka tanah akan mengalami penurunan tingkat
kesuburannya dan dapat berdampak pada penurunan pertumbuhan dan hasil panen. Pertanian
berkelanjutan tergantung pada pengelolaan tanah dan meminimalkan penggunaan sumber
daya yang tidak terbarukan, seperti gas alam (digunakan dalam mengkonversi nitrogen
atmosfer menjadi pupuk sintetis) , atau bijih mineral ( misalnya fosfat ) . Sumber nitrogen
yang dapat tersedia secara berkelanjutan , meliputi:
1. Daur ulang limbah tanaman dan ternak atau kotoran manusia yang telah diolah
2. Menanam tanaman legume dan hijauan seperti kacang-kacangan atau alfalfa yang
membentuk mampu bersimbiosis dengan bakteri fiksasi nitrogen yang disebut
rhizobia
3. Produksi industri pupuk nitrogen dengan proses Haber menggunakan hidrogen , yang
saat ini berasal dari gas alam , tetapi hidrogen ini sebenarnya dapat dibuat dengan
elektrolisis air menggunakan listrik ( mungkin dari sel surya atau kincir angin )
49
The last option was proposed in the 1970s, but is only recently becoming
feasible. Sustainable options for replacing other nutrient inputs (phosphorus,
potassium, etc.) are more limited. More realistic, and often overlooked, options
include long-term crop rotations, returning to natural cycles that annually flood
cultivated lands (returning lost nutrients indefinitely) such as the Flooding of the
Nile, the long-term use of biochar, and use of crop and livestock landraces that
are adapted to less than ideal conditions such as pests, drought, or lack of
nutrients. Crops that require high levels of soil nutrients can be cultivated in a
more sustainable manner if certain fertilizer management practices are adhered
to.
Air - Pertanian
In some areas, sufficient rainfall is available for crop growth, but many
other areas require irrigation. For irrigation systems to be sustainable they
require proper management (to avoid salinization) and must not use more water
from their source than is naturally replenished, otherwise the water source
becomes, in effect, a non-renewable resource. Improvements in water well
drilling technology and submersible pumps combined with the development of
drip irrigation and low pressure pivots have made it possible to regularly achieve
high crop yields where reliance on rainfall alone previously made this level of
success unpredictable. However, this progress has come at a price, in that in
many areas where this has occurred, such as the Ogallala Aquifer, the water is
being used at a greater rate than its rate of recharge.
Kualitas Air.
The most important issues related to water quality involve salinization and
contamination of ground and surface waters by pesticides, nitrates and
selenium. Salinity has become a problem wherever water of even
relatively low salt content is used on shallow soils in arid regions and/or
where the water table is near the root zone of crops. Tile drainage can
remove the water and salts, but the disposal of the salts and other
contaminants may negatively affect the environment depending upon
where they are deposited. Temporary solutions include the use of salt-
tolerant crops, low-volume irrigation, and various management techniques
to minimize the effects of salts on crops. In the long-term, some farmland
may need to be removed from production or converted to other uses.
Other uses include conversion of row crop land to production of drought-
tolerant forages, the restoration of wildlife habitat or the use of
agroforestry to minimize the impacts of salinity and high water tables
Tanah-pertanian
The detritusphere works where leaf litter is moist and rich in oxygen. Here
fungi can work efficiently, decomposing cellulose while taking oxygen in
and respirating carbon dioxide. Inside anoxic corners of leaf structure,
bacteria convert nitric oxides to nitrogen.
52
Sumber:
Where masses of young roots are found, activity is high in the porosphere of the
soil. Pores are necessary to hold water and to transport oxygen and carbon
dioxide. Aggregates of soil are pierced by hair roots (yellow) and covered in
hyphae of fungi (purple). By the transport channels from worms and other
organisms, water, nitrates, phosphorus and dissolved organic carbon compounds
leach from the top down.
In the aggregatusphere, sand and clay particles form enclosed workshops for
bacteria. Many chemical processes happen here, producing nitrates (NO3-),
ammonia (NH4+), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitric oxides and more. Many
compounds are
transported by the fine
hyphae to other
places.
53
Udara-pertanian
Many agricultural activities affect air quality. These include smoke from
agricultural burning; dust from tillage, traffic and harvest; pesticide drift from
spraying; and nitrous oxide emissions from the use of nitrogen fertilizer. Options
to improve air quality include incorporating crop residue into the soil, using
appropriate levels of tillage, and planting wind breaks, cover crops or strips of
native perennial grasses to reduce dust.
Ekonomi - Pertanian
Given the finite supply of natural resources at any specific cost and
location, agriculture that is inefficient or damaging to needed resources may
eventually exhaust the available resources or the ability to afford and acquire
them. It may also generate negative externality, such as pollution as well as
financial and production costs.
The way that crops are sold must be accounted for in the sustainability
equation. Food sold locally does not require additional energy for transportation
(including consumers). Food sold at a remote location, whether at a farmers'
market or the supermarket, incurs a different set of energy cost for materials,
labour, and transport.
Metode-metode Pertanian
54
What grows where and how it is grown are a matter of choice. Two of the
many possible practices of sustainable agriculture are crop rotation and soil
amendment, both designed to ensure that crops being cultivated can obtain the
necessary nutrients for healthy growth. Soil amendments would include using
locally available compost from community recycling centers. These community
recycling centers help produce the compost needed by the local organic farms.
There are also many ways to practice sustainable animal husbandry. Some
of the key tools to grazing management include fencing off the grazing area into
smaller areas called paddocks, lowering stock density, and moving the stock
between paddocks frequently.
Dampak eksternal
The chain of eutrophication begins with an overload of nutrients that enters the
aquatic ecosystem. This schematic show various nutrient pathways and their
effects. The future half of the diagram shows improved water quality based on
better nutrient filtering.
58
Sumber: http://landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov/news/news-
archive/soc_0017.html ..... diunduh 30/6/2011
Sumber: http://www.biotechnology-
gmo.gov.si/eng/gensko_spremenjeni_organizmi/index.html
Tanaman Pertanian
Memperbaiki rasa dan kualitas
Mereduksi waktu pemasakan
Increased nutrients, yields, and stress tolerance
Improved resistance to disease, pests, and herbicides
New products and growing techniques
Binatang-Ternak
Hasil produksi yang lebih baik : daging, telur dan susu
Perbaikan kesehatan binatang dan metode diagnosisnya
Peningkatan resistensi, productivity, hardiness, dan efisiensi pakan
Lingkungan Hidup
" Bioherbicides dan bioinsecticida ramah lingkungan
Konservasi tanah, air dan energi
Bio-proses untuk produk kehutanan
Pengelolaan limbah secara lebih baik
Pengolahan lebih efisien.
Masyarakat
Meningkatkan kertahanan pangan bagi penduduk yang semakin
banyak
60
Sumber:
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/media/122433/Genetically-
modified-organisms-are-produced-using-scientific-methods-that-
include ..... diunduh 30/6/2011
Kontroversi GMO
Keamanan
Dampak potensial terhadap kesehatan manusia: allergens, transfer
resistensi antibiotic, efek-efek yang belum diketahui.
Dampak potensial terhadap lingkungan: unintended transfer of
transgenes through cross-pollination, unknown effects on other
organisms (e.g., soil microbes), and loss of flora and fauna
biodiversity
Akses dan Properti Intelektual
Dominasi produksi pangan dunia oleh beberapa perusahaan
Meningkatkan ketergantungan Negara berkembang kepada Negara
industry maju
Eksploitasi sumberdaya alam secara Biopiracy-foreign
61
Etika
Pelanggaran nilai-nilai ^ntrinsic dari organism alamiah
Tampering with nature by mixing genes among species
Objections to consuming animal genes in plants and vice versa
Stress bagi binatang
The results were attributed to lower yields in average and good years but
higher yields during drought years. A 2007 study compiling research from
293 different comparisons into a single study to assess the overall
efficiency of the two agricultural systems has concluded that
62
The decreased cost of synthetic fertilizer and pesticide inputs, along with
the higher prices that consumers pay for organic produce, contribute to
increased profits. Organic farms have been consistently found to be as or
more profitable than conventional farms. Without the price premium,
profitability is mixed. Organic production was more profitable in Wisconsin,
given price premiums.
63
Agroekosistem
(sumber: http://www.answers.com/topic/agroecosystem#ixzz1f2iWFTtJ)
Ciri-ciri Agroekosistem
Agroekosistem berbeda dengan ekosistem alami dalam beberapa hal:
1. Energi yang mendorong semua ekosistem autotrophic, termasuk agroekosistem, baik
secara langsung maupun tidak langsung, berasal dari energi surya. Namun demikian,
input energi untuk agroekosistem tidak hanya mencakup energi alami (sinar matahari),
tetapi juga energi olahan (bahan bakar fosil) serta tenaga kerja manusia dan hewan.
2. Biodiversitas dalam agroekosistem umumnya dikurangi oleh adanya manajemen manusia
untuk menyalurkan sebanyak mungkin energi dan hara ke dalam system spesies
budidaya.
3. Evolusi adalah sebagian besar, melalui seleksi buatan, dimana sifat fenotipik yang
diinginkan secara komersial ditingkatkan melalui program pemuliaan dan rekayasa
genetika.
4. Agroekosistems biasanya dikaji dari berbagai Perspektif, termasuk Neraca dan Aliran
energi, pertukartan materi, Neraca hara, dan Dinamika populasi serta Komunitas.
ANALISIS AGROEKOSISTEM
The farm itself is a holon and within the farm holon, other holons exist. For
example, a farm animal, the farm family, and a farmworker can all be considered
holons within the farm. Additionally, the farm is considered a holon which is
inpart connected to other holons such as the county in which the farm resides,
the bank from which the farmer borrowed money, or the grain elevator where the
farmer can sell goods. Things like the tractor or the barn are not holons because
they lack intentionality. When conducting an agroecosystem analysis, the
analyst should approach the farm as the farm itself and the "ecology of contexts"
in which the farm and the farmer function. A "context" is anything that might
influence functioning of the farm and cause it to change. According to Bland and
Bell, examples of contexts include, "family, farm business, genetic heart disease,
and spiritual beliefs." These examples illustrate the breadth of contexts that
could influence why farmers do what they do. Bland concluded his model of a
farm as a holon by stating, "A farm is not sustainable (disintegrates) when it
cannot find an overall configuration that is simultaneously viable in all contexts."
Manajemen Agroekosistem
Pertanian organik adalah sistem produksi pertanian bahan pangan dan serat yang
berkelanjutan secara sosial, ekonomi dan lingkungan. Hal ini berkonsentrasi pada pemupukan
tanah dan memperhatikan kemampuan alami tanaman, hewan dan agro - ekosistem. Pertanian
68
organik mengurangi faktor produksi eksternal dan meninggalkan penggunaan bahan kimia
sintetik. Sistem ii menekankan pada penggunaan limbah tanaman, rabuk, tanaman legume,
pupuk hijau dan bahan organik lainnya, untuk mendaur-ulangkan hara dan energi dalam
system pertanian. Pertanian ini mencakup upaya kelestarian lingkungan dengan menjaga
keseimbangan alam dan keanekaragaman hayati, sehingga manajemen agroekosistem organik
mirip dengan alam dan sesuai dengan kearifan lokal. Oleh karena itu, pertanian organik
merupakan proses pertanian yang mengandalkan jasa-jasa alam, dengan jalan menggunakan
proses biologis untuk meningkatkan produksi dan mencegah gangguan hama, dan mengikuti
sirkulasi sumberdaya yang digunakan dalam pertanian untuk manfaat maksimal . Oleh karena
itu , prinsip pertanian organik akan sesuai dengan kondisi lokal dalam hal ekonomi, social-
masyarakat, cuaca dan budaya . Manajemen agroekosistem organik merupakan faktor penting
yang mengarah kepada pengembangan pertanian berkelanjutan.
separated into 9 sub-areas i.e., rice field, mixed horticultural and vegetable field,
circulating seasonal vegetable field, asparagus field, herbal field, rice filed and
pool edges, water source, animal domesticating area and rice straw group. The
highest amount land is the water source area for solving the lack of water in
summer season. The rice field edge also consumes a large area by constructing
the big size edges to protect water drainage from outside lands which
contaminate chemicals and prevent flood. Besides, the edges can be used to
cultivate plants especially perennial trees.
The plants were tested in the experimental land until receiving the
appropriate species that are mutual basis in the organic agro-ecosystem.
Besides, there is the cultivation of circulating seasonal plants accompany with
vetch plants in the same field creating good products due to nutrients balance as
well as nitrogen cycle.
70
The main characteristic of this farm is the neatly rice cultivation. He has
cultivated by using a rice sprout in one hole that one rai (1,600 m 3) uses only 1
kg of seeds. The selected seeds have been cultured for 7 days that a rice sprout
has the length about 10-15 cm. Then the sprouts have been transferred to
cultivate in the prepared rice filed having sludge characteristic. They have been
pulled out by using a spoon to scoop for maintaining the seed left. After that they
are transferred to cultivate as soft sticking their seed roots to the field because
the sprouts are still young.
In the first stage, watering them is like vegetable watering that soil is just
soaked until the sprouts were split. In addition, it is necessary to release water
out until the appropriate water level because if there is more water in the filed
crabs will destroy rice but less water weeds will grow which is wasting time to
get rid of them. Therefore, farmers should pay attention in their cultivation and
emphasize on the integrated farming system by no mono-crop cultivation and
biodiversity consideration. The prototyped organic farmer gave the reasons for
organic agro-ecosystem as the followings.
Farmers will cultivate herbs for getting rid of pests throughout a year
without using from other chemicals. These help to their self-assistance that
farmers will use their resources in a sufficient way. Regarding to domesticating
animals, there are 7 types i.e., cow, chicken, duck, cricket, frog, fish and pig.
Most animals are local species that are tolerant to environmental conditions and
easy in domesticating with giving high products. These create income circulation
throughout a year. Additionally, these animals help to circulate nutrients and be
a source of organic manure. Other natural animals such as earthworm, millipede,
ground lizard, predator insect and so on are beneficial for organic decomposition
and controlling pests in the fields.
PENGELOLAAN HAMA
From the investigation, there were 52 species and 43 families of pests that
were 38.46% of pest insects, 42.31% of predator insects, 3.85% of parasites and
15.38% of cross-pollination insects. These proportions show that the beneficial
pespts found in the organic farm were higher than the pest insects. There are 3
methods of pest control and management i.e., using wood vinegar, using
biological fermented water and cultivating pest controlling plants.
71
PENGELOLAAN LIMBAH.
Each resource has then presented its roles and has linked with the others
in the productive ways. Plants and animals in the fields have been arranged to
use the physical resources as maximum beneficiaries. His management has
helped to circulate nutrients and resources, allocate the selected plants as
suitably, fertilize soil and maximize recycled wastes use in his organic farm.
72
Perbaikan praktek budidaya dan sumberdaya yang ada sat ini dengan
memasukkan beberapa tipe pupuk organic tampaknya menjadi metode yang
opaling menjanjikan untuk berhasil pada saat ini. Beberapa poraktek untuk
memperbaiki kesuburan tanah dijelaskan berikut ini.
KONSERVASI TANAH
The major reason for declining soil fertility is the need to use the land
more intensively because of increasing human population, coupled with a
reduction in manure production, so that nutrients extracted by food crops are not
adequately replaced. This is the result of a reduction in animal populations in
some areas, but is mostly the result of depletion of the animal feed resources
from the forest and grass lands, which means that livestock are not realising
their full potential the year round.
numbers in the hills of Nepal were halved, manure production would remain
almost what it is at present, provided that it was collected and utilized properly.
Stall-feeding could result in a doubling of the amount of dung collected per
animal at present.
AKUAKULTUR
76
1. Aquaculture is also being promoted for its potential to compensate for the low
growth rate of capture fisheries. Stocking and release of hatchery-reared
organisms into inland and coastal waters support culture-based fisheries
(Larkin, 1991).
The release of soluble inorganic nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) has the
potential to cause nutrient enrichment (hypernutrification) possibly followed by
eutrophication (increase of primary production) of a waterbody. Related changes in
phytoplankton ecology may result in algal blooms, which can be harmful to wild and
78
farmed organisms. However, there is no evidence that algal blooms have been caused by
coastal aquaculture.
Coastal zones for shrimp culture. I. Intertidal Zone; Mangrove virgin forest (A); Secondary
forest (B). II. Supratidal Zone: Rice field (C); Coconut plantation (D). (from Poernomo,
1990). Sumber: http://www.fao.org/docrep/T0697E/t0697e04.htm
79
2. Penempatan posisi kincir air yang kurang tepat, sehingga tidak dapat
mengarahkan kotoran tersebut ke arah sentral pembuangan.
3. Program pakan yang over feeding jika dibandingkan dengan tingkat
kebutuhan udang. Sisa pakan yang berlebihan tersebut tidak
terkonsumsi oleh udang dan membusuk serta terakumulasi di dasar
tambak menjadi kotoran.
4. Teknik pemberian pakan yang tidak merata ke seluruh area pakan di
dalam petakan tambak, sehingga pakan terakumulasi di satu titik dan
tidak terkonsumsi merata sehingga membusuk di dasar tambak.
5. Tingkat populasi udang di dalam tambak. Pada tambak dengan
populasi udang yang relatif padat, kondisi dasar tambak akan relatif
bersih karena kotoran di dasar tambak akan terdorong dengan
sendirinya ke sentral pembuangan yang diakibatkan oleh aktifitas
udang di dasar tambak.
6. Kurangnya pengecekkan dasar tambak dengan melakukan
penyelaman secara berkala.
7. Kurangnya intensitas dan frekuensi sirkulasi air yang dapat
mendorong kotoran dasar tambak ke arah sentral pembuangan.
Jeffrey Sachs, the director of the Earth Institute at Columbia University and
world-renowned anti-poverty crusader, has turned his prodigious attention to an
issue dear to many of us in the TreeHugger community: environmental
sustainability.
81
"Between 1950 and today the total landed catch from open- and inland-sea
fishing almost quintupled, from around 20 million to about 95 million metric
tons. Both higher demand from rising world incomes and higher supply from
more powerful fishing vessels contributed to the surge. So, too, did large and
misguided subsidies to fishing fleets, reflecting the political power of
geographically concentrated fishing communities and industries. The world
put itself on a course to gut ocean ecosystems, with devastating
consequences."
Sumber: http://www.treehugger.com/clean-technology/discussing-the-merits-of-
aquaculture.html
82
Sumber: http://www.feedingminds.org/fmfh/fisheries-aquaculture/wonders-of-the-
oceans/from-the-sea-to-your-plate/lesson-9-farming-fish/en/
DAFTAR PUSTAKA
Begon M, Harper JL, Townsend CR. 1990. Ecology: Individuals, Populations and
Communities (2nd ed). Blackwell Science, London, 1068p.
Flint M.L. dan P.Gouveia. 2001. IPM in Practice: Principles and Methods of
Integrated Pest Management. University of California, 296p.
Huffaker C.B. dan A.P. Cutierrez. 1999. Ecological Entomology. John Wiley & Sons,
New York, 756p.
Koestler, A. 1967. The Ghost in the Machine. London: Hutchinson. 1990 reprint
edition, Penguin Group. ISBN 0-14-019192-5.
Smit B., Waltner-Toews D., Rapport D., Wall E., Wichert G., Gwyn E. and Wandel J.
1998. Agro-ecosystem health: Analysis and assessment. University of
Guelph, Guelph, Canada.
Speight M.R., M.D.Hunter dan A.D. Watt. 1999. Ecology of Insects: Concepts and
Applications. Blackwell Science, London, 350p.