SKRIPSI
Oleh :
FITRIANI YUSUF
P00312016019
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SURAT PERNYATAAN KEASLIAN TULISAN
NIM : P00312016019
Pendidikan Kendari
Fitriani Yusuf
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RIWAYAT HIDUP
I. INDENTITAS
4. Agama : Islam
II. PENDIDIKAN
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KATA PENGANTAR
panjatkan kepada Tuhan Yang Maha Esa, karena atas berkat rahmatnya,
menempuh pendidikan.
SKM, M.Kes selaku penguji II, dan Fitriyanti, SST, M.Keb selaku
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penguji III yang telah memeberikan masukan dalam pembuatan
skripsi ini
bermanfaat
Pani, Ama, Ati, dan Isra. Terimakasih atas semua bantuan, kerja
S.Tr.Keb.
skripsi ini masih jauh dari sempurna.Oleh karena itu kritik dan saran yang
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bersifat membangun diperlukan dalam penyempurnaan skripsi ini serta
Penulis
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DAFTAR ISI
HALAMAN JUDUL ............................................................................ i
HALAMAN PERSETUJUAN ............................................................. ii
HALAMAN PENGESAHAN ............................................................... iii
SURAT PERNYATAAN KEASLIAN PENULISAN ............................. iv
DAFTAR RIWAYAT HIDUP .............................................................. v
KATA PENGANTAR .......................................................................... vi
DAFTAR ISI ...................................................................................... ix
ABSTRAK ......................................................................................... xi
ABSTARCT ...................................................................................... xii
BAB I PENDAHULUAN
A. Latar Belakang ............................................................... 1
B. Rumusan Masalah ......................................................... 6
C. Tujuan Penelitian ........................................................... 6
D. Manfaat Penelitian ......................................................... 6
E. Keaslian Penelitian ........................................................ 7
BAB II TINJAUAN PUSTAKA
A. Telaah Pustaka ................................................................ 8
B. Landasan teori ................................................................ 31
C. Kerangka teori ............................................................... 33
D. Kerangka konsep ........................................................... 34
E. Hipotesis Penelitian ........................................................34
BAB III METODE PENELITIAN
A. Strategi Pencarian Literatur ........................................... 35
B. Kriteria Inklusi dan Ekslusi ............................................. 37
C. Seleksi Studi dan Penilaian Kualitas .............................. 37
BAB IV : HASIL PENELITIAN DAN PEMBAHASAN
A. Hasil penelitian .............................................................. 46
B. Pembahasan .................................................................. 50
BAB V KESIMPULAN DAN SARAN
A. Kesimpulan .................................................................... 56
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B. Saran .............................................................................56
DAFTAR PUSTAKA.......................................................................... 57
LAMPIRAN
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ABSTRAK
xi
ABSTRACT
xii
BAB I
PENDAHULUAN
A. Latar Belakang
periode kanak- kanak, masa pubertas atau masa remaja yang kemudian
dibagian luar maupun dibagian dalam tubuh, baik dalam struktur tubuh
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2
yang terjadi pada pada masa puber sehingga remaja mencapai kepuasan
Asrori (2011) bahwa pertumbuhan fisik remaja yang amat pesat seringkali
diri sendiri untuk itu perlu adanya kegiatan olahraga untuk menyalurkan
negatif.
remaja perempuan dan ada remaja yang minta izin pulang sebelum
3
membekas pada rok yang dipakai. Suara remaja laki-laki juga sudah
berubah.
dan psikis yang terjadi selama masa puber akan mempengaruhi tingkat
baik dari segi yang positif maupun yang negatif. Selain itu akibat dari
kesadaran dan kemauan melihat fakta yang ada pada diri, baik fisik
berhubungan dengan konsep diri yang positif, dimana dengan konsep diri
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tenang, serta memiliki kesadaran penuh terhadap siapa dan apa diri
adalah mereka yang berusia 10-20 tahun, dan ditandai dengan perubahan
dalam bentuk dan ukuran tubuh, fungsi tubuh, psikologi dan aspek
tahun.
remaja sering tidak masuk sekolah dan minta izin pulang sebelum
remaja merasa malu dan pakaian yang sering dipakai oleh remaja menjadi
penerimaan diri pada remaja wanita lebih sedikit dari penerimaan diri pada
pria sebesar 54%. Walaupun tidak ada perbedaan yang signifikan, akan
remaja pria.
remaja merasa malu, canggung dan tidak percaya diri terutama kepada
B. Rumusan Masalah
C. Tujuan Penelitian
penerimaan diri pada masa pubertas antara remaja pria dan wanita.
D. ManfaatPenelitian
1. Bagi Peneliti
E. Keaslian Penelitian
Masa Pubertas.
BAB II
TINJAUAN PUSTAKA
A. Telaah Pustaka
1. Penerimaan Diri
menikmati kehidupan.
mereka dengan baik, maka lebih mudah pula untuk menerima diri
mereka secara utuh dan apa adanya. Oleh karena itu pengenalan
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9
mereka baik pada tingkat sadar maupun pada tingkat tak sadar,
secara objektif mulai dari awal kehidupan dan tidak akan pernah
setiap usia.
mengembangkan diri.
d. Percaya diri.
akan lepas dari aturan yang ada dan bertanggung jawab atas
dengan tenang.
self itu tidak bersifat realistis dan sulit untuk diraih dalam
Environmental Obstacle)
Emotional Stress)
dapat tercapai.
yang memiliki penyesuaian diri yang baik, maka hal itu dapat
penerimaan diri.
kebiasaan.
mudah menerima diri sendiri, dan ada pula individu yang agak
diri sendiri.
2. Masa Pubertas
2005).
bertahap, yaitu:
1) Tahap Prapubertas
Tahap ini disebut juga tahap pematangan yaitu pada satu atau
tidak pula seorang remaja. Pada tahap ini, ciri-ciri seks sekunder
2) Tahap Puber
Tahap ini disebut juga tahap matang, yaitu terjadi pada garis
terjadi haid pertama dan pada anak laki - laki terjadi mimpi basah
3) Tahap Pascapuber
Pada tahap ini menyatu dengan tahun pertama dan kedua masa
tahap yaitu:
a. Prapubertas
b. Pubertas
c. Pascapubertas
3. Remaja
1979).
perkembangan ini.
awal masa remaja daripada tahap akhir masa remaja, tetapi juga
bagian, yaitu awal masa dan akhir masa remaja (Hurlock, 1979).
dewasa.
Batasan usia remaja di mulai saat usia 13-21 tahun, yang terbagi
menjadi masa dewasa awal (13-17 tahun) dan masa remaja akhir
(17-21 tahun).
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sebagai berikut:
sikap dan perilaku, dan ada lagi yang penting karena akibat-
periode yang penting Karena akibat fisik dan ada lagi karena
penting.
masa ini, remaja bukan lagi seorang anak dan juga bukan
juga menurun.
kondisi.
mereka sehingga memiliki harga diri yang mudah goyah. Faktor yang
sebaliknya.
kelemahannya.
berperilaku sesuai dengan apa yang dia rasa benar, tidak sesuai
pasang surut dan juga akan sedikit sulit untuk memodifikasi bisa
tidak ada upaya pelurusan sejak dini. Namun tetap pada fase remaja
dihadapinya.
B. Landasan Teori
mereka menerima sebagai teman orang lain yang disukai. Bila remaja
C. Kerangka Teori
Masa Remaja sebagai:
1. Periode yang penting
Remaja 2. Periode peralihan
3. Periode perubahan
Tahapan: 4. Masa mencari identitas
1. Tahap Prapubertas 5. Usia yang menimbulkan ketakutan
2. Tahap Puber Masa Pubertas 6. Masa yang tidak realistik
3. Tahap Pasca Puber 7. Ambang masa dewasa
Al-Mighwar (2006) Hurlock (1979)
Perbedaan Penerimaan
Diri Remaja
Remaja Remaja
Pria Wanita
D. Kerangka Konsep
E. Hipotesis Penelitian
METODE PENELITIAN
dari penelitian yang telah dilakukan terhadap suatu topik khusus atau
lapangan. Tipe study yang direview adalah semua jenis penelitian yang
1. Framework
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pada saat pubertas. Populasi dalam penelitian ini adalah remaja dan
O (outcome) Kata ini mewakili target apa yang ingin dicapai dari
Scholar.
1. Kriteria inklusi
2. Kriteria eksklusi
a) Susi Fitri, Meithy Intan Rukia Luawo dan Ranchia Noor. (2017).
Kendari.
Population Health.
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A. Hasil Penelitian
pada Remaja Laki-Laki Di SMA Negeri Se-DKI Jakarta oleh Susi Fitri,
Meithy Intan Rukia Luawo dan Ranchia Noor, tahun 2017. Penelitian ini
berfokus pada perubahan diri dan penerimaan diri yang terjadi pada
kelas tingkat kesejahteraan psikologis pada remaja pria pada kelas XII
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regresi yang berfokus hanya pada remaja wanita. Hasil dari penelitian
didapatkan nilai x2 hitung 3,895 lebih kecil dari x2 tabel (5,991) sehingga
perubahan yang terjadi pada diri mereka baik fisik maupun psikis
dengan cukup baik walaupun tanpa dukungan pola asuh orang tua
masa puber dengan baik asalkan ada dukungan ekstrinsik yang dapat
Mendle, Adriene M. Beltz and Rona Carter dan Lorah D. Dorn tahun
2019. Fokus penelitian pada remaja saat ini yang perubahan pada
masa pubertas berbeda dengan remaja pada masa lalu dalam hal
Pachucki dan Natasha Chaku tahun 2020. Penelitian ini berfokus pada
pematangan dini dikaitkan dengan BMI dewasa muda yang lebih tinggi
tetapi waktu yang lebih lama untuk anak laki-laki dikaitkan dengan
remaja wanita, tetapi remaja pria sedikit lebih bias mengontrol diri
remaja wanita.
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diri yang beragam dan berbeda-beda ditinjau dari aspek gender dan
melalui sikap diri remaja dalam menghadapi perubahan fisik dan psikis
B. Pembahasan
diambil awalnya dengan cara memasukan kata kunci tiap variabel yang
terakhir.
dan dianalisa mana saja yang memenuhi kriteria inklusi dan dapat
remaja pria pada masa pubertas lebih baik dari pada remaja wanita.
yang terjadi selama masa pubertas, seperti perubahan fisik pada ciri-ciri
SMA Negeri Se-DKI Jakarta kepada 303 siswa laki-laki SMA Negeri
penerimaan diri yang cukup baik. Hal ini sejalan dengan penelitian
diri yang tinggi pada remaja laki-laki dipengaruhi oleh citra tubuh
dirinya pada saat ini dan menanggapi masa lalunya dengan hal
yang positif.
menjelaskan bahwa rasa takut, malu, cemas, dan mudah marah saat
oleh penelitian yang dilakukan Etik Sulistyorini dan Wahyu Fajar tahun
bahwa merasa lebih cantik dan menarik sehingga lebih percaya diri.
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karena itu penerimaan diri wanita cendrung negative dari pada pria.
dan Jones (Powell, 1963) menunjukkan hasil studinya bahwa anak laki-
tinggi bila dibandingkan dengan anak laki-laki yang telah masak secara
diambil dan dianalisa mana saja yang memenuhi kriteria inklusi dan
penerimaan diri pada masa pubertas antara remaja pria dan wanita
penerimaan diri remaja pria lebih baik dari pada penerimaan diri remaja
PENUTUP
A. Kesimpulan
penerimaan diri remaja pria lebih baik dari pada penerimaan diri remaja
perkembangan psikis yang lebih baik, hal ini dibuktikan dari hasil review
B. Saran
remaja dari media elektronik, media cetak, teman, dan khususnya dari
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DAFTAR PUSTAKA
Atosokhi, Antonius dkk. 2002. Relasi dengan Diri Sendiri. Jakarta: Elex
Media Komputindo..
Fitri, dkk.2017. Gambaran Kesejahteraan Psikologis pada Remaja Laki-
Laki Di SMA Negeri Se-DKI Jakarta. Insight: Jurnal Bimbingan
Konseling 6(1).
Hoyt, at all. 2020. Timing of Puberty in Boys and Girls: Implications for
Population Health. SSM - Population Health.ScienceDirect.
Panuju, Panut & Ida Umami. 1999. Psikologi Remaja. Yogyakarta: Tiara
Remaja Yogya.
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Sari, Endah Puspita & Nuryoto, Sartini. 2008. Penerimaan Diri pada Lanjut
Usia Ditinjau Dari Kematangan Emosi. Jurnal Psikologi.
LAMPIRAN
50 Gambaran Kesejahteraan Psikologis Pada Remaja Laki-Laki di SMA Negeri Se-Dki
Susi Fitri1
Meithy Intan Rukia Luawo2
Ranchia Noor3
Abstrak
Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui gambaran kesejahteraan psikologis
pada remaja laki-laki di SMA Negeri se-DKI Jakarta. Penelitian ini menggunakan
metode deskriptif kuantitatif. Subyek penelitian ini adalah siswa laki-laki di
SMA Negeri se-DKI Jakarta dengan sampel 15% dari populasi, dengan teknik
multistages random sampling. Sehingga sampel yang diambil sebanyak 303
responden. Pengumpulan data dilakukan dengan menggunakan instrumen scale
of psychological well-being (SPWB) yang diadaptasi dari Ryff, yang telah diuji
validitas dan reliabilitasnya dan menghasilkan 60 butir pernyataan yang valid dan
24 butir pernyataan yang drop dari keseluruhan 84 butir pernyataan. Sedangkan
reliabilitasnya sebesar 0,895 yang berarti tinggi. Analisa data hasil penelitian
menggunakan teknik deskriptif persentase. Berdasarkan analisa data, dapat
disimpulkan bahwa sebagian responden berada pada kategori sedang dengan
persentase sebesar 54,45%. Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa kesejahteraan psikologis
pada remaja di SMA Negeri se-DKI Jakarta cukup baik. Jika dilihat per aspek,
persentase tertinggi ada pada aspek penerimaan diri. Sedangkan jika dilihat
per kelas tingkat kesejahteraan psikologis pada remaja laki-laki pada kelas XII
memiliki persantase tertinggi.
Kata kunci: Kesejahteraan psikologis, remaja laki-laki
Abstract
This study aims to reveal the psychological well-being of the adolescent boys in
Senior High Schools in DKI Jakarta. This research uses descriptive quantitative
method. The subjects of this study are male students at Senior High Schools in
DKI Jakarta with a sample of 15% of the populations, with multistages random
sampling technique. Thus, the samples taken are 303 respondents. The data
collection is done by using the instrument scale of psychological well-being
(SPWB) adapted from Ryff, which has been tested for validity and reliability and
produce a 60-point declaration is valid and a 24-point declaration of the overall
drop 84 point statement. While the reliability of 0.895, which means high. The
analysis of survey data uses descriptive techniques percentage. Based on the data
analysis, it can be concluded that the majority of respondents are in the medium
category with a percentage of 54.45%. This indicates that the psychological well-
being of the adolescent in SMA in DKI Jakarta is quite good. If viewed per aspect,
the highest percentage is in the aspect of self-acceptance. Meanwhile, if viewed
per grade level psychological well-being of the adolescent boys in class XII has
the highest percentage.
Keywords: Psychological well-being, Adolescents boy
1 Dosen Program Studi Bimbingan Konseling FIP UNJ, susi.fitri.kuliah@gmail.com
2 Dosen Program Studi Bimbingan Konseling FIP UNJ, meithy_intan@yahoo.com
Dengan demikian, laki-laki akan melakukan hal- Namun berdasarkan beberapa hasil penelitian
hal yang dapat menunjukkan maskulinitasnya. ditemukan bahwa remaja laki-laki memiliki
Terutama pada remaja, pada tahap ini anak kesulitan untuk membuka diri terhadap orang
laki-laki masih memiliki emosi yang labil dan lain dan sering kali menunjukkan hubungan
akan melakukan hal yang dikatakan ideal oleh yang bermasalah dengan teman sebaya seperti
masyarakat. Namun sering terjadi kesalahan berkelahi, bermusuhan, hingga tawuran (Han
yang dilakukan remaja agar dapat dikatakan & Choi, 2005).
ideal oleh masyarakat. Sehingga muncul
permasalahan-permasalahan pada remaja laki- Penelitian yang menunjukkan bahwa
laki. rendahnya kesejahteraan psikologis pada
dimensi hubungan yang positif dengan orang
Joseph Pleck (Santrock, 2007) lain yaitu, penelitian Nita Septiani (2013)
mengatakan permasalahan-permasalahan tentang gambaran psychological well-being
yang muncul pada remaja laki-laki, mereka pada remaja yang tinggal di panti asuhan.
akan dianggap lebih maskulin apabila Berdasarkan hasil penelitian tersebut dimensi
pernah melakukan hubungan seks pranikah, hubungan yang positif dengan orang lain
meminum minuman beralkohol, merokok, pada remaja laki-laki memiliki skor rata-
dan memperlihatkan perilaku-perilaku yang rata yang paling rendah dari keenam dimensi
tidak sesuai dengan norma dan etika. Hal kesejahteraan psikologis. Penelitian tersebut
tersebut dapat terjadi akibat dari kurangnya sejalan dengan hasil penelitian Warger dan
pengetahuan mengenai maskulinitas yang Kleman (1986) dimana remaja laki-laki
benar dan sering terjebak dalam pergaulan yang cenderung memilki masalah dalam interaksi
salah agar dapat dikatakan maskulin. Santrock sosial dengan teman sebaya. Hal tersebut
(2007) mengatakan bahwa remaja laki-laki tentu menimbulkan pertanyaan mengenai
cenderung enggan menceritakan masalahnya kesejahteraan psikologis pada dimensi
secara terbuka karena hal itu dianggap tidak hubungan positif dengan orang lain, karena
maskulin. remaja laki-laki memiliki hubungan yang
bermasalah dengan teman sebaya.
Menurut Sarwono (2011), remaja juga
identik dengan masa coba-coba. Remaja laki- KAJIAN TEORI
laki cenderung mengikuti hal-hal yang membuat
perasaannya menjadi bahagia. Dibandingkan Definisi Pengetahuan
perempuan, laki-laki cenderung lebih terlibat
kompetisi, konflik, memperlihatkan egonya, Kesejahteraan psikologis merupakan
mengambil resiko dan menginginkan dominasi istilah yang menggunakan dua perspektif dalam
(Santrock, 2007). Oleh karena itu, penelitian pendefinisiannya, yaitu perspektif positive
ini mengambil responden remaja laki-laki. psychological functionong dan perspektif life-
span development (Ryff, 1989). Dari perspektif
Berdasarkan hasil beberapa penelitian positive psychological functioning, yang
tentang kesejahteraan psikologis pada remaja digunakan adalah konsep Maslow mengenai
laki-laki, diketahui bahwa hubungan dengan aktualisasi diri, pandangan Roger mengenai
orang tua dan teman sebaya merupakan faktor individu yang berfungsi secara penuh,
utama dalam meningkatkan kesejahteraan formulasi individuasi oleh Jung, dan konsep
psikologis. Santrock (1996) menjelaskan kematangan menurut Allport. Contohnya,
bahwa selain keberadaan orang tua, kehadiran dalam memperoleh kesejahteraan psikologis
teman sebaya dalam kehidupan remaja juga individu mengembangkan potensi secara
dirasa sangat penting. Selain itu, hubungan penuh sehingga mendapatkan aktualisasi diri.
dengan teman sebaya juga turut menentukan Perspektif kedua, yaitu perspektif life-span
kesejahteraan psikologis pada remaja development, menyatakan bahwa tantangan
(Townsend, McCracken, & Witon, 1998).
pribadi, bukan standar yang dianut orang- kesempatan yang muncul di lingkungan
orang lain. Selain Maslow dan Rogers, sekitarnya. Kesimpulannya, perspektif ini
pentingnya regulasi tingkah laku dari menyatakan bahwa partisipasi aktif dan
dalam diri juga ditekankan oleh Jahoda penguasaan lingkungan merupakan hal
(Ryff, 1989). Berbeda dengan tokoh-tokoh yang penting bagi seorang individu untuk
sebelumnya, Jung lebih menekankan dapat berfungsi secara maksimal.
konsep otonomi pada pembebasan diri dari
konvensi/adat, yang berarti individu tidak Berdasarkan penjabaran tersebut,
lagi terikat dengan ketakutan bersama, kriteria yang ditetapkan untuk dimensi
kepercayaan, dan hukum yang dianut orang penguasaan lingkungan adalah memiliki
banyak. rasa penguasaan lingkungan dan kompetensi
dalam mengatur lingkungan, mengontrol
Dari penjelasan tersebut Ryff kelompok aktivitas eksternal yang
(1995) memformulasikan karakteristik kompleks, menggunakan kesempatan di
individu yang memilki otonomi adalah sekitar dengan efektif, dapat memilih atau
memiliki kepastian diri dan mandiri, dapat menciptakan konteks yang sesuai dengan
bertahan dari tekanan sosial untuk berpikir kebutuhan dan nilai pribadi (Ryff, 1995).
dan bertingkah laku dengan cara tertentu, 5. Tujuan dalam hidup (purpose in life)
meregulasi tingkah laku dari dalam diri
sendiri, serta mengevaluasi diri sendiri, Adanya tujuan hidup yang jelas
serta mengevaluasi diri berdasarkan standar merupakan bagian penting dari karakteristik
pribadi. individu yang memilki kesejateraan
psikologis. Teori-teori perkembangan life-
4. Penguasaan lingkungan (enviromental span menjelaskan proses perkembangan
mastery) sesuai dengan tujuan seseorang dalam
kehidupannya. Terdapat berbagai teori dari
Penguasaan lingkungan merupakan beberapa tokoh mengenai tujuan individu
kemampuan individu untuk memilih, dalam kehidupan. Buhler menyatakan tujuan
menciptakan dan mengelola lingkungan agar individu pada usia madya adalah mengubah
sesuai dengan kondisi psikologisnya dalam dunia dengan kreatif. Erikson berpendapat
rangka mengembangkan diri. Menurut pencarian integrasi emosional merupakan
Allport (dalam Ryff, 1989) mendeskripsikan tujuan individu. Di sisi lain, Rogers
individu yang matang sebagai seseorang berpendapat bahwa tujuan individu yang
yang membangun ketertarikan yang kuat di berfungsi secara penuh adalah peningkatan
luar diri dan berpartisipasi dalam aktivitas kehidupan eksistensial, yaitu menghayati
manusia. Individu ini memiliki persepsi kehidupan pada setiap memennya. Individu
yang realistis terhadap lingkungan di yang berfungsi secara penuh memilki tujuan
sekitarnya, mereka tidak hidup di dunia yang positif, kuat, sense of directedness,
khayalan dan tidak membelokkan realita yang seluruhnya berkontribusi pada sense
untuk menyesuaikannya dengan harapan of meaningfulness dan integrasi mengenai
mereka (dalam Feist & Feist, 2009). berbagai bagian pada kehidupannya.
keinginan dan tujuan untuk kehidupan. cara yang merefleksikan pengetahuan diri
dengan kefektifan yang lebih baik.
6. Perkembangan pribadi (personal growth)
Dimensi ini berkaitan dengan Remaja Laki-laki
cara individu memandang dirinya dan
Remaja di definisikan sebagai suatu
harkat manusia untuk selalu tumbuh
periode perkembangan dari transisi antara
dan berkembang. Syarat perkembangan
masa anak-anak dan dewasa, yang diikuti
yang optimal tidak hanya pencapaian
oleh perubahan biologis, kognitif, dan
dimensi-dimensi yang telah dijabarkan
sosioemosional Santrock (2007). Sedangkan
sebelumnya, tetapi juga pengembangan
menurut Piaget (dalam Hurlock, 1999),
berkelanjutan dari potensi seseorang,
mengatakan bahwa secara psikologis masa
untuk terus bertumbuh dan berkembang
remaja adalah usia dimana anak tidak merasa
sebagai seorang manusia (Ryff, 1989).
di bawah tingkat orang-orang yang lebih tua,
Ryff juga berpendapat bahwa keadaan
melainkan berada di dalam tingkatan yang
dunia yang selalu berubah membutuhkan
sama, sekurang-kurangnya dalam masalah hak.
perkembangan diri yang berkelanjutan pula.
Keinginan untuk menjadi sebuah proses Dalam perkembangan individu, orang
ini juga dinyatakan oleh Rogers sebagai tua memberikan model yang pertama dalam
karakteristik penting untuk dapat berfungsi perilaku gender. Namun tidak lama kemudian,
secara penuh. Seseorang yang berfungsi kawan sebaya juga berespons dan memberikan
secara penuh akan berkembang secara model perilaku maskulin dan feminin. Di mana
berkelanjutan, dan menjalani proses, bukan anak-anak laki saling mengajarkan perilaku-
mencapai keadaan konstan dimana seluruh perilaku maskulin terhadap satu sama lain dan
masalah telah terselesaikan. Begitu pula kemudian memperkuatnya.
menurut Maslow, usaha untuk aktualisasi
diri yang mewujudkan ideal perkembangan Menurut Maccoby (2002) remaja laki-
tertinggi bagi individu merupakan sebuah laki cenderung lebih banyak berinteraksi
proses yang berkelanjutan. dengan kelompok yang lebih besar yang
memilki struktur hierarkis, dan kelompok
Buhler juga mengemukakan mereka biasanya memilki seorang pemimpin
mengenai perkembangan berkelanjutan yang mengatakan apa yang harus dilakukan dan
individu, yaitu proses adaptasi individu atas bagaimana caranya. Remaja laki-laki cenderung
keterbatasan dirinya menjadi perkembangan lebih berpartisipasi dalam permainan dan
kreatif untuk meningkatkan ketentraman olahraga yang terorganisasi. laki-laki cenderung
dalam diri. Oleh karena itu, kualitas lebih terlibat dalam kompetisi, konflik,
perkembangan diri yang berkelanjutan memperlihatkan egonya, mengambil risiko,
dinyatakan sebagai dimensi kesejahteraan dan menginginkan dominasi. Permainan laki-
psikologis dalam model yang terintegrasi. laki memiliki pemenang dan orang yang kalah
sering kali menjadi subjek argumentasi. Laki-
Dari penjelasan sebelumnya, laki sering kali meningkatkan keterampilan
menurut Ryff (1995) individu yang mereka dan berpendapat mengenai siapa yang
optimal pada dimensi perkembangan diri terbaik dan dalam hal apa.
ini didefinisikan dengan kriteria berupa
memilki perkembangan yang berkelanjutan, Pollack (1999) berpendapat bahwa
melihat diri sebagai individu yang remaja laki-laki sangat sedikit memperlihatkan
bertumbuh dan berkembang, memiliki rasa emosi seiring dengan pertumbuhannya. Remaja
akan menyadari potensi dirinya, melihat laki-laki terlalu sering kali dididik untuk tidak
perkembangan dalam diri dan perilaku memperlihatkan perasaaan-perasaaan dan
sepanjang waktu; serta berubah alam cara- bertindak tangguh. Remaja laki-laki cenderung
enggan menceritakan masalahnya secara bulu halus, dan sebagainya. Menurut Santrock
terbuka karena hal itu dianggap tidak maskulin. (2007) pubertas memperkuat aspek-aspek
Remaja laki-laki akan membuat dirinya seksual dari sikap dan perilaku maskulin remaja
dijuluki “pengecut” apabila mereka tidak laki-laki. Mereka akan menampilkan perilaku
mampu menangani masalah serta perasaan yang asertif, sombong, dan kuat, karena mereka
tidak aman yang dirasakannya. Pollack maupun beranggapan bahwa perilaku semacam itu dapat
banyak orang berpendapat bahwa laki-laki meningkatkan seksualitasnya. Para remaja
dapat memperoleh keuntungan apabila mereka laki-laki saling bersaing dalam menampilkan
diajarkan untuk mengekspresikan kecemasan- perilaku maskulin untuk menjalin hubungan
kecemasan dan kekuatiran-kekuatiran yang dengan remaja perempuan. Namun, terdapat
dirasakan maupun untuk meregulasikan kekuatiran khusus mengenai remaja laki-
agresinya, dibandingkan apabila mereka laki yang mengadopsi peran maskulin secara
memendamnya. kuat, karena hal ini berkaitan dengan perilaku
bermasalah.
Remaja laki-laki telah belajar mengenai
aturan laki-laki di berbagai konteks, lapangan METODOLOGI PENELITIAN
bermain, ruang kelas, perkampungan, tempat
berkumpul. Lingkungan sekolah mempunyai Penelitian ini dilakukan di SMA
peranan dalam perkembangan individu, Negeri di seluruh DKI Jakarta. Penelitian ini
terdapat kekuatiran bahwa kawan sebaya di laksanakan pada bulan maret sampai bulan
remaja laki-laki mempengaruhi perilaku yang desember 2016. Peneliti menggunakan metode
nakal di sekolah (Koch, 2003). Perilaku nakal penelitian deskriptif dalam penelitian survey.
yang terjadi oleh remaja laki-laki di sekolah Penelitian deskriptif adalah penelitian yang
adalah : Remaja laki-laki kurang mematuhi bertujuan untuk mengumpulkan informasi
aturan dan tidak disiplin, banyak memilki mengenai suatu gejala yang ada (Arikunto,
masalah dalam belajar, banyak memperoleh 2006)
kritik, dan kurangnya prestasi dalam bidang
Pada penelitian ini, yang menjadi
akademis yang berakibat pada ranking rendah
populasi penelitian adalah remaja SMA Negeri
dan tinggal kelas.
di lima wilayah DKI Jakarta, yaitu 36.529 siswa
Permasalahan kekerasan pada remaja dari 134 SMA Negeri di DKI Jakarta. Pada
laki-laki sering terlibat dalam perilaku antisosial penelitian ini, teknik sampel yang digunakan
dibandingkan remaja perempuan, meskipun adalah Gugus Bertahap Ganda (dua atau lebih)
anak perempuan lebih sering melarikan diri atau Multistages Sampling. Sehingga, dengan
dari rumah, remaja laki-laki lebih sering terlibat teknik pengambilan sampling yang digunakan
dalam perilaku kekerasan. Menurut Santrock terdapat total sampel responden sekitar 303
(2007) Remaja laki-laki yang nakal sering kali siswa yang akan mewakili DKI Jakarta.
berasal dari keluarga di mana orang tua jarang Instrumen kesejahteraan psikologis
mengawasi anaknya, kurang memberikan menggunakan adaptasi dari Scale of
dukungan, dan menerapkan disiplin yang tidak Psychological Well-Being (SPWB) yang
efektif. Faktor status sosio-ekonomi yang disusun oleh Ryff (1989). Pengukuran
rendah dapat mengakibatkan perilaku remaja kesejahteraan psikologis ini menggunakan
laki-laki menjadi nakal Memiliki kawan-kawan Skala Likert yang terdiri dari 4 pilihan jawaban.
yang nakal dapat meningkatkan individu
menjadi nakal. HASIL DAN PEMBAHASAN
Masa remaja merupakan masa Penelitian yang telah dilakukan
pubertas. Pubertas yang dialami oleh anak laki- kepada 303 siswa laki-laki SMA Negeri yang
laki ditandai dengan telah mengalami mimpi berada di wilayah DKI Jakarta sebagian besar
basah, tumbuhnya jakun, tumbuhnya bulu- berada pada kategori sedang, artinya sebagian
besar remaja laki-laki memilki kesejahteraan posisi teratas pada kategorisasi sedang
psikologis yang cukup baik. Selanjutnya menunjukkan bahwa remaja laki-laki telah
kategorisasi tinggi kesejahteraan psikologis memilki sikap yang positif terhadap diri
pada remaja laki-laki berada diurutan kedua sendiri dan memiliki perasaan yang positif
setelah kategori sedang dan di atas kategori terhadap masa lalu yang cukup baik. Hal ini
rendah. Apabila diurutkan, maka kategorisasi sejalan dengan penelitian Muhammad Ridha
kesejahteraan psikologis pada remaja laki-laki (2012) yang menunjukkan bahwa penerimaan
di SMA Negeri se-DKI Jakarta yaitu kategori diri remaja laki-laki lebih tinggi dari pada
sedang, tinggi, dan kategori rendah. perempuan. Penerimaan diri yang tinggi pada
remaja laki-laki dipengaruhi oleh citra tubuh
Aspek-aspek yang terdapat dalam remaja laki-laki yang digambarkan maskulin
kesejahteraan psikologis menurut Ryff (2008) memilki penerimaan diri yang lebih tinggi.
terbagi menjadi enam dimensi, pada penelitian Remaja laki-laki dapat menerima keadaan
ini persentase kesejahteraan psikologis per dirinya pada saat ini dan menanggapi masa
aspek mayoritas berada pada kategorisasi lalunya dengan hal yang positif.
sedang. Remaja laki-laki telah memiliki
kesejahteraan psikologis per aspek dengan Posisi kedua pada kategorisasi sedang
cukup baik, dimana aspek penerimaan diri, yaitu aspek otonomi, aspek ini menunjukkan
otonomi, penguasaan lingkungan, dan aspek kemampuan laki-laki yang telah mampu
tujuan dalam hidup pada remaja laki-laki mandiri serta dapat mengatasi tekanan sosial.
berada di kategorisasi sedang dengan jumlah Tingginya persentase aspek otonomi remaja
persentase yang lebih tinggi dibandingkan laki-lakipada kategori sedang disebabkan oleh
aspek hubungan yang positif dengan orang lain adanya perbedaan sifat kemandirian pada laki-
dan aspek perkembangan pribadi. Hal ini sesuai laki dan perempuan (Hurlock, 1999). Anak
dengan dari hasil penelitian yang dilakukan laki-laki diberi lebih banyak kesempatan untuk
oleh Ryff (1995) tentang kesejahteraan berdiri sendiri dan menanggung resiko dan
psikologis pria dan wanita, dimana skor aspek banyak dituntut untuk menunjukkan inisiatif
hubungan positif dengan orang lain dan aspek dan maskulinitas. Menurut teori belajar
perkembangan pribadi pada pria lebih rendah. Kolhberg (Monks, 2002) perbedaan tingkah
laku dari jenis kelamin timbul karena pengaruh
Aspek hubungan positif dengan orang lingkungan sosial, anak laki-laki lebih memiliki
lain yang lebih rendah dari aspek lainnya sesuai kebebasan untuk bertingkah laku dibandingkan
dengan penelitian yang dilakukan Nita Septiani dengan anak perempuan. hal tersebut dapat
(2013) yang mengatakan bahwa aspek hubungan dilihat dari aspek penguasaan lingkungan yang
yang positif dengan orang lain memilki skor berada pada urutan ketiga dalam kategorisasi
rata-rata yang paling rendah. Hal tersebut sedang.
disebabkan karena remaja laki-laki memilki
kesulitan untuk membuka diri terhadap orang Aspek penguasaan lingkungan pada
lain dan sering kali menunjukkan hubungan remaja laki laki disebabkan oleh kematangan
yang bermasalah dengan teman sebaya seperti sebagai seseorang yang membangun
berkelahi, bermusuhan, dan tawuran (Han & ketertarikan yang kuat di luar dan berpartisipasi
Choi, 2005). Rendahnya persentase pada aspek dalam aktivitas manusia (Ryff, 1989). Disini
hubungan yang positif dengan orang lain dapat terlihat bahwa remaja laki-laki telah mampu
dilihat dari remaja laki-laki memiliki kesulitan mengefektifkan penggunaan peluang yang
untuk memilki hubungan yang hangat, ada disekitar serta mampu untuk mengatur
memuaskan, dan saling mempercayai orang lingkungannya.
lain serta peduli dengan kesejahteraan orang
lain. Posisi keempat pada kategorisasi
sedang yaitu aspek tujuan hidup, remaja laki-
Aspek penerimaan diri yang memiliki laki memiliki tujuan dan sasaran yang
Hidayat, D.R. & Herdi. (2013). Bimbingan Santrock, John W. (1996). Adolescence
Konseling Kesehatan Mental di (2th ed.). Boston : McGraw Hill.
Sekolah. Bandung: PT Remaja
Rosdakarya. Santrock, John W. (2007). Remaja. Jakarta:
Erlangga.
Hurlock. (1999). Psikologi Perkembangan.
Jakarta : Erlangga. Septiani, Nita. (2013). Gambaran
Psychological Well-being pada
Indrawati, Triana. (2013). Peranan remaja yang tinggal di Panti Asuhan.
Kecerdasan Emosi dan Dukungan (Unpublished undergraduate thesis).
Sosial terhadap Kesejahteraan Universitas Indonesia, Depok.
Psikologis pada Siswa SMP
Terbuka. (Unpublished master’s Warger, C., & Kleman, D. (1986).
thesis). Universitas Gadjah Mada, Devoloping Positive Self-Concepts
Yogyakarta. in Institutionalized Children with
Severe Behavior Disorders. Journal
Maccoby, E.E. (2002). Contemporary of Child Welfare, 2. 165-177.
Research On Parenting: The Case
For Nature And Nurture. Jurnal
American Psychologist.
Abstract: Physical changes in teenager is a principal characteristic from biologic process in puberty age.
Wrong attitude in confront of physical changes can make girl dislike moreover hate the physical changes
that she’s got, so the parent have an important role to girl’s attitude. The objective of this research is to
analyze the correlation of girls perception about parenting education type with the attitude of teenager
facing physical changes in puberty age in Student of 7th class of Junior High School 13 Malang City.
This research is using observational with cross sectional. Number of population 120 students, number
of sample 92 students, with simple random sampling technique. Data collecting applies questioner sheet
filled out by the respondent. Data is showing table type and text. The result of research is using chi-
square showing that majority of respondent are democratic type about 59 students (64,1%). Majority
of respondent (64,1%) have negative attitude (unfavorable) in confront of physical changes, and the
girls that have perception democratic type have negative attitude (unfavorable) in confront of physical
changes. Then, be obtain value x2 table (5,991), and the conclusion that there is no Corelation between
perception about Parenting Education Type with Attitude Facing Physical Changes in Puberty Age.
Abstrak: Perubahan fisik merupakan ciri utama dari proses biologis yang terjadi pada masa puber. Sikap
yang salah dalam menghadapi perubahan fisik yang terjadi dapat membuat remaja putri cenderung tidak
menyukai bahkan membenci perubahan fisik yang dialami. Oleh karena itu orang tua berperan penting
dalam membentuk sikap remaja. Tujuan penelitian ini menganalisis hubungan persepsi remaja putri
tentang tipe pola asuh orang tua dengan sikap menghadapi perubahan fisik masa pubertas. Penelitian
menggunakan observasional dengan pendekatan cross sectional. Populasi penelitian adalah siswi kelas
VII di SMPN 13 Kota Malang sebanyak 120 siswi, sampel sejumlah 92 siswi. Pengambilan sampel
menggunakan simple random sampling. Pengumpulan data menggunakan instrumen berupa kuesioner
yang diisi sendiri oleh responden. Data disajikan dalam bentuk tabel dan tekstual. Analisis data
menggunakan Chi-Square. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa mayoritas responden mempersepsikan
tipe pola asuh orang tuanya demokratis yaitu sejumlah 59 siswi (64,1%). Mayoritas responden
(64,1%) bersikap negatif (unfaforable) dalam menghadapi perubahan fisik masa pubertas, dan siswi
yang mempersepsikan tipe pola asuh orang tuanya demokratis lebih banyak bersikap negative dalam
menghadapi perubahan fisik masa pubertas. Kemudian didapatkan nilai x2 hitung 3,895 lebih kecil dari
x2 tabel (5,991) sehingga dapat disimpulkan bahwa tidak ada hubungan antara persepsi pola asuh orang
tua dengan sikap menghadapi perubahan fisik masa pubertas.
206
207 Jurnal Promkes, Vol. 3, No. 2 Desember 2015: 206–217
jati dirinya. Rasa ingin tahu yang tinggi, negatif pada remaja. Sikap tersebut yang
ingin mencoba hal baru membuat remaja akan membentuk karakter diri remaja saat
tidak jarang menjadi terjerumus dalam berada di lingkungan sekitarnya.
permasalahan. Permasalahan yang sering Remaja dan orang tua memiliki adanya
terjadi seperti anti sosial dan pergaulan keterkaitan yang dapat dibentuk dari adanya
bebas. Anti sosial membuat remaja kurang interaksi dan perilaku yang dimiliki oleh
terbuka terhadap lingkungannya yang dapat keduanya. Peneliti mengidentifikasi pesepsi
menjadi salah penerimaan pada informasi pola asuh orang tua. Berdasarkan literatur
yang diperoleh. yang didapat peneliti ingin mengidentifikasi
Informasi yang holistik terutama dalam sikap remaja putri terhadap perubahan fisik
menghadapi perubahan fisik masa pubertas yang dialami saat pubertas. Penelitian ini
dapat dipupuk dari unit kelompok terkecil juga mengidentifikasi adanya hubungan
yaitu keluarga. Pada dasarnya remaja persepsi remaja putri tentang pola asuh
lebih terkesan akan nilai-nilai luhur yang orang tua dengan sikap menghadapi
berasal dari keteladanan orang tua mereka perubahan fisik masa pubertas.
dari pada mendapatkan nasihat yang hanya
melalui ucapan saja. Orang tua dalam hal ini
METODE
berperan penting dalam membentuk pribadi
remaja dan cara untuk mengantarkan pada Desain penelitian yang digunakan
proses pendewasaan terutama pengenalan dalam penelitian ini adalah observasional
terhadap perubahan fisik yang dialami masa dengan pendekatan cross sectional. Populasi
pubertas. penelitian adalah seluruh siswi kelas VII di
Penelitian yang dilakukan oleh Siti SMP Negeri 13 Kota Malang, yaitu sebanyak
Inayah Rohmaniah tahun 2014 tentang 120 orang yang telah memenuhi kriteria
“Gambaran Pengetahuan dan Sikap Remaja inklusi. Kriteria inklusi yang digunakan
Putri dalam Menghadapi Perubahan adalah siswi kelas VII yang berusia 12-15
Fisik Saat Pubertas di Pondok Pesantren tahun, bersedia menjadi responden, tinggal
Al-Baqiyatussholihat“ menunjukkan bersama orang tua sejak kecil, dan sudah
bahwa remaja putri dalam menghadapi menstruasi. Kriteria ekslusi yang digunakan
perubahan fisik pubertas bersikap negatif ialah siswi yang tidak hadir saat penelitian
yaitu sebanyak 53,3% dari total responden. dan siswi yang mempersepsikan lebih dari
Hal tersebut menjelaskan bahwa sebagian satu tipe pola asuh orang tuannya.
besar remaja putri belum dapat menerima Penelitian menggunakan teknik simple
perubahan fisik yang terjadi pada masa random sampling untuk mengambil sampel
pubertas. Data yang diperoleh dari sejumlah 92 orang. Instrumen yang
penelitian tersebut menjelaskan bahwa rasa digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah
takut, malu, cemas, dan mudah marah saat kuesioner yang diisi sendiri oleh responden
menstruasi dirasakan oleh remaja putri. penelitian. Sebelum digunakan kuesioner
Sikap dipengaruhi oleh orang yang dianggap dilakukan uji validitas dan reabilitas untuk
penting. Pada penelitian orang yang mendapatkan hasil yang berkualitas dengan
dianggap penting dapat membuat remaja melalui.
berfikiran searah dengan yang dihadapinya Setelah didapatkan data, peneliti
sehingga remaja putri menganggap orang tua melakukan pengolahan data mulai dari
merupakan salah satu orang yang dianggap editing, coding, scoring, transferring, dan
penting. tabulating yang selanjutnya dilakukan
Pola asuh orang tua banyak analisis menggunakan Chi-Square.
mempengaruhi sikap remaja sebagai orang Analisis data menggunakan Uji Chi-Square
yang dianggap penting dalam hidupnya, menghasilkan derajat kemaknaan 95%
sehingga mempengaruhi sikap remaja (taraf signifikansi = 5%). Ho diterima jika
dalam mempersiapkan dirinya menuju
tidak ada
masa pubertas, mengenali ciri fisik, maupun
perubahan masa pubertas yang akan hubungan, Ho ditolak jika
memunculkan sikap positif maupun sikap , ada hubungan.
Bella Kartini Rochmania, Sikap Remaja Putri dalam Menghadapi … 208
siswi menjawab sangat setuju dan setuju. pilihan jawaban menunjukkan bahwa remaja
Namun pada pertanyaan tentang kesenangan putri memiliki sikap positif yang sedikit
mencari informasi pendidikan seksual dan terhadap perubahan fisik yang sedang
kesehatan reproduksi sebanyak 19 responden dialami pada masa pubertas. Pada tabel 3
tidak setuju dan 23 responden sangat mengenai pertanyaan unfavorable untuk
tidak setuju. Pernyataan membersihkan responden dalam menghadapi perubahan
alat kelamin setelah BAK dengan air dan fisik pubertas menunjukkan kecenderungan
mengeringkannya sebanyak 28 responden responden menjawab pernyataan dengan
tidak setuju dan 13 responden sangat tidak jawaban setuju dan sangat setuju dari pada
setuju. Pernyataan menerima pembesaran pilihan jawaban tidak setuju maupun pilihan
pinggul sebanyak 43 responden tidak jawaban sangat tidak setuju. Pertanyaan
setuju dan 20 responden sangat tidak unfavorable merupakan pernyataan sikap
setuju. Frekuensi jawaban pertanyaan yang berisi hal-hal yang negatif mengenai
favorable menunjukkan bahwa dengan sikap terhadap perubahan fisik masa
banyaknya jawaban tidak setuju pada pubertas.
Tabel 3. Distribusi Frekuensi Jawaban Sikap Favoreble dan Unfavorable Remaja Putri dalam
Menghadapi Pubertas.
Pertanyaan Faforable SS S TS STS
Menstruasi menunjukkan arti dapat melanjutkan keturunan
30 44 11 7
dan siap untuk menikah
Seks bebas dapat berakibat buruk 62 15 10 5
Senang mencari informasi pendidikan seksual dan kesehatan
7 13 49 23
reproduksi
Setelah BAK membersihkan alat kelamin dengan air dan
27 24 28 13
mengeringkanya
Perubahan fisik dan biologis terjadi pada remaja putri yaitu
41 34 16 1
menstruasi
Menerima pembesaran pinggul yang terjadi 13 16 43 20
Aborsi memperburuk atau mengganggu kesehatan 55 35 2 0
Pertanyaan Unfavorable
pendidikan seksual merupakan hal sensitif 39 46 2 5
Takut gemuk dan mudah diet 30 52 4 6
Senang menggunakan celana ketat 29 43 19 1
Seksual bebas tidak dapat menyebabkan kehamilan 37 49 2 4
Pembesaran payudara membuat saya malu 39 48 4 1
Pendidikan seks untuk orang yang sudah menikah saja 39 47 2 4
Malu dengan tumbuhnya rambut pada ketiak dan sekitar
38 44 4 6
kelamin
Seksual bebas tidak selamanya menimbulkan risiko PMS 24 34 11 23
Kesehatan reproduksi lebih baik diberikan kepada orang
29 48 3 12
dewasa
Sumber: data primer 2014.
Tabel 4. Distribusi Frekuensi Responden Berdasarkan Persepsi Remaja Putri Tentang Tipe
Pola Asuh pada Siswi Kelas VII di SMP Negeri 13 Kota Malang.
Persepsi Tipe Pola Asuh Frekuensi (f) Presentase (%)
Otoriter 14 15,2
Permisif 19 20,7
Demokratis 59 64,1
Jumlah 92 100
Sumber: data primer 2014
Bella Kartini Rochmania, Sikap Remaja Putri dalam Menghadapi … 210
terkecil yang didalamnya ada interaksi satu Persepsi tentang tipe pola asuh orang
sama lain antar anggotanya, dalam pola tua jika dilihat dari intensitas dan banyak
asuh demokratis orang tua memberikan atau sedikit yang diberikan oleh orang tua,
asuhan yang benar sesuai kebutuhan anak. dapat diserap dan ditangkap oleh remaja
Remaja cenderung ingin mencari jati diri putri. Penangkapan tersebut dapat berupa
dan menganggap bahwa dirinya mampu pengalaman, pedoman yang dianut, motivasi,
melewati kehidupannya lebih mandiri kepribadian, bahkan mempengaruhi
dibanding ketika masa kanak-kanak. kecerdasan. Remaja putri dapat mengambil
Pola asuh demokratis dapat membantu pengalaman yang diceritakan orang tua
remaja untuk menyelesaikan tugasnya menjadi salah satu bukti bahwa yang telah
secara bijak melalui komunikasi yang baik diceritakan oleh orang tua merupakan salah
dan diskusi yang saling menghargai. satu contoh nyata. Pedoman yang dianut
Remaja putri dapat merasa nyaman dengan dapat membawa remaja putri mengikuti atau
pola tersebut karena merasa diayomi dan mempertimbangkan pedoman orang tuanya.
dapat menjadi semangat untuk memperoleh Sedangkan motivasi menjadi dukungan
informasi lebih terkait hal yang disukainya yang besar bagi diri remaja putri, terutama
serta bersedia mendengarkan pengalaman dalam menghadapi perubahan yang terjadi
yang dimiliki orang tua. Diskusi dilakukan dalam dirinya termasuk petumbuhan dan
dalam kondisi yang baik sehingga proses perkembagan masa pubertas. Orang tua
tukar pikiran secara efektif dapat terjadi. memiliki fungsi peranan yang sangat besar.
Orang tua mengantarkan anak untuk Menurut Effendy (2004), fungsi pokok
menjalankan tugas pekembangannya sesuai orang tua adalah asih, asah dan asuh. Orang
dengan usianya. tua memberikan kasih sayang, perhatian,
Analisis tersebut didukung oleh teori rasa aman, kehangatan kepada anggota
Yusuf (2008), yang menjelaskan bahwa pada keluarga sehingga memungkinkan remaja
pola asuh demokratis, orang tua tidak hanya tumbuh kembangnya sesuai dengan usia dan
memberikan kebebasan pada anak tetapi kebutuhannya. Pada fungsi asuh orang tua
juga disertai dengan kontrol. Orang tua memberikan pemeliharaan dan perawatan
dengan pola asuh demokratis memberikan anak agar kesehatan selalu terpelihara
pengertian dasar tentang nilai-nilai yang kuat terutama pada remaja putri. Remaja identik
pada diri anak. Orang tua menyeimbangkan dengan kegiatan fisik yang banyak dan perlu
dukungan dengan memberikan kebebasan keseimbangan lingkungan dengan kesehatan
pada anaknya dalam hal memilih dan dirinya. Adanya hal tersebut diharap dapat
melakukan suatu tindakan, serta melalui menjadikan anak memperoleh kesehatan
pendekatan yang hangat. Pemilihan dalam yang holistik yaitu sehat secara fisik, mental,
melakukan tindakan menjadi hal penentu sosial, dan spiritual. Fungsi asah dari orang
terkait langkah yang akan dipilih oleh tua dapat menjadi memenuhi kebutuhan
anak. Remaja akan merasa dihargai ketika anak, sehingga siap menjadi manusia dewasa
diajak untuk berdiskusi. Orang tua dapat yang mandiri dalam mempersiapkan remaja
memberikan kepercayaan kepada anaknya putri pada masa depannya terutama dengan
agar anak memilih dengan konsekuensi yang banyak hal yang akan dipelajari dan akan
ada dari pilihan tersebut. Orang tua tentu dihadapinya.
tidak hanya berhenti sampai memberikan Metode yang dipilih oleh orang
pilihan saja, melainkan juga melakukan tua dalam metode pendidikan anak ialah
pemantauan dan tetap memberikan melalui pola asuh. Tugas perkembangan
perhatian kepada remaja. Dukungan dari yang penting pada masa remaja ialah proses
orang tua sangat diperlukan oleh remaja. bertahap mengembangkan kemampuan
Rasa tanggung jawab akan dapat tertanam yang mandiri agar dapat membuat
dan remaja menjadi percaya diri, sehingga keputusan yang kompeten. Peran orang
remaja akan berusaha semaksimal mungkin. tua penting untuk membantu remaja
Persepsi tipe pola asuh demokratis sangat dalam mencapai potensinya secara utuh
membantu dalam hal ini. yaitu cara menjadi manajer yang efektif.
Bella Kartini Rochmania, Sikap Remaja Putri dalam Menghadapi … 212
Manajer yang efektif menjadi upaya yang terhadap hal yang terjadi. Jika tinggal
penting untuk remaja. Selain itu remaja serumah maka segala sikap dan perilaku
putri dapat menemukan informasi, anak dapat langsung diperhatikan orang tua.
membuat kontak, membantu menyusun Orang tua dapat melakukan pemantauan
pilihannya dan memberikan bimbingan. terhadap perkembangan remaja putri.
Orang tua memberikan pengertian dasar Pemantauan yang dilakukan orang tua tidak
yang kuat sehingga dapat tercipta situasi hanya melihat atau memperhatikan saja,
kepemimpinan. Situasi kepemimpinan orang tua dapat menjadi teman yang baik
yang anggotanya telah diberitahu tujuan untuk diskusi dan membangun sikap yang
kelompok dan anggota diberanikan untuk baik terhadap suatu hal.
mendiskusikan serta melakukan kritik pada Sikap anak yang baik maka perilaku
setiap aktivitas kelompok menurut Kartono anak tersebut diprediksi akan baik juga
(2006). Hasil diskusi dapat menjadi bahan yaitu secara langsung anak akan berusaha
untuk menentukan tujuan selanjutnya dan menjadi pribadi yang baik, terutama untuk
dapat menjadi evaluasi dari semua pihak. orang yang dianggap penting. Tanggung
Keterbukaan diperlukan dalam proses jawab yang muncul ini membangun sikap
memberikan pola asuh agar dapat menjadi pada anak yang akan diaplikasikan melalui
teladan yang baik kepada anak, sekaligus tindakannya. Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa
mengajak remaja putri untuk lebih terbuka meskipun seluruh responden tinggal
dalam melaksanakan tugas bersama orang tua, namun tidak banyak
perkembangannya khususnya mengenai mempengaruhi agar bersikap positif dalam
pubertas yang dialaminya. menghadapi perubahan fisik yang dialami
Menurut Soetjiningsih (2004), tipe pola remaja putri pada masa pubertas. Analisis
asuh ada tiga yaitu otoriter, permisif, atau tersebut didukung pula dengan teori yang
demokratis yang berdasarkan pengalaman menyebutkan interaksi antara anak dengan
pribadi orang tua atau pengalaman teman, orang tua merupakan determinan utama
yang diketahuinya akan menghasilkan hal sikap anak. Sikap orang tua dan sikap anak
yang diinginkan untuk anaknya kelak. Pola cenderung sama atau identik. Namun bila
asuh sebagai metode yang dipilih orang tua dibandingkan dengan pengaruh teman
untuk mendidik anak yang dipengaruhi oleh sebaya, maka pengaruh sikap yang berasal
pengalaman pribadi orang tua atau orang dari orang tua jarang sekali menang (Azwar,
lain yang diketahui sehingga menghasilkan 2007).
pembentukan karakter anak. Jika dilihat dari umur responden
Hasil penelitian di SMP Negeri 13 Kota penelitian, sebanyak 76,1% siswi berumur
Malang tahun 2014 menunjukkan dari 92 13 tahun. Penyetaraan umur responden
siswi, lebih dari setengahnya yakni sebanyak sangat memungkinkan remaja putri yang
64,1% siswi memiliki sikap negatif terhadap seumuran lebih banyak kecocokan dan
perubahan fisik yang terjadi masa pubertas kecenderungan berinteraksi dengan teman
atau menentang hal-hal yang berhubungan sebaya lebih banyak. Seorang remaja dengan
dengan perubahan tersebut. remaja yang lain saling berkomunikasi
Data yang diperoleh pada remaja dan bila menemukan kesamaan, mereka
putri dalam sikap menghadapi perubahan akan membangun kelompok atau
fisik yang terjadi masa pubertas lebih dari membangun kepercayaan dalam bermain,
setengahnya yaitu 64,1% siswi memiliki bertukar pikiran, dan saling menceritakan
sikap negatif terhadap perubahan fisik yang pengalaman. Remaja membentuk kelompok
terjadi. Apabila anak tinggal bersama orang dengan adanya kesamaan antar remaja yang
tua diharapkan orang tua dapat memberikan satu dengan remaja lainnya. Orang yang
bimbingan yang baik sehingga dapat terjalin dianggap penting dalam pembentukan sikap
keterbukaan antara orang tua dan anak dapat dimungkinkan tidak hanya terfokus
sehingga dengan informasi komunikatif pada orang tua saja, terlebih siswi kelas
yang diberikan orang tua dapat membuat VII SMP Negeri 13 Kota Malang 100%
anak tidak cenderung bersikap negatif responden telah mendapat informasi pertama
213 Jurnal Promkes, Vol. 3, No. 2 Desember 2015: 206–217
tentang perubahan fisik masa pubertas yang 5,991) dengan demikian Ho diterima yaitu
diperoleh dari orang tua, guru, saudara, tidak ada hubungan persepsi remaja putrid
maupun tenaga kesehatan. Hal tersebut tentang tipe pola asuh orang tua pada siswi
juga didukung dengan pernyataan Azwar kelas VII di SMP Negeri 13 Kota Malang
(2007), tentang pengaruh lain yang ada tahun 2014.
seperti halnya pengalaman pribadi yang Menurut Azwar (2007), faktor yang
pernah didapatkan remaja dan membekas mempengaruhi pembentukan sikap
pada dirinya, orang yang dianggap penting, yaitu pengalaman pribadi, pengaruh dari
pengaruh kebudayaan yang ada dilingkungan orang yang dianggap penting, pengaruh
remaja putri tersebut, informasi yang didapat kebudayaan, media massa, lembaga
dari media massa, serta pengukuran sikap pendidikan dan lembaga agama, serta
yang dilakukan secara langsung dan tidak pengukuran sikap. Dalam penelitian ini
langsung. Orang. yang dapat dikendalikan oleh peneliti adalah
Orang yang dianggap penting dapat lembaga pendidikan karena responden
luas seperti tokoh yang dikagumi, orang diambil dari sekolah atau lembaga
yang dipatuhi dan dihormati, serta orang pendidikan yang sama dengan tingkat
yang dipercaya oleh remaja putri terkait hal- pendidikan yang sama yaitu pada siswi kelas
hal tertentu. Perubahan fisik masa pubertas VII.
merupakan hal baru yang dialami remaja Pengaruh orang yang dianggap penting
putri pada usia remaja awal. Remaja putri merupakan salah satu komponen sosial yang
membutuhkan orang yang dianggap penting dapat mempengaruhi sikap seseorang. Salah
dalam menyikapi perubahan fisik masa satu orang yang dapat dikategorikan menjadi
pubertas yang sedang dialami. Orang yang orang yang dianggap penting adalah orang
dianggap penting memberikan pengaruh tua (Azwar, 2007), bila dikaitkan dengan
yang dapat membentuk sikap, bila yang hasil penelitian didapat bahwa seluruh
dianggap penting ialah mampu memberikan responden 100% tinggal serumah dengan
informasi yang baik yang berpihak orang tuannya.
terhadap hal yang sedang dibahas maka Damaiyanti (2008) menyebutkan
dimungkinkan dapat membuat sikap positif. bahwa remaja merupakan masa transisi
Namun bila orang yang dianggap penting dari akhir masa kanak-kanak menuju masa
bersikap negatif maka hal yang sama dapat dewasa, didukung dengan pernyataan
juga ditularkan yaitu sikap negatif terhadap Sarwono (2011) tentang remaja awal yaitu
perubahan fisik masa pubertas. pada usia 12–15 tahun yang pada tahap ini
Pubertas merupakan hal yang akan masih heran akan perubahan yang terjadi
dihadapi oleh remaja. Perlu dukungan dari pada tubuhnya sendiri dan dorongan yang
orang-orang yang ada dilingkungan remaja menyertai perubahan tersebut. Terkait hasil
putri. Sikap menghadapi perubahan fisik penelitian 92 siswi telah mempersepsikan
masa pubertas dapat menjadi menyenangkan, tipe pola asuh orang tuanya. Persepsi tipe
remaja putri nyaman, dan tidak menjadi pola asuh terbanyak ialah demokratis
beban. Bila perubahan fisik menyebabkan sejumlah 64,1% siswi, sedangkan persepsi
sikap positif maka akan membuat pubertas tipe pola asuh yang tersedikit ialah otoriter
yang sedang dialami oleh remaja bukan sejumlah 15,2%. Dalam hal ini orang tua
menjadi hal yang mengganggu melainkan sebagai lingkungan sosial pertama remaja
yang memang terjadi secara fisiologis pada diharapkan dapat menerapkan pola asuh
remaja putri. yang mengutamakan adanya interaksi
dialog terbuka tentang perubahan fisik
Hubungan Persepsi Tipe Pola Asuh masa pubertas yang dapat disampaikan
Orang Tua dengan Sikap Menghadapi melalui pendekatan yang hangat sehingga
Perubahan Fisik Masa Pubertas di SMP remaja memiliki sikap yang benar tentang
Negeri 13 Kota Malang Tahun 2014. perubahan fisik yang terjadi pada masa
Hasil utama penelitian ini pubertas, mengingat karakteristik remaja
memperhatikan bahwa berdasarkan hasil dengan emosi yang meluap-luap dan
uji statistic x2 hitung < x2 tabel (3,895 < kebutuhan akan kasih sayang. Oleh karena
Bella Kartini Rochmania, Sikap Remaja Putri dalam Menghadapi … 214
itu, pola asuh orang tua sangat penting pribadi, hal yang diceritakan orang, dan
untung membentuk sikap remaja tentang kebutuhan emosi diri sendiri merupakan
perubahan fisik masa pubertas. determinan utama dalam terbentuknya
Pada hasil penelitian dari 92 siswi kepercayaan. Pengalaman pribadi yang
bahwa tipe pola asuh orang tua yang paling digeneralisasikan tersebut akan membentuk
banyak dipersepsikan oleh responden steriotipe. Apabila steriotipe tersebut telah
adalah demokratis 64,1% yang sebagian berakar sejak lama, maka orang kemudian
besar 71,2% memiliki sikap negatif akan mempunyai sikap yang didasarkan pada
terhadap perubahan fisik masa pubertas. objek sikap tertentu. Sikap yang didasari
Padahal orang tua dengan pola asuh oleh steriotipe (kata ini diganti anggapan
demokratis memprioritaskan kepentingan negatif) semacam ini biasanya sangat sulit
anak dan tanpa ragu dalam mengendalikan. untuk menerima perubahan (Azwar, 2007).
Orang tua selalu bersikap rasional dalam Sikap yang dihasilkan dari pengalaman
suatu pemikiran. Orang tua juga bersikap pribadi yang tidak menyenangkan akan
mendukung kemampuan anak, tidak membuat pribadi seseorang menjadi tidak
menuntut anak untuk menjadi lebih senang atau menghindari hal berkaitan
melampaui kemampuan anak. Menurut dengan pengalaman tersebut. Sedangkan
Yusuf (2008), orang tua menyeimbangkan pengalaman pribadi yang menyenangkan
dukungan dengan memberikan kebebasan dan menarik dapat membuat seseorang
kepada anak-anaknya dalam hal memilih bersikap positif terhadap hal yang
dan melakukan suatu tindakan, dan berhubungan dengan pengalaman tersebut.
pendekatannya kepada anak bersikap Pengalaman yang berkesan dapat menjadi
hangat. Begitu pula yang dibutuhkan oleh cermin steriotip dari hal yang serupa.
remaja, seperti yang dibahas Sntrock (2007), Pertumbuhan yang terjadi pada
bahwa untuk membantu remaja mencapai tubuh remaja putri saat pubertas berupa
potensi seutuhnya, salah satu peran orang tumbuhnya ciri-ciri seks sekunder dan
tua yang penting adalah menjadi manajer menarch. Perubahan seks sekunder yang
yang efektif, yang menemukan informasi, terjadi ialah pada pinggul, payudara, rambut,
membuat kontak membantu menyusun kulit, otot, dan suara. Pinggul membesar
pilihan-pilihannya dan memberikan dan bulat akibat pembesaran tulang panggul
bimbingan. serta perkembangan lemak bawah kulit.
Berdasarkan hasil penelitian didapat Payudara dan papila mamae semakin
sebanyak 64,1% responden mempersepsikan menonjol dengan berkembangnya kelenjar
tipe pola asuh orang tuanya demokratis yang susu. Perubahan yang lain yang terjadi ialah
kecenderungan orang tua tipe demokratis tumbuhnya rambut pada ketiak, kemaluan,
dapat membentuk karakteristik anak yang lengan, kaki, dan wajah. Pada kulit juga
dapat mengontrol dirinya sendiri. Namun terjadi perubahan menjadi lebih kasar,
dengan perkembangan jaman yang maju lebih tebal, agak pucat dan lubang pori-
ini, tidak mustahil remaja terjebak dalam pori bertambah besar. Perubahan pada otot
lingkungan yang apabila seorang pribadi ialah otot semakin kuat dan besar sehingga
yang mempunyai pengalaman yang buruk memberikan bentuk pada bahu, lengan dan
tentang perubahan fisik yang meninggalkan tungkai kaki. Sedangkan pada suara, remaja
kesan kuat sehingga membuat emosi akan putri akan mengalami perubahan suara dari
pengalaman menjadi lebih mendalam, hal suara kanak-kanak menjadi lebih merdu dan
tersebut akan menjadi pengalaman yang melengking.
buruk bahkan menjadi suatu hal yang tidak Faktor yang selanjutnya juga
perlu untuk didiskusikan. Ini diakibatkan membentuk sikap adalah kebudayaan.
emosi remaja yang masih labil, remaja Kebudayaan sangat mempengaruhi orang
masih belum mampu menguasai dan belum yang berada di lingkungan kebudayaan
dapat memfungsikan secara maksimal fungsi tersebut. Jika seorang remaja berada dalam
fisik maupun psikisnya. budaya lingkungan sekitar yang masih
Analisis tersebut didukung dengan menganggap bahwa membicarakan bahkan
teori yang menjelaskan bahwa pengalaman untuk mencari tahu tentang perubahan
215 Jurnal Promkes, Vol. 3, No. 2 Desember 2015: 206–217
fisik masa pubertas adalah suatu tindakan Tenaga kesehatan juga dapat melakukan
yang tabu dan memalukan. Budaya yang pendidikan kesehatan pada organisasi remaja
seperti itu memang mebuat remaja putri salah satunya melalui Pusat Informasi
terbiasa dengan batasan-batasan yang telah dan Konseling Reproduksi Remaja (PIK-
dipupuk dan menjadi suatu kepercayaan KRR). Kegiatan yang dilakukan selain
pada dirinya. Jika hal tersebut terjadi memberikan pendidikan kesehatan dapat
dapat membuat remaja cenderung bersikap juga dilakukan dengan melatih kader sebaya.
negatif. Mereka malu jika disinggung Tenaga kesehatan dapat menghimpun serta
tentang perubahan fisik pubertas yang memberikan pelatihan kepada remaja
terjadi. Ketika hal tersebut terjadi, akhirnya yang dapat dijadikan sebagai kader dalam
berdampak negatif terhadap perkembangan memberikan informasi dan membangun
yang dipilih remaja putri. Namun menurut jejaring agar remaja secara mandiri dapat
Yusuf (2008), fase remaja merupakan membangun sikap positif terutama terhadap
segmen perkembangan individu yang perubahan fisik yang terjadi masa pubertas
sangat penting, diawali dengan matangnya yaitu melalui konten informasi yang benar
organ-organ fisik (seksual) hingga mampu dan tepat.
bereproduksi. Seperti yang didapatkan dari Berbagai media dapat membantu remaja
penelitian, menunjukkan lebih dari setengah dalam memperoleh informasi. Media massa
responden penelitian bersikap negatif dalam sebagai salah satu sumber yang dapat cepat
menghadapi perubahan fisik masa pubertas, untuk diakses oleh remaja. Penyaringan
yaitu sebanyak 64,1% siswi. Maka dari itu informasi perlu dilakukan karena bila tidak
pada fase ini pengenalan serta pemahaman arif juga menyebabkan remaja menjadi salah
yang bijak tentang perubahan fisik masa tangkap tentang informasi yang diperoleh.
pubertas sangatlah diperlukan oleh remaja. Akses tentang hal negatif yang berhubungan
Pengenalan tentang perubahan fisik masa dengan seksualitas dapat dengan mudah
pubertas sebagai upaya agar responden diperoleh yang dapat merusak moral
dapat memahami dan menelaah bahwa remaja. Menurut Notoatmodjo (2005),
perubahan yang terjadi merupakan hal media massa membawa pesan-pesan berisi
yang biasa terjadi dan tidak perlu untuk sugesti yang dapat mengarahkan opini yaitu
dikhawatirkan. adanya informasi baru bagi terbentuknya
Kebutuhan akan informasi sebagai sikap terhadap hal tersebut. Media massa
cara membantu remaja putri untuk dapat diharapkan dapat membantu remaja
memahami pertumbuhan fisik masa pubertas putri dalam memberikan informasi yang
membuat remaja putri mencari tahu dibutuhkan sehingga informasi tersebut
melalui berbagai sumber. Pada penelitian dapat bermanfaat dan dapat digunakan
remaja putri di SMP Negeri 13 Kota sebagai penambah wawasan. Rasa ingin
Malang 100% responden telah mendapat tahu yang tinggi pada diri remaja dapat
informasi tentang perubahan fisik masa memotifasi remaja untuk mampu mencari
pubertas. Hanya sebagian kecil yaitu 4,4% dan mendapatkan informasi yang baik.
diantaranya mendapat informasi oleh tenaga Media massa dapat dijadikan tempat untuk
kesehatan. Ini disebabkan interaksi remaja belajar dan menggali informasi terutama
dengan tenaga kesehatan masih jarang. Bila yang berkaitan dengan kesehatan reproduksi
diketahui peran tenaga kesehatan sangatlah mencakup informasi yang dibutuhkan
penting karena tenaga kesehatan dapat seputar reproduksi remaja. Kesehatan
memberikan informasi secara menyeluruh reproduksi remaja perlu diketahui terutama
terutama kebutuhan akan memaknai bagi remaja awal. Bila media massa dapat
dan mengerti tentang perubahan fisik memberikan informasi yang tepat dan
yang terjadi pada masa pubertas. Tenaga dapat dipahami oleh remaja putri, maka
kesehatan dapat melakukan pendidikan tidak memberikan pengukuran sikap
kesehatan reproduksi pada tingkat sekolah negatif terhadap perubahan fisik pada masa
melalui pendidikan kesehatan reproduksi pubertas. Remaja putri dapat salah dalam
yang bekerja sama dengan guru pengajar bersikap, maka dari itu diperlukan adanya
kelas serta pada kegiatan ekstrakulikuler. informasi yang dapat digunakan sebagai
Bella Kartini Rochmania, Sikap Remaja Putri dalam Menghadapi … 216
referensi memahami perubahan fisik yang dengan perbedaan yang dimiliki masing-
dialami. masing. Sikap yang timbul dari kejadian
Pengaruh kebudayaan juga mengambil tertentu membawa manusia akan mengarah
peranan penting dalam pembentukan sikap. pada sikap positif atau negatif. Agama
Suatu hal mendapat penilaian di masyarakat menjadi kontrol dalam bersikap karena
sesuai dengan kebiasaan dan norma yang dengan berpegang pada agama manusia
berkembang di lingkungan masyarakat menjalani hidup. Lembaga pendidikan
itu sendiri. Bila kebudayaan yang ada dan lembaga agama dapat dijadikan media
dilingkungan tersebut merupakan hal yang untuk menyalurkan informasi khususnya
positif maka dapat membuat sikap remaja mengenai perubahan fisik yang terjadi masa
menjadi positif pula dan sebaliknya bagi pubertas pada remaja putri. Remaja putri
hal yang dianggap negatif atau bertentangan akan mendapatkan banyak informasi dari
dengan budaya akan membuat sikap menjadi banyak pihak dan pubertas yang dialami
negatif. Penilaian terhadap suatu hal tersebut menjadi hal yang nyaman dan remaja
dapat mempengaruhi sikap seseorang yang bersikap positif menghadapinya. Remaja
terlibat atau dilingkungan, seperti yang putri dapat membawa dampak positif bagi
diungkapkan Azwar (2007) bahwa sikap lingkungannya.
sosial terbentuk dari adanya interaksi sosial
yang dialami oleh individu.
SIMPULAN
Lembaga pendidikan dan lembaga
agama menurut Notoatmodjo (2005) Berdasarkan hasil penelitian yang
menanamkan dasar pengertian dan moral telah dilakukan di SMP Negeri 13 Kota
dalam diri individu sehingga dapat Malang dengan responden siswi kelas VII,
mempengaruhi pembentukan sikap individu. dapat ditarik beberapa kesimpulan yakni
Individu mendapat pelajaran dasar sebagai sebagai berikut: Sebagian besar remaja putri
pondasi menjalani kehidupan. Lembaga kelas VII di SMP Negeri 13 Kota Malang
pendidikan menjadi suatu tempat yang mempersepsikan tipe pola asuh orang tuanya
tepat dalam pembelajaran. Pengajar yang demokratis. Lebih dari setengah remaja putri
kompeten dan penjelasan yang mudah di SMP Negeri 13 Kota Malang memiliki
dipahami membuat murid atau anak didik sikap negatif terhadap perubahan fisik masa
menjadi tertarik untuk belajar. Ketertarikan pubertas. Tidak ada hubungan persepsi
akan ilmu yang diperoleh menjadi peluang remaja putri tentang tipe pola asuh orang
agar segala bentuk yang diajarkan dapat tua dengan sikap menghadapi perubahan
diingat dan diterapkan dalam keseharian. fisik masa pubertas. Remaja putri yang
Pendidikan baik formal maupun informal mempersepsikan pola asuh orang tuanya
memberi sumbangsih terbesar mengajarkan demokratis memiliki sikap negatif terhadap
pengetahuan dan pengalaman terhadap perubahan fisik masa pubertas.
suatu hal yang sedang dipelajari. Pengajar
dapat menjadi salah satu sumber pemberi
SARAN
informasi yang membentuk sepak positif
atau negatif terhadap sesuatu. Proses Setelah penelitian Hubungan Persepsi
transfer ilmu juga dilakukan dilingkungan Tipe Pola Asuh Terhadap Sikap Menghadapi
lembaga agama. Lembaga pendidikan Perubahan Fisik Pubertas dilakukan, penulis
tidak lepas juga dari peran lembaga agama. menyarankan bagi peneliti selanjutnya
Lembaga agama menanamkan nilai-nilai yang tertarik untuk penelitian sejenis
keagamaan tentang kehidupan sebagai dapat memperhatikan faktor-faktor yang
pemeluk agama dan ciptaan lain tuhan. Budi dapat mempengaruhi persepsi remaja putri
pekerti yang luhur juga dapat dibiasakan tentang tipe pola asuh dan sikap menghadapi
dan menjadi kearifan diri. Lembaga agama perubahan fisik masa pubertas dengan
mengajarkan untut selalu bersikap positif menggunakan sumber penelitian yang lebih
terhadap kondisi yang sedang dihadapi. luas.
Pada hal ini menjadikan pemeluk agama Pihak SMP Negeri 13 Kota Malang
dapat saling menghormati dan menghargai hendaknya mengembangkan penjelasan
217 Jurnal Promkes, Vol. 3, No. 2 Desember 2015: 206–217
ABSTRACT
Teenage who have experienced puberty will experience a change both in physical or psychological. The changes
that occur during puberty often cause anxiety. The purpose of this research was to know the factors related to
anxiety facing teenage puberty at SMPN 20 Kendari. The type of this research was observational analytic
research with cross sectional study approach. The research population were all students of class VIII and IX in
SMPN 20 Kendari in the period of 2017 as many as 432 people. The sample of research were 81 respondents. The
statistical test used is chi squre test. The results showed there was an association of self-acceptance with anxiety
facing teenage puberty (X2hit) = 9,194> X2tab = 3.841, φ = 0.363). There was a parent-support relationship with
anxiety facing teenage puberty (X2hit) = 5,506> X2tab = 3,841, φ = 0.287). There was a relationship of peer
support with anxiety facing teenage puberty (X2hit) = 8.952> X2tab = 3,841, φ = 0.358). There was an association
of students' knowledge with anxiety facing teenage puberty (X2hit) = 5,506> X2tab = 3,841, φ = 0,287).
Keywords: Anxiety, Self Acceptance, Parental Support, Peer Support, Student Knowledge
503
ini akan membuatnya gelisah. Berbadan anak menuju remaja atau dewasa. Salah
gemuk dianggap kurang menarik. satu peranan penting orang tua adalah
Pada penelitian ini diperoleh bahwa memberikan informasi mengenai
ada 8 (27,6%) remaja siswa yang dapat pengetahuan tentang pubertas seorang anak
menerima dirinya kurang namun tidak secara benar (Hurlock, 2000).
merasa cemas, hal ini berhubungan dengan Dukungan informasional orang tua
pola koping remaja yang baik dalam sangat dibutuhkan oleh anak dalam
menghadapi rasa cemas dengan berusaha mengahadapi masa pubertas. Karena
mencari solusi terhadap masalah yang persepsi masa pubertas seorang anak yang
dihadapi, sehingga akan mengurangi salah akan berdampak pada perilaku anak
kecemasan yang diderita. dalam menghadapi perkembangan
Ada pula 18 (34,5%) remaja siswa pubertasnya. Dimana perilaku itu
yang mempunyai penerimaan diri baik dipengaruhi oleh informasi dan
namun merasa cemas. Hal ini berhubungan pengetahuan (Erwindasari, 2015).
dengan umur responden yang masih labil Hasil analisis hubungan antara
sebagai remaja yakni antara 12 sampai 14 dukungan orang tua dengan kecemasan
tahun. menghadapi masa pubertas remaja,
Hasil uji statistik menunjukkan diperoleh bahwa dari 28 responden yang
bahwa ada hubungan sedang antara mempunyai dukungan orang tua baik, lebih
penerimaan diri dengan kecemasan banyak tidak cemas sebanyak 19 orang
menghadapi masa pubertas remaja di (67,9%). Orang tua mempunyai peranan
SMPN 20 Kendari. Hasil penelitian ini yang besar dalam memberikan informasi
sejalan dengan penelitian Erwindasari tentang perkembangan pada remaja, oleh
(2015) yang menyatakan bahwa ada karena itu orang tua terutama ibu
hubungan secara bermakna penerimaan diri diharapkan dapat memberikan dukungan
masa pubertas dengan kecemasan pada emosi sehingga remaja merasa nyaman dan
siswi di SMP Negeri 5 Sragen. Adanya tidak takut untuk mengalami perkembangan
hubungan ini dapat disebabkan karena terutama pada remaja putri yaitu dengan
terjadinya perubahan fisik pada masa datangnya masa pubertas.
remaja menjelang maupun memasuki masa Kemudian dari 53 responden yang
pubertas dapat diterima oleh remaja mempunyai dukungan orang tua kurang,
sehingga tidak mempengaruhi psikologinya lebih banyak yang cemas sebanyak 33
(Erwindasari, 2015). orang (62,3%), karena kurang maksimalnya
Kurangnya dukungan orang tua saat dukungan orang tua sehingga anak kurang
anak memasuki usia remaja diketahui saat mendapatkan dukungan informasi terutama
dilakukan wawancara dengan anak remaja pemahaman yang baik tentang masa
dimana orang tua jarang membelikan pubertas sehingga mempengaruhi
majalah khusus masa puber maupun sedikit perkembangan jiwanya yakni cenderung
sekali orang tua yang mendiskusikan merasa cemas dengan perubahan fisiknya.
perubahan fisik saat remaja siswi memasuki Pada penelitian ditemukan ada 9
usia pubertas. (32,1%) responden yang mendapatkan
Hal ini sangat bertentangan dengan dukungan orang tua baik tetapi merasa
teori bahwa orang tua mempunyai peranan cemas, hal ini berhubungan dengan
yang sangat penting dalam mengantarkan kematangan psikologi anak dalam
504
menghadapi masa pubertas yang masih Darul Makmur Kecamatan Darul Makmur
kurang sehingga anak akan cenderung Kabupaten Nagan Raya (Nisfiannoor dan
mengalami cemas. Ada pula 20 (37,7%) Kartika, 2004).
responden yang mendapatkan dukungan Berdasarkan hasil penelitian dan
orang tua kurang tetapi merasa tidak cemas, teori yang ada maka peneliti berasumsi
hal ini berhubungan dengan sumber orang tua mempunyai peranan yang penting
informasi lain yang diperoleh dari sekolah dalam memberikan perhatian dan informasi
seperti guru kelasnya. Informasi yang mengenai kesehatan reproduksi khusunya
didapat remaja baik dari orang tua maupun pubertas yang bertujuan untuk menambah
para guru tentang perubahan pada saat pengetahuan agar remaja lebih mengerti
memasuki masa remaja akan dan dapat menerima perubahan fisik dan
mempengaruhi terhadap penerimaan psikologisnya pada masa pubertas.
perubahan yang ada seperti; perubahan Pada variabel diperoleh bahwa
tinggi badan, berat badan, perkembangan dukungan teman sebaya kurang sebanyak
seks sekunder dan proporsi badan. 80 orang (55,2%). Hal ini ditandai dengan
Hasil uji statistik menunjukkan teman jarang atau tidak memberi masukan
bahwa ada hubungan sedang antara kepada saya, teman kurang peduli saat saya
dukungan orang tua dengan kecemasan butuh bantuan, kecewa pada teman, merasa
menghadapi masa pubertas remaja di tidak bebas karena teman suka mengatur
SMPN 20 Kendari. Adanya pengaruh apa yang saya kenakan untuk penampilan
tersebut sesuai dengan teori yang saya.
diungkapkan oleh Setiono (2004) Nilai rata-rata tingkat dukungan
menjelaskan bahwa peranan orang tua teman sebaya yang berada dalam kategori
sangatlah besar dalam memberikan jawaban rendah menunjukkan bahwa subjek dalam
dan alternatif jawaban dari hal-hal yang penelitian ini memiliki tingkat dukungan
dipertanyakan oleh remaja, supaya remaja teman sebaya yang rendah. Siswa/siswi
bisa berfikir lebih jauh dan memilih yang yang memiliki dukungan teman sebaya
terbaik. Orang tua tidak mampu yang rendah cenderung kurang bahkan
menjelaskan pengawasan yang baik dan tidak memiliki hubungan yang akrab
penjelasan yang bijak serta bersikap kaku dengan teman sebayanya, kurang mendapat
akan membuat remaja bertambah bingung perhatian dari teman, kurang mendapat
dan salah mengartikan penjelasan tersebut dukungan/penghargaan positif pada diri,
(Mayangsari, 2015). teman kurang memberi nasihat atau saran.
Penelitian yang dilakukan oleh Kecemasan perubahan fisik
Prasetyo (2016) menyatakan bahwa ada siswa/siswi dapat dipengaruhi oleh
hubungan dukungan orang tua dengan beberapa faktor, salah satunya adalah
kesiapan anak remaja putri menghadapi dukungan teman sebaya. Siswa/siswi yang
menarche di SD Negeri Dukuh 01 memasuki masa puber merupakan masa
Mojolaban Sukoharjo. Nilai ρ-value (0,001) perkembangan yang penting karena mereka
(8). Sejalan pula dengan penelitian menerima kenyataan bahwa tubuhnya mulai
Mardilah (2014) yang menyatakan bahwa mengalami perubahan. Hanya sedikit anak
ada pengaruh dukungan orangtua terhadap puber yang mampu menerima kenyataan
pengetahuan remaja putri dalam ini, sehingga mereka tidak puas dengan
menghadapi menarche di SMP Negeri 5 penampilannya.
505
Hasil analisis hubungan antara Ada pula 16 (33,3%) remaja siswa
dukungan teman sebaya dengan kecemasan yang mempunyai dukungan teman sebaya
menghadapi masa pubertas remaja, baik namun merasa cemas, hal ini
diperoleh bahwa dari 33 responden yang berhubungan dengan pengalaman masa lalu
mempunyai dukungan teman sebaya baik, yang kurang menyenangkan sehingga
lebih banyak tidak cemas sebanyak 23 mempengaruhi psikologi remaja
orang (69,7%). Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa menghadapi masa pubertasnya.
semakin besar siswa mendapatkan Hasil uji statistik menunjukkan
dukungan teman sebaya maka remaja/siswa bahwa ada hubungan sedang antara
cenderung mempunyai rasa cemas yang dukungan teman sebaya dengan kecemasan
berkurang dan sebaliknya hal ini dapat menghadapi masa pubertas remaja di
diamati pada 48 responden yang SMPN 20 Kendari. Hubungan ini pun
mempunyai dukungan teman sebaya didukung oleh teori Taylor (2006)
kurang, lebih banyak yang cemas sebanyak mengatakan bahwa kecemasan ialah suatu
16 orang (33,3%). Akibat langsung adanya pengalaman subjektif mengenai ketegangan
penerimaan teman sebaya bagi seseorang mental yang menggelisahkan sebagai reaksi
remaja adalah adanya rasa berharga dan umum dan ketidakmampuan menghadapi
berarti serta dibutuhkan bagi/oleh masalah atau adanya rasa aman. Perasaan
kelompoknya. Hal ini akan menimbulkan yang tidak menyenangkan ini umumnya
rasa senang, gembira dan puas yang menimbulkan gejala-gejala fisiologis
selanjutnya menghasilkan rasa percaya diri (seperti gemetar, berkeringat, detak jantung
dan keberanian (Mardillah, 2014). meningkat, dan lain-lain) dan gejala-gejala
Selanjutnya adanya dukungan teman sebaya psikologis (seperti panik, tegang, bingung,
sebagai tempat berbagi informasi tentang tak dapat berkonsentrasi, dan sebagainya)
masa pubertas dan respon balik yang (Dewi, 2016). Hasil penelitian ini sejalan
diberikan teman sebaya dapat mengurangi dengan penelitian Dewi Indah Sugiarti
rasa cemas yang dialami remaja dalam (2016) yang menyatakan bahwa ada
menghadapi perubahan-perubahan fisik hubungan antara dukungan teman sebaya
pada masa pubertas. Pada umumnya dengan kecemasan perubahan fisik masa
individu membutuhkan bantuan orang lain pubertas pada siswa-siswi SMPN 23
sebagai dukungan bagi dirinya ketika palembang (Dewi, 2016).
menghadapi masalah (dalam hal ini Pengetahuan siswi tentang pubertas
perubahan fisik). Dengan adanya dukungan adalah kurang sebanyak 48 orang (59,3%).
sosial dapat mengurangi timbulnya simtom Hal ini disebabkan oleh kurangnya
fisik dan gejala psikologis, seperti informasi yang diperoleh siswa remaja.
kecemasan dan depresi (Dewi, 2016). Kurangnya informasi tentang kesehatan
Pada penelitian ini diperoleh bahwa reproduksi dikhawatirkan para remaja tidak
ada 10 (30,3%) remaja siswa yang bisa mempersiapkan mental mereka untuk
mempunyai dukungan teman sebaya rendah menghadapi pubertas. Berbagai respon
atau kurang namun tidak merasa cemas, hal negatif ditunjukkan pada saat seseorang
ini berhubungan dengan adanya dukungan mengalami pubertas dengan menyatakan
informasi dari keluarga terutama orang tua perasaan sedih, takut, malu dan bingung.
selama remaja memasuki masa pubertas. Ternyata mereka tidak dapat
mempersiapkan segala sesuatu termasuk
506
informasi yang penting tentang pubertas perhatian remaja sangat besar terhadap
dan mereka mengalami perkembangan penampilan dirinya sehingga mereka sering
seksual lebih dini akan respon negatif merisaukan bentuk tubuhnya yang kurang
(Mayangsari, 2015). proporsional tersebut. Apabila mereka
Faktor kedua yang dapat sudah dipersiapkan dan mendapatkan
menyebabkan pengetahuan kurang adalah informasi tentang perubahan tersebut maka
tingkat pendidikan. Semakin tinggi mereka tidak akan mengalami kecemasan
pendidikan responden diharapkan akan dan reaksi negatif lainnya, tetapi bila
semakin tinggi pengetahuannya dan mereka kurang memperoleh informasi,
sebaliknya semakin rendah tingkat maka akan merasakan pengalaman yang
pendidikan maka ada kecenderungan tidak negatif.
mengakses informasi tentang pubertas. Berdasarkan penelitian terhadap 33
Pada penelitian ini secara keseluruhan responden ternyata masih ada 10 responden
responden berpendidikan SMP. Kondisi ini (30,3%) yang berpengetahuan baik tetapi
tentu akan berpengaruh pada kemudahan masih mengalami kecemasan berat hal ini
menyerap informasi baik dari petugas dapat disebabkan karena faktor lingkungan
maupun media. responden itu sendiri. Perubahan seks
Berdasarkan teori bahwa pendidikan sekunder yang terjadi antara individu satu
formal sangat besar pengaruhnya terhadap dengan yang lain itu berbeda-beda,
pengetahuan seseorang, bila seseorang sehingga walaupun remaja tersebut
berpendidikan tinggi maka akan memiliki pengetahuannya baik tentang perubahan
pengetahuan yang tinggi pula sebaliknya seks sekunder tapi bisa dipengaruhi oleh
jika seseorang memiliki pendidikan rendah pengalaman teman-teman sekitarnya yang
akan memiliki pengetahuan yang rendah belum mengalami perubahan seks sekunder
dan akan mempengaruhi dalam memahami sehingga mereka cemas karena mengalami
sesuatu hal. Akan tetapi perlu ditekankan perubahan yang lebih awal dari pada teman
bahwa seseorang yang berpendidikan sekitarnya (Asiyah, 2015).
rendah tidak mutlak berpengetahuan rendah Hasil uji statistik menunjukkan
pula dinama pengetahuan ataupun bahwa ada hubungan lemah antara
informasi dapat diperoleh bukan hanya pengetahuan siswa dengan kecemasan
secara formal tetapi juga nonformal. menghadapi masa pubertas remaja di
Hasil analisis hubungan antara SMPN 20 Kendari. Hasil penelitian ini
pengetahuan siswa dengan kecemasan sejalan dengan penelitian Asiyah dkk,
menghadapi masa pubertas remaja, (2015) yang menyatakan bahwa ada
diperoleh bahwa dari 33 responden yang hubungan antara pengetahuan remaja puteri
mempunyai pengetahuan siswa baik, lebih usia 11 – 14 tahun tentang perubahan seks
banyak tidak cemas sebanyak 23 orang sekunder dengan tingkat kecemasan dalam
(69,7%). Kemudian dari 48 responden yang mengalami perubahan seks sekunder di
mempunyai pengetahuan siswa kurang, MTs Safinatul Huda Sowan Kidul Jepara
lebih banyak yang cemas sebanyak 32 Tahun 2010 (chi-square hitung adalah
orang (66,7%). Kematangan seksual dan 17,997 > chi-square tabel df : 8 taraf
terjadinya perubahan bentuk tubuh pada signifikan 5% adalah 15,507 (Asiyah dkk.,
masa pubertas sangat berpengaruh pada 2015).
kehidupan kejiwaan remaja, sementara itu
507
Oleh karena semua variabel yang Ervina, U., dan Mardiana, R.A. 2013.
diteliti secara statistik mempunyai Hubungan Dukungan Keluarga
hubungan maka diharapkan agar orang dengan Tingkat Kecemasan pada
Remaja Putri dalam Menghadapi
maupun teman sebaya memberikan
Menarche di MI Salafiyah
dukungan terutama perubahan fisik pada Simbang Kulon 02 Kabupaten
diri remaja saat memasuki masa pubertas Pekalongan. Skripsi.
sehingga remaja dalam menghadapi Erwindasari, N. 2015. Hubungan
kecemasan akibat perubahan fisik pada Penerimaan Perubahan Fisik
masa pubertas dapat berkurang. Masa Pubertas Terhadap Tingkat
Kecemasan Pada Siswi di SMP
Negeri 5 Sragen. Skripsi.
SIMPULAN
Hurlock. 2000. Psikologi Perkembangan:
Ada hubungan antara penerimaan diri, Suatu Pendekatan Sepanjang
dukungan orang tua, dukungan teman Rentang Kehidupan. Edisi 5.
sebaya, pengetahuan siswi dengan Jakarta: Erlangga.
kecemasan menghadapi masa pubertas Mardillah. 2014. Faktor-Faktor Yang
remaja di SMPN 20 Kendari. Mempengaruhi Pengetahuan
Remaja Putri Dalam Menghadapi
Menarche di SMP Negeri 5 Darul
SARAN Makmur Kecamatan Darul
Diharapkan agar orang maupun teman Makmur Kabupaten Nagan
sebaya memberikan dukungan terutama Raya.Skripsi.
perubahan fisik pada diri remaja saat Mayangsari. 2015. Hubungan Dukungan
memasuki masa pubertas, peran guru dalam Informasional Orangtua Dengan
memberikan informasi tentang kesehatan Kecemasan Anak Menghadapi
Menarche Di Dusun Rewulu
reproduksi dan masalah yang timbul saat
Wetan.
terjadi perubahan pada masa remaja. Nasrawati. 2003. Hubungan Antara Cara
Memperoleh Pengetahuan
DAFTAR PUSTAKA Kesehatan Reproduksi Remaja
Dengan Tingkat Kecemasan
Arikunto, S. 2010. Prosedur Penelitian Pubertas Siswa SLTP Negeri 12
dalam Praktek Klinik. Rineka Yogyakarta. Karya Tulis Ilmiah
Cipta, Jakarta. Tidak Dipublikasikan. FK UGM.
Asiyah, N., ANdriani, K.D., Anita, Y. Yogyakarta.
2015. Hubungan Pengetahuan Nisfiannoor, M., dan Kartika, Y. 2004.
Remaja Putri Usia 11-14 Tahun Hubungan Antara Regulasi
Denga Tingkat Kecemasan Emosi Dan Penerimaan
Dalam Menghadapi Perubahan Kelompok Teman Sebaya Pada
Seks Sekunder di MTs Safinatul Remaja di SMPK X Kebon Jeruk
Huda Sowan Kidul Jepara. dan SMPK Y Duri Kepa –
Skripsi Jakarta Barat.
509
JOURNAL OF RESEARCH ON ADOLESCENCE, 29(1), 82–95
Lorah D. Dorn
Pennsylvania State University
The measurement of puberty is an intricate and precise task, requiring a match between participants’ developmental
age and appropriate techniques to identify and capture variations in maturation. Much of the foundational work on
puberty and its psychosocial correlates was conducted several decades ago. In this article, we review the biological
foundation of puberty; the operationalization of puberty in statistical analyses; and strategies for considering diversity
and social context in research to help researchers align measurement with meaningful conceptual questions. These
three areas are particularly important, given new statistical techniques, greater awareness of individual variations in
development, and key differences between past cohorts and youth coming of age today.
Puberty is a complex, integrative, and coordinated psychological salience of puberty was conducted in
transition, marked by change in body, brain, behav- the 1970s–1990s (e.g., Brooks-Gunn, Petersen, & Eic-
ior, cognition, and emotion. The past decade has horn, 1985; Petersen, Tobin-Richards, & Boxer, 1983;
seen a renaissance in scientific inquiry dedicated to Simmons & Blyth, 1987; Susman et al., 1985). Youth
puberty, with scholars today leveraging cutting- today differ from those cohorts in the timing, onset,
edge statistical and imaging techniques, and draw- and duration of maturation; the dialogue surround-
ing on nearly five decades of scientific scholarship to ing sexual maturation; the social awareness of
understand this pivotal transition. While this resur- human diversity; and the demographic make-up
gence is an exciting one, it is simultaneously marked and economic circumstances of the country in which
by critical challenges. These include both long- they live. As scholars, we must ensure that our
standing methodological and measurement dilem- research questions, methods, and approaches have
mas, rooted in the inherent intricacy of the pubertal been adapted to address these changes. Quite sim-
transition, as well as new and unexpected questions ply, we cannot assume that the methods and theo-
that have emerged in concert with recent research ries developed several decades ago will necessarily
findings across disciplines and levels of analysis. be applicable or appropriate for today’s youth.
The current article explores the principal issues Notably, there are already several exceptional
underlying measurement, conceptualization, and papers detailing various ways to measure puberty
operationalization of puberty in psychological across different scientific disciplines (e.g., Beren-
research. Our central goal is to provide a thorough baum, Beltz, & Corley, 2015; Dorn & Biro, 2011;
foundation in the basics of pubertal maturation, to Dorn, Dahl, Woodward, & Biro, 2006). Those
ensure scholars—particularly those who may be less papers collectively emphasize the need to match
familiar with the topic—are prepared to conduct the type of measurement with the research ques-
empirically sound research that makes a strong con- tion. We refer readers interested in specific mea-
tribution to the field. We additionally discuss surement techniques to those works. Our focus in
needed revisions to the scientific approach to study- this article is to offer new ideas, perspectives for
ing puberty. Much of the foundational work on the research, and methodological principles to help
align the measurement of puberty with meaningful
theoretical questions. We especially highlight three
Jane Mendle’s work on this article was supported by a gift main areas: the biological foundation of puberty;
from Rebecca Q. Morgan and the Program for Research on
the operationalization of puberty in statistical anal-
Youth Development and Engagement.
Requests for reprints should be sent to Jane Mendle, Depart-
ment of Human Development, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY © 2019 Society for Research on Adolescence
14853. E-mail: jem482@cornell.edu DOI: 10.1111/jora.12371
MEASUREMENT OF PUBERTY FOR RESEARCH 83
yses; and strategies for considering diversity and follicle-stimulating hormone followed by the pro-
social context in research. duction of sex steroids from the gonads. In females,
increased estrogen facilitates the development of
secondary sexual characteristics, such as breast and
UNDERSTANDING THE BASICS OF
hip growth, and eventually menstruation. In boys,
PUBERTAL DEVELOPMENT
increased testosterone results in testicular develop-
Puberty is the gateway to adult reproductive com- ment, growth of facial hair, and changes in voice.
petence, encompassing a suite of changes resulting Gonadarche is a gradual and somewhat lengthy
from maturation of the brain and neuroendocrine process, roughly 4–5 years in duration. It begins
function (Lee & Styne, 2013). These neural changes approximately one to one and half years later in
trigger numerous observable physical changes, boys than in girls. In girls, the first change result-
including changes in height and the development ing from the HPG axis typically reported is the-
of primary and secondary sexual characteristics in larche, or the onset of breast development, while
both males and females. As children develop phys- for boys the first change is typically testicular
ically, they also face changes in their social roles growth (Lee & Styne, 2013; Styne & Grumbach,
and relationships, in how they think about them- 2016). Menarche, or a girl’s first menstrual cycle, is
selves and others, and in how they process and a relatively late gonadal event, occurring between
respond to the world around them. Here, we 1.5 and 3 years after breast development begins. It
briefly review the biological foundation of puberty. may take an additional 3–5 years post-menarche
For additional information, we encourage the for menstrual cycles to stabilize and become
reader to refer to the articles in this issue on new regular.
research in puberty and structural and functional In addition to adrenarche and gonadarche, the
brain remodeling in puberty and adolescence (Ayl- growth axis is also activated in puberty. Just prior
win, Toro, Shirtcliff & Lomniczi, 2019; Goddings, to pubertal onset, growth hormone (GH) and rate
Beltz, Peper, Crone, & Braams, 2019). of growth decrease, followed by an increase at
puberty when the growth axis is stimulated by ris-
ing sex steroids and GH is secreted in a pulsatile
Biological Foundation of Puberty
fashion (Styne & Grumbach, 2016). As puberty pro-
Puberty comprises two distinct but overlapping gresses, pulses become significantly higher in
processes, adrenarche and gonadarche. Adrenarche, amplitude and duration (Veldhuis, Roemmich, &
or “awakening of the adrenal glands,” occurs at Rogoo, 2000). Insulin-like growth factor (IGF-1) also
approximately age 6–8 years (e.g., Byrne et al., increases and is correlated with secondary sexual
2016; Lee & Styne, 2013; Styne & Grumbach, 2016). characteristics as well as with concentrations of sex
Adrenarche is marked by a dramatic rise in three steroids (Korth-Schutz, Levin, & New, 1976; Sizo-
adrenal steroid hormones: androstenedione (delta- nenko & Paunier, 1975). Because the majority of
4A), dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), and the linear growth is complete in girls at menarche, GH
latter’s sulfate (DHEAS). These hormones continue is “turned down” to prepubertal levels at the end
to increase into the third decade of life before they of puberty (Albertsson-Wikland, Rosberg, Karlberg,
plateau, and eventually decline. Changes associated & Groth, 1994). For boys, height velocity increases
with adrenarche include increased skin oil and approximately one to two years later than girls,
acne, skeletal maturation, and pubic hair growth. and seems to peak about three-quarters of the way
Gonadarche follows adrenarche approximately through the pubertal transition (Abbassi, 1998).
1–2 years later. The hypothalamic pituitary gonadal Timing of pubertal milestones can vary substan-
(HPG) axis refers to the coordinated endocrine tially across populations, demographic groups, and
function of the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and studies. In the United States, recent estimates sug-
gonads. The HPG axis is active in the early postna- gest that boys show early signs of gonadarche on
tal period (and up to age two in girls), but enters a average at age 10, with Latino and African Ameri-
quiescent period until puberty. At puberty, the can boys maturing approximately six months
gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) pulse ahead of European American boys (Herman-Gid-
generator in the hypothalamus is reactivated (Bor- dens et al., 2012). In girls, early signs of gona-
dini & Rosenfield, 2011; Rey, Campo, Ropelato, & darche are evident in most people at around age 9–
Bergadá, 2016; Styne & Grumbach, 2016). GnRH 10 years (Biro et al., 2013; Cabrera, Bright, Frane,
stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to create a Blethen, & Lee, 2014; Susman et al., 2010), with
pulsatile secretion of both luteinizing hormone and roughly 18% of European American and 40% of
84 MENDLE, BELTZ, CARTER, AND DORN
African American girls showing signs of breast pubic hair development in girls and testicular and
development at age eight (Biro et al., 2010). Impor- pubic hair development in boys (Marshall & Tan-
tantly, these ages are earlier than documented in ner, 1969, 1970; Tanner, 1962). Tanner Stage 1 indi-
previous generations, and convincingly suggest cates no visible signs of development in these
that puberty onset has shifted to a younger chrono- domains, while Tanner Stage 5 indicates full physi-
logical age (Lee & Styne, 2013). This earlier onset is cal maturation. Assessments of Tanner Stages can
evident in both girls and boys from Europe (Aks- be completed by nurses or medical personnel
glaede, Olsen, Sørensen, & Juul, 2008; Aksglaede, trained in a physical exam of this nature, or by
Sørensen, Petersen, Skakkebæk, & Juul, 2009) as parents or youth using photographs or pictorial
well as in the United States (Biro et al., 2013; Eul- images for guidance to obtain parent- or self-per-
ing et al., 2008), and observed in the age of growth ception of stage. Researchers, particularly those
spurt as well as in gonadal indicators (Aksglaede without access to partnerships at medical facilities,
et al., 2008). Because the age at which puberty ends have also frequently used the Pubertal Develop-
has not shifted as dramatically as the age at which ment Scale (PDS; Petersen, Crockett, Richards, &
it starts (reviewed in Lee & Styne, 2013; Mendle, Boxer, 1988; Petersen et al., 1983), comprised of five
2014), youth may be spending a longer period of items for each sex assessing perceived changes in
time in the pubertal transition than youth in previ- height, body hair, and skin (for both sexes), age at
ous generations. menstrual onset and breast development (for girls),
For researchers, these secular changes in puber- and facial hair and voice deepening (for boys). Less
tal development pose practical issues for research commonly, studies have also used hormonal assays
methods. Pubertal youth may cognitively and to reflect aspects of puberty or asked youth to
behaviorally resemble children more than adoles- report their level of development relative to peers
cents and they may have reading levels consistent (see below; for strengths and merits of each mea-
with their chronological age. There may be a need surement type, see also Berenbaum et al., 2015;
to update assumptions about the psychological Dorn et al., 2006; Dorn & Biro, 2011; Harden,
experience of puberty, self-report psychological Kretsch, Moore, & Mendle, 2014; Huang et al.,
measures, and target population age to best cap- 2012; Shirtcliff, Dahl, & Pollak, 2009).
ture and represent children’s experiences. In addi-
tion, being sensitive and well-versed in
HOW TO CAPTURE INDIVIDUAL
developmental norms regarding puberty will
DIFFERENCES IN PUBERTAL DEVELOPMENT:
enhance the quality and validity of scientific
MERGING MEASUREMENT AND METHODS
research. For example, studies that ask participants
to self-report development at an age during which Puberty is a highly individualized process. Youth
youth are not typically experiencing pubertal differ from each other not only in their psychologi-
change (i.e., girls who are too old, such as over cal responses to maturation, but also in the age at
14 years) would miss much of the pubertal process; which they physically mature (known as pubertal
any effects would likely be driven by a small num- timing); the pace of their maturation (commonly
ber of outliers with an unusually late maturation. called pubertal tempo), and the alignment of their
Likewise, knowing that girls tend to enter gona- different pubertal changes with each other (pubertal
darche earlier than boys is relevant for determining synchrony). It should be noted that these individual
enrollment criteria in a study. Because different differences often rely, conceptually and statistically,
psychological and social processes may be evident on accurate assessments and measurement of
earlier versus later in puberty, enrolling girls who pubertal status. Therefore, research that focuses on
are 1–2 years younger than boys will capture com- comparisons of pubertal status asks “what are typi-
parable stages in the pubertal process for both cal psychological changes that occur as children
sexes. enter and progress through puberty?” whereas
research that focuses on pubertal timing, tempo, or
synchrony asks “do individual differences in matu-
Common Measures of Puberty
ration contribute to different psychological experi-
Where a child is in the process of puberty is com- ences at puberty (or different experiences that may
monly referred to as pubertal status. Beginning in persist or even emerge in adulthood)?”
the 1960s, physicians and other medical personnel A recurrent question in puberty research is how
began to use a system known as Tanner Stages to to capture these significant sources of variability in
categorize pubertal status based on breast and individual maturation. This question both contrasts
MEASUREMENT OF PUBERTY FOR RESEARCH 85
and complements questions about normative devel- and clinician Tanner staging of gonadal or adrenal
opment. Historically, pubertal timing, or when a indicators. Subjective measures capture similar
youth develops with respect to same-age, same-sex information, but they are typically self- or parent-
peers, has been the most well-documented, well- reported, such as self-reported axillary hair on the
researched individual difference in pubertal devel- PDS. (Unfortunately, age at spermarche is not a
opment (Susman & Dorn, 2009). However, the past particularly good measure for boys, as discussed in
5 years have seen a growing interest in studying Dorn et al., 2006). Some subjective measures also
other individual differences at puberty (e.g., Men- target perceived pubertal timing, usually assessed
dle, 2014). This work has been fostered by, among via self-report. Rather than asking adolescents
other things, statistical advances that allow directly about specific physical changes, these mea-
researchers to transform longitudinal puberty sures ask adolescents how their development com-
assessments into increasingly nuanced representa- pares to that of their same-age peers. Is it earlier,
tions of how development unfolds for an individ- about the same, or later? Because these questions
ual over time. This section will cover the are not anchored in particular physical milestones,
measurement and operationalization of the three assessments of perceived development capture a
main sources of individual variation at puberty: confluence of biological, social, and cognitive
timing, tempo, and synchrony. The strengths and changes related to puberty (Moore, Harden, &
weaknesses of common and recent measures will Mendle, 2014), rather than pure biological change.
be noted, particularly when used in relation to psy- There is an implicit assumption that objective
chological antecedents and outcomes. measures are “better” than subjective or perceived
measures, and that micro-level biological indicators
(e.g., hormones) are “better” than macro-level ones
Pubertal Timing
(e.g., breast growth), but neither statement is neces-
Pubertal timing is a key psychological construct. It sarily true. Physician-rated Tanner Stages remain
has been related to adolescent changes in brain the “gold standard” for assessing pubertal develop-
structure and function, cognition, early life adversi- ment (Dorn & Biro, 2011; Dorn et al., 2006) in part
ties, and internalizing and externalizing behavior, because they go beyond hormone levels to reflect
including clinical diagnoses that persist into adult- endophenotypes of hormone effects on the brain
hood (Beltz & Berenbaum, 2013; Graber, 2013; and body. It should also be noted that youth are
Herting & Sowell, 2017; Mendle, Ryan, & McKone, notoriously poor at reporting some biological indi-
2016, 2017; Negriff & Susman, 2011; Ryan, Mendle, cators (e.g., skin changes; Dorn et al., 2006) but can
& Markowitz, 2015). Pubertal timing can be be more accurate at others (e.g., menarche; Casey
assessed in two ways. First, individuals can report et al., 1991). Even self-reported PDS ratings and
when they experienced particular pubertal mile- perceived timing reports can be valid and reliable
stones (such as menarche). Second, timing can be (Beltz, Corley, Bricker, Wadsworth, & Berenbaum,
statistically estimated by comparing assessments of 2014; Dubas, Graber, & Petersen, 1991; Graber,
physical development—such as Tanner Stage or Lewinsohn, Seeley, & Brooks-Gunn, 1997). Longitu-
scores on the PDS—across youth of the same dinal studies of perceived pubertal timing indicate
chronological age. Either way, a complete under- stability and continuity of perceived development
standing of pubertal timing first requires knowl- across adolescence; youth who perceive themselves
edge of the different measures of puberty, which as early developers tend to report this across multi-
vary according to whether they are (1) objective, ple time points during adolescence (Cance, Ennett,
subjective, or perceived, (2) concurrent or retro- Morgan-Lopez, & Foshee, 2012; Dubas et al., 1991).
spective, and (3) cross-sectional or longitudinal. As The bottom line is that different measures are suit-
this information has been discussed extensively in able for different research questions. If the research
other sources (e.g., Berenbaum et al., 2015; Dorn & question is about masculinization of neural reward
Biro, 2011; Dorn et al., 2006), it is only reviewed in circuitry in adolescence, then testosterone assess-
brief here. ments may be ideal. If the question is about
Objective measures of puberty capture biological changes in adult social roles that began at puberty,
changes related to a specific pubertal process (i.e., then perceived assessment of maturation could be
gonadarche, adrenarche, or growth) and are typi- optimal.
cally assessed by a health provider or research pro- Pubertal timing can be gauged either concur-
fessional. Examples include hormone assessments, rently or retrospectively. Concurrent measures
measures of height extracted from medical charts, assess ongoing pubertal development in youth who
86 MENDLE, BELTZ, CARTER, AND DORN
are currently navigating puberty, whereas retro- Implementing one of these analytic procedures
spective measures assess development after pub- for timing requires careful attention to the question
erty is complete, typically in late adolescence or under study as well as the available measures of
early adulthood. Again, there is an implicit bias puberty within the data set. Our recommendation
within the field towards concurrent measures, as is to create pubertal timing variables via residuals
youth are currently in the midst of pubertal or standardizing within age bands rather than tri-
change. However, retrospective measures also have chotomizing or using norms. Trichotimizing can
advantages, namely allowing researchers to test limit inferential analysis options to group compar-
complex longitudinal hypotheses about the role of isons (e.g., analyses of variance [ANOVAs]), reduce
puberty across time and to assess the longevity of power, and be sample-specific. Likewise, published
pubertal timing effects. In addition, although objec- norms are not updated frequently, may not always
tive retrospective measures like age at menarche have adequate populations of racially, ethnically,
have been and continue to be widely used, per- or socioeconomically diverse youth, and sometimes
ceived retrospective measures are also seeing rely on a comparatively small segment of the pop-
increased use (e.g., Beltz & Berenbaum, 2013; Car- ulation to determine what is “normal.”
ter & Williams, 2016; Moore, McKone, & Mendle, When measurement is longitudinal, researchers
2016; Zehr, Culbert, Sisk, & Kiump, 2007). Despite can consider advanced growth curve analyses in
concerns about the accuracy of retrospective addition to adapting the methods described above
reports, it has been suggested that the social com- (i.e., Ram & Grimm, 2007; Raudenbush & Bryk,
parison inherent in perceived measures likely 2002). Growth curve models inherently assess
enhances the salience and memory of pubertal pubertal timing within the model design. These
events (Beltz & Berenbaum, 2013). This may par- models have had a notable impact on the field
tially explain why perceptions of pubertal timing (e.g., Beltz et al., 2014; Castellanos-Ryan, Parent,
tend to be strong predictors of psychological out- Vitaro, Tremblay, & Seguin, 2013; Huang, Biro, &
comes even many years post-pubertally (e.g., Gra- Dorn, 2009; Marceau, Ram, Houts, Grimm, & Sus-
ber, Seeley, Brooks-Gunn, & Lewinsohn, 2004; man, 2011; Mendle, Harden, Brooks-Gunn, & Gra-
Moore et al., 2016) . ber, 2010, 2012; Negriff, Blankson, & Trickett, 2015),
but they must be applied with careful attention to
conceptual interpretation. These analyses generally
Calculating Pubertal Timing From Cross-Sectional
involve fitting mixed effects (i.e., group means and
and Longitudinal Data
their variation across individuals) models to longi-
When measurement is cross-sectional, individual tudinal measures of pubertal status separately for
differences in pubertal timing can be determined in boys and girls, and then extracting parameters
several ways. First, individuals can be compared to from the curves that represent pubertal timing (or
published norms (e.g., Biro et al., 2013; Euling et al., tempo; see below).
2008; Herman-Giddens et al., 2012). Second, Depending on the functional form of the growth
researchers have often chosen to trichotomize indi- curve (e.g., linear, quadratic, logistic) and analytic
viduals in a sample. In this case, early, on-time, and choices of the researcher, pubertal timing can be
late timing groups may be created using cutoffs that reflected by the intercept (e.g., age at the onset of
reflect the upper and lower 20–30% of a sex-based puberty or level of development at a certain age)
sample or those more than one standard deviation or by interpolating the age at midpuberty (e.g.,
from the mean in either direction (e.g., Copeland Tanner Stage 3); these pubertal timing estimates
et al., 2010; Dubas et al., 1991; Ge, Conger, & Elder, can then be related to behavior in subsequent anal-
2001; Zehr et al., 2007). Third, timing variables can yses. Linear growth curves consider pubertal
be created by regressing chronological age on development to be steadily increasing across ado-
pubertal status (and saving the residuals) or by lescence (e.g., Castellanos-Ryan et al., 2013; Mendle
standardizing pubertal status ratings within a year et al., 2010). Quadratic curves model pubertal
of chronological age and sex, so that higher scores development in a U- (or inverted U-) shape
reflect greater pubertal development relative to (Negriff et al., 2015), and logistic curves model
same-age, same-sex peers (e.g., Carter, Silverman, & pubertal development in an S-shape, with no
Jaccard, 2013; Crockett, Carlo, Wolff, & Hope, 2013; change in childhood, a sharp increase in adoles-
Dorn, Susman, & Ponirakis, 2003; Mendle, Leve, cence, and a leveling-out in adulthood (e.g., Huang
Van Ryzin, & Natsuaki, 2014; Rudolph, Troop-Gor- et al., 2009; Marceau et al., 2011). Empirical results
don, Lambert, & Natsuaki, 2014) . show that complex curves typically fit longitudinal
MEASUREMENT OF PUBERTY FOR RESEARCH 87
puberty data better than linear ones (Marceau too late or end too early can miss the development
et al., 2011; Negriff et al., 2015), but that the curves of early maturing girls and late maturing boys,
provide similar estimates of pubertal timing and respectively. Thus, it is beneficial to consider both
links to behavior (Beltz et al., 2014). timing and tempo in models whenever possible.
Finally, although there is no consensus as to how
many time points are necessary to estimate tempo,
Pubertal Tempo
conducting three or more assessments is optimal. It
Pubertal tempo is a measure of how quickly a is true that within endocrinology research tempo
youth develops. Some youth mature relatively has occasionally been assessed as a simple differ-
quickly while others have a slower, more gradual ence score of the time it takes a girl to go from
maturation process. Converging evidence of the pubertal onset to menarche (e.g., Mart´ı-Henneberg
developmental significance of pubertal tempo is & Vizmanos, 1997). It should be noted, however,
still mounting (Berenbaum et al., 2015). Because that tempo can only be gauged from two time
tempo indexes change over time, studies of puber- points when assessments span the entirety of pub-
tal tempo necessarily require more than one time erty, from onset to completion, for every participant.
point of data; optimally, researchers will have three Although it might be temptingly simple to subtract
or more assessments of puberty. participants’ level of development at Time 1 from
Like timing, tempo estimates can be extracted their level of development at Time 2, this sort of dif-
from growth curve models, with tempo reflected in ference score would be uninformative about puber-
the rate of change, or slope, of the curves. Unlike tal tempo if the assessments captured only a
pubertal timing, the meaning of tempo estimates is segment of the pubertal process, as is the case in the
highly dependent upon the functional form of the majority of psychological studies. In these circum-
trajectory over time; that is, whether it is a linear, stances, a high difference score would simply reflect
quadratic, or logistic model (Beltz et al., 2014). For participants who experience more pubertal change
example, linear models have the same slope across during the study period and a lower difference
time, so tempo reflects a constant rate of pubertal score would reflect participants experiencing less
change. Quadratic and logistic models have curves, pubertal change at the particular time the study was
and in these models, slope is typically calculated conducted. To illustrate, a person with a low differ-
where the curve changes direction (i.e., the inflec- ence score may have already experienced an unusu-
tion point), so tempo reflects instantaneous change, ally rapid tempo, and completed puberty prior to
or change in the rate of change (Beltz et al., 2014; these assessments, or alternatively may not have yet
Marceau et al., 2011; Negriff et al., 2015). It is likely begun maturing. Although even studies that include
not surprising that pubertal tempo estimates from multiple time points of data may not fully capture
different models are not consistently related to the entirety of the pubertal process, nonlinear
each other, even in the same sample; for instance, growth curve models, although complex, are cur-
tempo estimates from linear models were corre- rently the best methodological techniques available
lated .03 and .15 with estimates from logistic mod- for studying pubertal tempo.
els in two samples of adolescent girls, with neither
estimate consistently relating to behavior (Beltz
Pubertal Synchrony
et al., 2014).
This disconnect between pubertal tempo opera- Synchrony is the extent to which different pubertal
tionalizations highlights the importance of aligning processes or features develop in concert (Marshall
theory and statistical methods when studying pub- & Tanner, 1969, 1970). For instance, puberty in girls
erty. When making modeling decisions, it is benefi- typically begins with a growth spurt in height, fol-
cial to consider study questions and data, and lowed by breast budding, axillary and pubic hair
remember that growth curve models can be sensi- growth, and ends with menarche, but the initiation
tive to the timing, frequency, and spacing of mea- of these events and the extent to which they over-
surements. For instance, a linear curve can be used lap with each other varies across individuals (Mar-
if a researcher only has three measurements shall & Tanner, 1969). Although research in
assessed in the midst of puberty, because more pubertal synchrony has been limited, there has
complex curves require more than three measure- been some consideration of the correspondence
ments. Alternatively, a logistic curve (or censored between adrenal and gonadal indicators of devel-
data set) should be used if the measurements do opment (Corley, Beltz, Wadsworth, & Berenbaum,
not completely capture puberty; studies that begin 2015; Susman et al., 2010). Most notably,
88 MENDLE, BELTZ, CARTER, AND DORN
Thompson, Hammen, and Brennan (2016) reported these differences when selecting instruments,
that asynchronous pubertal development in girls constructing hypotheses, and identifying key
was associated more strongly with depression in mediators and moderators of psychological experi-
late adolescence. Synchrony will be an important ences will enhance research quality and generaliz-
avenue for future work, especially because ability.
researchers often collapse across different puberty This lack of inclusion of diversity and social con-
indicators, and the optimal statistical approaches text in research on puberty likely has many origins.
for comparing and contrasting across indicators are These may include a shortage of theoretical expla-
still unclear. It is true that reliability of measure- nations for these populations; small numbers of
ment generally increases with multiple indicators. researchers studying these issues; challenges in
However, this general rule of psychometrics only recruiting and retaining significant numbers of par-
applies if measures assess the same construct, and ticipants in these groups; and the added expense of
may not hold for aspects of puberty that have dif- effectively recruiting and retaining vulnerable pop-
ferent developmental courses or are driven by dif- ulations. In this section, we highlight the challenges
ferent hormonal processes (i.e., adrenal vs. of addressing diversity and social context in
gonadal). Future investigations of synchrony not research and discuss methodological strategies and
only have the potential to increase understanding considerations when studying racially and ethni-
of the significance of coinciding pubertal events, cally diverse youth, low-income youth, and LGBT
but may also challenge researchers to think deeply youth during the pubertal transition.
and precisely about the aspects of puberty that
matter most for developing youth for the construct
Challenges in Addressing Diversity and Social
under study.
Context
Effective research is an implicit social contract
ADDRESSING DIVERSITY AND SOCIAL
between a researcher and a participant, with partici-
CONTEXT
pants sharing details of their minds, lives, and per-
The timing of puberty varies according to race, eth- sonal histories, and researchers providing
nicity, biological sex, socioeconomic status, and compensation, respect, and interpretation of their
social history (e.g., Biro et al., 2010; Ellis, 2004). It participant’s lived experiences. The challenges of
is likely that the accompanying psychological addressing diversity and social context in puberty
changes associated with puberty are saliently influ- research fall on both sides of this contract. On the
enced by these identities and backgrounds as well. one hand, many researchers lack experience or
Unfortunately, some populations within these expertise in working with racially and ethnically
groups have been understudied in the puberty lit- diverse youth, low-income youth, and LGBT youth.
erature to date, making it difficult to gain a full As a result, they may be wary of delving into work
understanding of puberty’s impact on various psy- within these populations and fearful of misrepre-
chosocial outcomes. Particularly under represented senting their participants’ experiences. Researchers
are the experiences of racially and ethnically may also not have the expertise to recruit in areas
diverse youth, low-income youth, and lesbian, gay, where they might find more diverse samples, or
bisexual, and transgendered (LGBT) youth (see also these populations may not be found in the institu-
Deardorff, Hoyt, Carter, & Shirtcliff, 2019). From a tions or communities where researchers are easily
puberty-specific perspective, it is worth noting that able to recruit. On the other hand, sometimes the
what it means to mature and to become an adult challenge lies within the particular population of
may differ based on personal background or social interest. For example, racially and ethnically diverse
identity. In addition, early pubertal timing is dis- families may be less willing than European Ameri-
proportionately more common in African American cans to participate in developmental research
and Latino youth (e.g., Herman-Giddens et al., because of mistrust of the university or of research
2012), youth from lower socioeconomic contexts (Freimuth et al., 2001) or awareness of historical
(James-Todd, Tehranifar, Rich-Edwards, Titievsky, abuses on the part of researchers in the name of
& Terry, 2010), or youth with histories of early life science. Individuals from lower income backgrounds
adversities (e.g., Mendle, Leve, Van Ryzin, Nat- may have practical concerns that curtail participa-
suaki, & Ge, 2011). For developmental science that tion, as they may be more likely to lack adequate
adequately and appropriately represents the expe- transportation, may need childcare assistance, or
riences of a broad array of adolescents, considering may not have flexible work schedules. It may simply
MEASUREMENT OF PUBERTY FOR RESEARCH 89
be logistically more difficult for them to participate In contrast with the experiences of LGBT youth,
in research, especially during regular business hours, racially and ethnically diverse youth, youth from
without flexibility or accommodations on the part of lower socioeconomic backgrounds, or youth with
researchers (Gross, Julion, & Fogg, 2001). histories of early life stressors experience different
An additional concern is that racially and ethni- physical changes, in that they are more likely to
cally diverse, low-income, and LGBT populations have an earlier timing of puberty, and they are also
may fear the ways in which researchers may por- likely to have different psychological experiences
tray their lives. Parents may be concerned about as well. For example, early pubertal timing is asso-
privacy, their children’s readiness for a psychologi- ciated with greater depression in African American
cal project, or that research may reflect social biases boys than African American girls (Hamlat, Stange,
or stigmatizing assumptions about their back- Alloy, & Abramson, 2014), perhaps in part due to
ground. Parents are powerful in the research pro- the specific stigmas, biases, and concerns that come
cess: they play an active role in persuading or with visibly resembling an adult African American
discouraging their children’s participation, they male—including concerns of physical safety, fair-
provide consent, and they broker their children’s ness in the legal system, or potentially being per-
assent. Researchers may find it useful to meet with ceived as a threat by others. Likewise, girls with
parents prior to and during the research process to histories of childhood sexual assault are particu-
gain their trust, to correct misconceptions, and to larly likely to report depression during the puber-
ameliorate any specific concerns that parents raise. tal transition, even when compared to peers who
A particular conceptual consideration is recogniz- have experienced other forms of adversity (Mendle
ing that some youth from underrepresented back- et al., 2014; Noll et al., 2017). Having powerlessly
grounds will experience both a different timing of endured one premature sexual transition, the sexu-
puberty and have a different psychological experi- alized nature of earlier development may simply
ence, whereas other youth will not experience a dif- be more evocative or fraught for these girls.
ferent timing of puberty—but they will still have a Finally, it is worth noting that youth may also
different psychological experience. For example, hold their own specific fears or attitudes about the
from a strictly biological perspective, there is limited research process (Nilsen & Rogers, 2005). A partic-
evidence that the physical maturation of sexual ular recent concern among youth surrounds termi-
minority youth diverges substantially from that of nology. Specifically, how adolescents choose to self-
other youth: LGBT youth experience the same set of identify may differ from how others perceive them
hormonal and physical changes at the same time or how researchers may find it expedient to
and in the same sequence as their non-LGBT peers. categorize them. To illustrate, gender nonconform-
Yet the psychological experience of puberty seems ing youth are often referred to as “transgender,”
to be meaningfully different (e.g., Grossman, Foss, but this term may or may not be one that youth
& D’Augelli, 2014; Savin-Williams, 2016). In particu- themselves adopt. Increasingly, adolescents are
lar, what it means to mature sexually, to experience choosing to self-identify using terms designed to
sexual desire, to face a continually shifting set of reflect a nonbinary gender continuum—including
social roles and expectations, and to integrate bio- genderqueer, gender fluid, or gender independent
logical maturation with self-concept and self-esteem (Vance, Ehrensaft, & Rosenthal, 2014)—but these
are intensified at puberty for LGBT youth (Savin- terms are often not incorporated into questionnaire
Williams, 2016). Because pubertal hormones assessments. Sexual orientation identification may
strengthen feelings of sexual desire, puberty is often additionally be shaped by cultural values, gender
a time when boys and girls first become cognizant roles, social class, religiosity, or language (e.g.,
of same-sex attractions and consider their sexual ori- Bridges, Selvidge, & Matthews, 2003; Mays,
entation (Grossman et al., 2014). As puberty also Cochran, & Zamudio, 2004; Zea, Reisen, & Diaz,
marks a time when traditional gender roles and 2003). For example, two spirit refers to Native
expectations become more entrenched (Hill & American individuals who may engage in same-
Lynch, 1983), LGBT adolescents must also confront gender sexual behavior or follow alternate gender
and redefine masculinity or femininity for them- roles (Adams & Phillips, 2006) and down low is a
selves in a way that their peers do not. Thus, the term used to describe Latino and African American
psychological experiences of puberty among LGBT men who do not identify as gay, have sex with
youth likely stem from individual-contextual inter- both men and women, and do not disclose their
actions related to both puberty and to being a mem- sexual behavior with men to female partners
ber of a stigmatized social group. (Wolitski, Jones, Wasserman, & Smith, 2006). An
90 MENDLE, BELTZ, CARTER, AND DORN
adolescent male who identifies as gay may not related to body type and skin color, racial catego-
have the same understanding of his sexual orienta- rization, and stereotypic definitions of physical
tion as an adolescent male who identifies as down attractiveness) and how these inequalities shape
low, but researchers may not be aware of the sali- individual-context experiences. Central to this
ent differences across these identities. framework is the notion that emergent identities
arise out of coping with stressors linked to social
inequalities (Spencer, 2006). Puberty would be
Methodological Strategies to Address Diversity
expected to play an important role in this process,
and Social Context
as maturing into adulthood accentuates awareness
Although the challenges associated with addressing of social roles, opportunities, and biases. Youth
diversity and social context are substantial, they may assimilate salient puberty-related experiences
are not insurmountable. We offer several strategies into their existing self-concept and interpret these
to mitigate these challenges. First, collaboration experiences in a manner that has the potential to
with researchers who have knowledge of the popu- cultivate a positive (or negative) view of them-
lation under study is one way to improve under- selves and their futures.
standing. These collaborators can help shape the Finally, smaller methodological shifts may also
research questions asked, the frameworks that are be helpful. Researchers may want to increase their
used to inform those questions, and the interpreta- use of open-ended questions; conduct focus groups
tion of results (Banks, 1998). Another option is to to determine preferred demographic terms; or
involve members of that community in the research allow participants to write-in demographic vari-
process (also called community-based participatory ables to avoid categorizations that may not be
research). Fostering healthy relationships between meaningful for participants. Recognizing that dif-
researchers and community members is a vital step ferent dimensions of puberty may be differentially
toward remedying historical biases and mistrust of salient to particular cultures, they may also want to
the university or of the research process. assess and to analyze multiple dimensions of pub-
Consulting with individuals from underrepre- erty (i.e., menarche, voice changes, breast develop-
sented backgrounds can also help to expand the ment). Additionally, research would benefit from
depth and breadth of research topics in ways that considering within-group variation that goes
are useful to those groups. As an example, Jean, beyond between-group comparisons. For example,
Bondy, Wilkinson, and Forman (2009) conducted Carter, Caldwell, Matusko, Antonucci, and Jackson
separate focus groups for fathers, mothers, and (2011) demonstrated that African American girls,
daughters aged 6–12 years to explore family beliefs relative to Caribbean Black girls, appear to be less
and sociocultural dynamics surrounding puberty in vulnerable to emotional distress during puberty,
Mexican American girls. Their findings suggest regardless of pubertal timing. Finally, once data are
interventions addressing risk factors for early pub- collected and analyses are completed, researchers
erty, such as obesity, should focus on the entire may want to play close attention to the interpreta-
family rather than on the individual child or the tion and dissemination of their results. In interpret-
mother–daughter dyad. By eliciting information ing findings of research, it is important to consider
from fathers, mothers, and daughters, researchers the potential influences of racism, heterosexism,
gleaned new knowledge related to cultural and sexism, and other biases that may factor into how
socioeconomic dynamics of puberty in this popula- youth have responded to questionnaires, how
tion and specific guidelines for interventions to results are presented, or how findings may be sum-
address these dynamics. marized within mainstream media outlets.
A third strategy is to consider theoretical frame-
works proposed for racially and ethnically diverse
DISCUSSION
populations and to apply the utility of these expla-
nations to understand groups of youth underrepre- Puberty coincides with transformation across virtu-
sented in the puberty literature. The specific ally every domain of life. The complexity of the
content of such frameworks might vary depending transition itself is reflected in the intricacy needed
on the specific populations of focus. For example, to operationalize puberty for research purposes.
the phenomenological variant of ecological systems Measurement of puberty must capture a dynamic,
theory (Spencer, 2006; Spencer, Dupree, & Hart- biologically driven process. But it must also encom-
mann, 1997) considers the impact of social inequali- pass an essential paradox: that puberty is both uni-
ties (i.e., dealing with disseminated stereotypes versal and individualized. Puberty is a transition
MEASUREMENT OF PUBERTY FOR RESEARCH 91
that we all pass through on the way to adulthood, tempo is salient not because it is relatively new to
but there may be substantial variation in the timing the literature, nor because it can be modeled in
and onset of key milestones, the pace at which the sophisticated ways. It is intriguing because it
process unfolds, the correspondence of different reflects broader recurrent questions about humans’
pubertal indicators with each other; and the ways psychological reaction to change, and whether
in which social identities might intersect with the sudden and rapid change is more difficult than
psychological response to puberty. gradual change. Likewise, pubertal timing echoes
Underlying discussions of the measurement of long-standing developmental questions about the
puberty is the overarching question of validity of correspondence between age and stage, mind and
measurement. The age and demographic back- body, and normative versus specific experiences.
ground of participants, timing of assessments,
operationalization of statistical parameters, and
CONCLUSION
phrasing of survey questions may all influence
accuracy, generalizability, and replicability of Youth today differ from past cohorts in the timing
results. A particular consideration highlighted in of pubertal onset, the duration of the transition, the
this article has been how different methodological social influences they encounter, and the demo-
and quantitative techniques can enable researchers graphic make-up and economic circumstances of
to capture individual variation in a more valid the country in which they live. However, puberty
way, whether that variation is in physical develop- as a topic of research will continue to inspire and
ment itself (i.e., timing, tempo, or synchrony) or in to perplex developmentalists, for the simple reason
the social contexts that shape psychological reac- that transitioning from childhood to adolescence is
tions to maturation. Data techniques that prioritize rich with personal, biological, and social signifi-
person-centered and person-specific analyses may cance. Incorporating the understudied aspects of
be especially beneficial for allowing us to tap and puberty highlighted in this review, particularly
to express the lived experiences of youth. Implicit with respect to diversity and context, is essential
in these techniques is the important reminder that for enhancing the literature on puberty. Our hope
even within particular groups or social contexts, is that this article both motivates and guides
we should expect variability in psychological reac- researchers to tackle this pivotal developmental
tions to maturation. We cannot assume that youth window.
—no matter their timing, tempo, synchrony, or
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SSM - Population Health 10 (2020) 100549
Article
a
Applied Developmental Psychology, Fordham University, Bronx, NY, USA
b
Sociology & Computational Social Science Institute, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA
ARTICLEINFO ABSTRACT
Keywords: Puberty is marked by substantial increases and emerging sex differences in psychological disorders and risky
Puberty behaviors. However, few studies have examined these effects beyond adolescence, and the previous literature has
Gender differences been dominated by samples of White girls. The current study examines the broadest known set of health sequelae
Internalizing behaviors related to traditional pubertal markers and peer-relative pubertal timing in a representative sample of 14,545 U.
Externalizing behaviors
S. youth from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health.
BMI
Maturational timing was assessed by age at menarche for girls and physical development for boys (e.g., facial
Add health
hair, voice change), and then categorized as early (1 SD below mean), on-time, or late (1 SD above mean) within-
sex. Early and late peer-relative timing was assessed by a self-report of looking “much older” or “much younger”
than one’s peers. We examined psychological (depressive symptoms, antisocial behavior), behavioral (number of
sex partners, drug use, physical activity, screen time, sleep hours), and physical health (self-reported health, BMI)
outcomes during adolescence and young adulthood in a series of sex-stratified regression analyses using survey
weights and a comprehensive set of sociodemographic covariates.
Results indicated that, overall, earlier pubertal timing (i.e., maturational timing and peer -relative timing) put
both girls and boys at risk during adolescence, while later timing was protective. However, longitudinal models
revealed mixed results. For instance, early maturational timing was associated with higher young adult BMI
(girls: β ¼ 0.139, p < .01; boys: β ¼ 0.107, p < .01), but later timing for boys was associated with both risky (e.g.,
more screen time; β¼ 0.125, p < .05) and health promoting (e.g., more sleep; β¼ .296, p < .01) behaviors.
Analysis of this holistic set of outcomes with sex differences in mind allows for more careful evidence-based
recommendations for adolescent health promotion.
Puberty is marked by substantial increases and emerging sex differ- The most consistent finding to emerge from the research on girls
ences in psychological disorders, physical activity patterns, and risky supports the early timing hypothesis, which posits that early maturing
behaviors, with implications for health and health disparities. However, girls find pubertal adjustment especially challenging and are more likely
few studies have examined these effects beyond adolescence, and the to experience adverse outcomes (Caspi & Moffitt, 1991). Research from
previous literature has been dominated by samples of White girls, with developmental science suggests that early puberty in girls is associated
limited research on pubertal processes in ethnic/racial minority youth with more risk-taking behaviors, earlier sexual activity, increased use of
and boys (Marceau, Hottle, & Yatcilla, 2019). The current study in- tobacco and alcohol, and heightened prevalence and intensity of
vestigates the broadest known set of social, behavioral, and physical depression and anxiety, relative to on-time or late development (for a
health sequelae related to pubertal timing in the National Longitudinal review, see Mendle, Turkheimer, and Emery (2007)). However, these
Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health), the most compre- studies are often limited in sample size and generalizability and few
hensive nationally representative sample of adolescent development in have examined long-term outcomes into adulthood. There is also a large
the United States (U.S.). body of epidemiological research that has uncovered links between
early menarche and risk of obesity and cardiovascular disease (Adair,
2008; Lakshman et al., 2009; Prentice & Viner, 2012), reproductive
* Corresponding author. 441 East Fordham Rd, Dealy Hall 216, Bronx, NY, 10458-9993, USA.
E-mail address: lhoyt1@fordham.edu (L.T. Hoyt).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2020.100549
Received 15 October 2019; Received in revised form 19 January 2020; Accepted 30 January 2020
Available online 4 February 2020
2352-8273/© 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
L.T. Hoyt et al. SSM - Population Health 10 (2020) 100549
cancers (Ahlgren, Melbye, Wohlfahrt, & Sorensen, 2004; Jordan, Webb, adolescence but not in young adulthood. On the other hand, some life-
& Green, 2005), and all-cause mortality (Jacobsen, Oda, Knutsen, & course models suggest that childhood experiences may not affect out-
Fraser, 2009; Tamakoshi, Yatsuya, Tamakoshi, & Group, 2011). How- comes until later in life, owing to a latency period (Berkman, 2009).
ever, these studies often rely on a single, retrospectively reported marker Therefore, we may observe links between early or off-time maturation in
of pubertal timing and typically do not account for child- adulthood that were not detectable in adolescence. Other life-course
hood/adolescent health, body weight, or activity behaviors (e.g., phys- health theories focus on cumulative exposure (Johnson, Crosnoe, &
ical activity, sleep), which may confound the relationship between Elder, 2011; Kuh, Ben-Shlomo, Lynch, Hallqvist, & Power, 2003): using
pubertal timing and long-term health outcomes (Hoyt & Falconi, 2015). this lens, youth who develop early or off-time may be set on a risk tra-
From a demographic perspective, researchers often situate pubertal jectory, and accumulating risks may exacerbate negative health trajec-
development through the lens of a modern global decline in fertility (Lee tories into adulthood (i.e., we may observe increasing effects from
& Mason, 2014; Wachter, 2008; Wachter & Bulatao, 2003), as well as in adolescence to young adulthood). Finally, given research that early
terms of social norms surrounding family formation (Berrington & pubertal timing may promote some advantage in the short-term,
Pattaro, 2014; Hakim, 2003; Hayford, 2009). However, this de- particularly for boys (Chaku & Hoyt, 2019; Taga, Markey, & Fried-
mographic and family research has generally not been concerned with man, 2006), we may observe more nuanced developmental trajectories
short or long-term health behavior sequelae of pubertal timing. than previously hypothesized. For instance, there could be an initial
The off-time hypothesis (Caspi & Moffitt, 1991; Petersen & Taylor, advantage for early maturing boys, particularly in their psychosocial
1980) suggests that girls who develop either early or late might be at risk well-being, yet other health risks could accumulate over time if these
for poor health outcomes, yet, this is not often tested given that age of youth also experience more stress in their social relationships or suffer
menarche is typically measured as a continuous, linear variable from long-term consequences of affiliating with older peers.
(assuming early timing is risky and later timing is protective) or on-time Only a few puberty studies have used assessments with multiple
and late development are combined in analyses (and compared to early outcomes to examine the contribution of pubertal timing to health both
timing). Conceptually, this theory is based on the idea that events that concurrently and over time to test these competing hypotheses and they
occur at appropriate or expected ages allow youth to anticipate, prepare, have had mixed results. One study included 167 youth followed over
and learn how to cope with their changing situation, whereas events that four years and found that early maturation predicted stable high
catch youth off-time (in either direction) may be associated with inse- depression in girls while early maturing boys showed low initial levels of
curity and heightened stress. One study that examined nonlinear effects depression, but increased risk over time (Rudolph, Troop-Gordon,
of pubertal timing on depressive symptoms between ages of 12 and 23 Lambert, & Natsuaki, 2014). Research from Add Health found that
years in Add Health, found that both early and late maturing girls (and early menarche was associated with depressive symptoms and antisocial
boys) were at risk of experiencing elevated depressive symptoms during behaviors during adolescence with enduring (but not increasing) effects
early adolescence (Natsuaki, Biehl, & Ge, 2009). Another study exam- into young adulthood (Mendle, Ryan, & McKone, 2018). An earlier Add
ined perceived timing relative to peers, and found that girls (and boys) Health study found that both early and late timing predicted depressed
who perceived themselves to be late relative to peers were at risk for mood during early adolescence – but effects dissipated over time from
body dissatisfaction (de Guzman & Nishina, 2014). adolescence to young adulthood (Natsuaki et al., 2009). Additionally, a
The developmental sequelae of pubertal timing are substantially less meta-analysis of epidemiological studies found that earlier pubertal
well understood in boys than girls. One culprit is that studies of adult timing was predictive of higher adult BMI and greater risk of obesity,
health and disease among men lack a discrete, measurable pubertal however, of the 48 papers analyzed, only eight papers included data on
event (like menarche in girls) that can be accurately and retrospectively childhood BMI (Prentice & Viner, 2013). It is well-known that childhood
reported in large epidemiological studies. Historically, in the adolescent BMI is a robust predictor of pubertal timing (Biro, Khoury, & Morrison,
development literature, there was a prevailing view that early matura- 2006; Kaplowitz, Slora, Wasserman, Pedlow, & Herman-Giddens, 2001).
tion had psychosocial benefits for boys, such as higher self-esteem Therefore, without baseline data from childhood, it is unclear whether
(Blyth, 1981; Simmons, Blyth, Van Cleave, & Bush, 1979)and positive early puberty is a risk factor for adult obesity, or a risk marker of
body image (Crockett & Petersen, 1987), while late maturation was childhood obesity (e.g., elevated childhood BMI contributes to an earlier
associated with greater feelings of inadequacy and social rejection age of menarche, which in turn leads to a higher adult BMI). This body of
(Clausen, 1975). However, the majority of psychology studies in the past research is further limited by small (nonrepresentative) sample sizes, a
few decades suggest that early maturation in boys is a primary risk for specific focus on White girls, and/or lack of key adolescent covariates
internalizing symptoms, including depression and anxiety, and exter- known to be associated with both pubertal timing and health (e.g., BMI,
nalizing symptoms such as attention deficit disorder, conduct disorder, father absence, social support). Furthermore, although previous
aggression, delinquency, and risk-taking behavior (Ge, Conger, & Elder, research on childhood SES and pubertal timing is mixed (Buttke, Sircar,
2001; Huddleston & Ge, 2003; Mendle & Ferrero, 2012). There is also & Martin, 2012; James-Todd, Tehranifar, Rich-Edwards, Titievsky, &
some evidence that late timing is associated with depressive symptoms Terry, 2010; Yermachenko & Dvornyk, 2014), it is important to account
in boys (Conley & Rudolph, 2009)(Graber, Lewinsohn, Seeley, & for how baseline SES predicts long-term health outcomes.
Brooks-Gunn, 1998) or that both very early and very late (i.e., off-time)
puberty are associated with worse mental health (Weichold, Silbereisen, 1.3. The current study
& Schmitt-Rodermund, 2003).
To address these gaps in the literature, the current study aimed to
1.2. Life course perspective on pubertal timing examine the contribution of pubertal timing to adolescent health and
emerging adult health outcomes approximately 13 years later using a
Overall, most research supporting the link between pubertal timing nationally representative sample of adolescents in the U.S. Further, we
and health has been examined in small, short-term studies, limiting our compare two different measures of pubertal timing for both girls and
knowledge about the enduring effects of early or off-time maturation. boys: intra-individual maturational timing (i.e., a personal marker of
Importantly, concurrent effects (i.e., adolescent outcomes) and long- development irrespective of one’s social context) and peer-relative
term effects (i.e., young adult outcomes) of pubertal timing could perceived pubertal timing (i.e., a subjective evaluation of one’s physical
vary. For instance, early maturing youth may experience initial chal- maturity based specifically on peer comparison). This latter measure has
lenges, yet adverse effects could dissipate over time as other youth catch important developmental significance given that youth compare them-
up in physical development. In this case, we might expect that early or selves to others (e.g., friends, schoolmates, siblings, media personalities)
off-time maturation is associated with increased health risk in in order to make sense of who they are and develop a self-concept
2
L.T. Hoyt et al. SSM - Population Health 10 (2020) 100549
(Blanton, 2001; Festinger, 1954). Although previous research using Add Peer-relative pubertal timing was assessed by the question, “How
Health shows that these self-reported measures are moderately corre- advanced is your physical development compared to other boys/girls
lated for boys and slightly correlated for girls (Kretsch, Mendle, Cance, & your age?” Responses could range from “I look younger than most” (1) to
Harden, 2016), no research to date have used both constructs in the “I look older than most” (5). We defined early peer-relative timing as
same study in order to discern potential mechanisms through which physical development older than most, and late as younger than most.
pubertal timing influences population health. For instance, biological The distributions of early/on-time/late peer-relative timing roughly
explanations for the association between pubertal timing and health match that of maturational timing in both females and males (see
may be better aligned with findings that link physical changes (e.g., Table 1).
menarche) to long-term health, while many psychosocial perspectives
on the negative sequelae of early/off-time pubertal development may
rely on subjective perceptions of peer comparison. Overall, we hy-
Table 1
pothesize that early pubertal timing (peer-relative timing, in particular)
Descriptive statistics for the analytic sample (n ¼ 14, 545).
will be associated with poor mental, behavioral, and physical health for
girls, both in adolescence and young adulthood, while off-time puberty Female (n ¼ 7,728) Male (n ¼ 6,817)
(either early or late timing) may increase health risk for boys. M (SD) /% M (SD) /%
Maturational Timing
2. Methods Early Timing 9.4% 15.8%
On-Time 76.1% 68.4%
2.1. Participants and procedure Late Timing 14.4% 15.8%
Peer-Relative Timing
Younger Than Most 8.5% 11.3%
The data are drawn from Add Health, a nationally representative On-Time 77.7% 74.8%
sample of adolescents in grades 7 through 12 (aged 12–19 years) in the Older Than Most 13.8% 13.8%
United States in the 1994–1995 school year (Harris, 2013). The Wave I Adolescent Outcomes (Wave I)
Psychosocial Well-Being
sample included 20,745 youth who were followed up in 1996 (Wave II),
Depressive Symptoms 7.01 (4.92) 5.27 (3.89)
2001–2002 (Wave III), and 2008 (Wave IV), at which time respondents Antisocial Behavior 2.75 (3.40) 3.34 (4.16)
were between the ages of 24 and 32; thus, the young adult follow-up Health Behaviors
from adolescence is approximately 13 years from Wave 1 to Wave 4. Number of Sex Partners 1.04 (3.13) 1.68 (5.10)
Of the longitudinal sample, 14,798 participants had valid sampling Drug Use 0.61 (0.98) 0.68 (1.04)
Physical Activity 3.25 (2.00) 4.13 (2.22)
weights. We further excluded 253 participants who were missing pu-
Screen Time 19.90 (19.20) 25.48 (23.39)
bertal timing data. The final analytic sample for the current study Sleep Hours 7.78 (1.42) 7.87 (1.41)
included 7,728 female respondents and 6,817 male respondents. Pro- Physical Health
cedures for data access and analysis were implemented as approved by Self-Reported Good Health 3.80 (0.91) 3.95 (0.90)
Body Mass Index 22.31 (4.42) 22.73 (4.67)
the Institutional Review Boards at Fordham University and University of
Young Adult Outcomes (Wave IV)
Massachusetts, and in agreement with the sensitive data security plan Psychosocial Well-Being
approved by Add Health data managers. Depressive Symptoms 6.51 (4.95) 5.70 (4.43)
Antisocial Behavior 0.19 (0.86) 0.43 1.29)
2.2. Measures Health Behaviors
Number of Sex Partners 8.61 (9.56) 12.13 (13.52)
Drug Use 0.81 (1.03) 1.22 (1.15)
Independent variables (i.e., pubertal timing measures), dependent Physical Activity 3.23 (2.75) 4.05 (3.32)
variables (i.e., psychosocial well-being, health behaviors, physical Screen Time 19.77 (18.54) 24.90 (23.32)
health in adolescence and adulthood), and baseline covariates are Sleep Hours 7.99 (1.26) 7.58 (1.36)
Physical Health
described in detail below.
Self-Reported Good Health 3.63 (0.92) 3.69 (0.92)
Body Mass Index 29.16 (8.17) 29.01 (6.86)
2.2.1. Pubertal timing Baseline Covariates (Wave I)
Two self-reported measures of pubertal timing were assessed: intra- Age (in Wave I) 15.92 (1.80) 16.08 (1.84)
individual development (i.e., maturational timing) and inter-individual Parent Education 12.86 (2.61) 12.96 (2.60)
Race/Ethnicity
development (i.e., peer-relative pubertal timing). Self-reported age at
White 67.7% 67.4%
menarche served as a proxy for maturational timing for girls. Although Black 16.0% 15.6%
this event occurs later in the pubertal process, it is commonly used as a Hispanic 11.8% 11.8%
marker of pubertal timing for girls and facilitates the comparison of Asian 2.7% 3.30%
Other 1.4% 1.8%
findings across studies. Age of menarche was measured in whole years at
Receipt of Public Aid 7.9% 6.9%
Wave I, Wave II, and Wave III. Of the female respondents, 89.63% re-
Parental Marital Status
ported their age at menarche at Wave I; if a respondent had not had Single, Never Married 5.4% 4.6%
menarche or did not report it at Wave I, we used the next available Married 71.9% 72.4%
report at Wave II (5.38%) or Wave III (3.42%). Boys’ maturational Windowed 3.1% 3.0%
timing was derived from selected questions about bodily changes that Divorced 14.6% 15.8%
Separated 5.0% 4.2%
become evident in mid-to-late puberty (i.e., facial hair, body hair, and
Father Absence
voice change) on a continuous scale that ranged from “least developed” Never Absent 63.4% 65.5%
(1) to “most developed” (5). Responses on the three items were averaged Father Left (6–13 years) 11.2% 11.5%
and then standardized within each whole number age group so that a Father Left (0–15 years) 11.3% 10.6%
higher value represents more advanced development among same-aged Always Absent 14.0% 12.4%
Urbanicity
boys (i.e., earlier maturation). For both sexes, early/late maturational Urban 26.1% 26.2%
timing was defined as one standard deviation below/above the mean. Suburban 58.3% 58.4%
These cut-offs have been used in previous research with the Add Health Rural 15.5% 15.4%
sample and others (e.g., (Foster, Hagan, & Brooks-Gunn, 2008)Ge et al., Notes. All descriptive statistics are drawn from the final imputed dataset and
2001). weighted using Add Health survey weights.
3
L.T. Hoyt et al. SSM - Population Health 10 (2020) 100549
4
L.T. Hoyt et al. SSM - Population Health 10 (2020) 100549
Fig. 1. Standardized regression coefficients and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for adolescent health outcomes controlling for sociod emographic characteristics.
Coefficients are statistically significant at p < .05 where CIs do not cross the 0 line.
The mean age of the full sample at Wave I was 16.00 years-old (SD ¼ menarche for girls was 12.19 years (SD ¼ 1.40) and mean maturational
1.82); 67.7% of the sample were non-Hispanic White, 15.8% were non- timing for boys was 2.71 (SD¼0.82). Mean peer-relative timing was
Hispanic Black and 11.8% were Hispanic. On average, parents in the between “I look about average (3)” and “I look older than some (4)” for
sample had completed 12.88 (SD¼2.61) years of education; 7.3% of the both girls (M ¼ 3.30, SD ¼ 1.10) and boys (M ¼ 3.80, SD ¼ 1.15).
participants had mothers who received public assistance and 64.4% had
a father in the household their entire childhood. The mean age of
5
L.T. Hoyt et al. SSM - Population Health 10 (2020) 100549
Fig. 2. Standardized regression coefficients and 95% CIs for young adult health outcomes controlling for baseline sociodemographic characteristics. Coefficients are
statistically significant at p < .05 where CIs do not cross the 0 line.
3.2. Pubertal timing and adolescent outcomes risk for several poor psychosocial, behavioral, and health outcomes,
while late timing was mostly protective. Earlier menarche in girls was
Standardized regression coefficients and 95% confidence intervals associated with more depressive symptoms, worse self-reported health,
(CIs) are presented in Fig. 1 (coefficients are statistically significant at p and higher BMI; later menarche was associated with fewer sex partners,
< .05 where CIs do not cross the 0 line) and Supplemental Tables A1-A2 less drug use, more physical activity, better self-reported health, and
(girls) and B1-B2 (boys). Overall, early timing put both girls and boys at lower BMI during adolescence (Fig. 1; Panel 1a). For boys, earlier
6
L.T. Hoyt et al. SSM - Population Health 10 (2020) 100549
Fig. 3. Standardized regression coefficients and 95% CIs for young adult health outcomes controlling for baseline sociodemographic characteristics as well as
adolescent levels of psychosocial well-being, health behaviors, and physical health.
maturational timing was associated with significantly higher antisocial one’s peers was a consistent risk factor, significantly associated with
behavior, more sex partners, more drug use, less sleep, and higher BMI; increased depressive symptoms, antisocial behaviors, more sexual
later timing was associated with fewer antisocial behaviors and less drug partners, drug use, worse self-reported health, and higher BMI; devel-
use, but higher depressive symptoms (Panel 1b). oping later was protective in terms of antisocial behavior, drug use, and
A similar pattern of effects was found for peer-relative pubertal BMI. One notable exception was that off-time peer-relative timing (self-
timing (Panels 1c-1d). Among girls, developing earlier than most of reporting looking older or younger than most of one’s peers) was
7
L.T. Hoyt et al. SSM - Population Health 10 (2020) 100549
associated with increased depressive symptoms. Among boys, devel- For boys (Panel 3b), earlier maturational timing was statistically
oping earlier than most of one’s peers was associated with more anti- associated with higher BMI; later timing for boys was associated with
social behaviors, more sex partners, more drug use, fewer sleep hours, fewer sex partners, less drug use and more sleep but also more screen
and higher BMI; developing later was protective in terms of BMI. time – replicating previous models showing links between later timing
and both protective and risky health behaviors. Unexpectedly, a new
3.3. Pubertal timing and young adult health outcomes statistically significant association emerged between earlier matura-
tional timing and less drug use.
In the final set of longitudinal models examining perceived pubertal
Standardized regression coefficients and CIs for the young adult
timing relative to peers on young adult health outcomes for girls (con-
health outcomes are presented in Figs. 2 and 3 (see also Supplemental
trolling for baseline health), early peer-relative timing was only signif-
Tables A3-A6 and B3-B6). Early menarche (Fig. 2; Panel 2a) was asso-
icantly associated with more sex partners; later peer-relative timing was
ciated with more depressive symptoms, less sleep, worse self-reported
associated with higher depressive symptoms, fewer sex partners and
health, and higher BMI. Later menarche was still associated with
lower BMI (Panel 3c). Finally, boys who reported looking older than
fewer sex partners, more sleep hours, better self-reported health, and
most peers (earlier peer-relative timing) had fewer antisocial behaviors
lower BMI in young adulthood. Examining health outcomes for boys
and less screen time; BMI was no longer statistically significant (Panel
(Panel 2b), earlier maturational timing was only statistically associated
3d). Table 2 provides a visual summary of statistically significant co-
with higher BMI; later timing was associated with a number of protec-
efficients across all models.
tive health behaviors including fewer sex partners, less drug use, and
more sleep – but also associated with more screen time.
4. Discussion
When examining peer-relative pubertal timing in the girls’ longitu-
dinal models (Panel 2c), developing earlier than most of one’s peers was
Although the roots of many mental and physical health disorders
still associated with a wide range of poor health outcomes across all
begin in adolescence, surprisingly few studies have examined the
domains including more depressive symptoms and antisocial behaviors;
longevity of pubertal timing effects. The current study explored the
more sex partners, drug use, and screen time; worse general health and
broadest known set of adolescent and young adult health outcomes
higher BMI. However, developing later (i.e., reporting looking younger
related to pubertal timing in both girls and boys and examined both
than most of one’s peers) was associated with both positive and negative
intra-individual development (i.e., maturational timing) and inter-
health outcomes in young adulthood – fewer sex partners and lower
individual development (i.e. peer-relative timing). Aligned with the
BMI, but more depressive symptoms. Boys (Panel 2d) who reported
early timing hypothesis, early pubertal timing was largely associated
looking older than most peers (earlier peer-relative timing) had more sex
with increased risk for poor psychosocial, behavioral, and physical
partners and higher BMI, but less screen time; those who reported
health during adolescence for both girls and boys, while later timing was
looking younger (later timing) had lower BMI.
generally protective. However, associations between pubertal timing
Next, we examined these longitudinal models controlling for base-
and young adult outcomes were more nuanced. Further, by examining
line levels of psychosocial well-being, health behaviors, and physical
boys and girls together, we found that while pubertal timing effects on
health (while still controlling for demographic characteristics, including
health were pervasive among both sexes during adolescence, the effects
SES and family context). In this most stringent test of the longitudinal
for girls were more persistent (see Table 2), with a larger impact on
associations between pubertal timing and young adult outcomes, early
young adult health outcomes for women compared to men.
menarche in girls was statistically associated with higher BMI and worse
Results from the current study suggest that girls who experience
self-reported health; later menarche was associated with lower BMI and
earlier puberty (measured by menarche or peer-relative perceptions)
more sleep (Fig. 3, Panel 3a).
Table 2
Summary of statistically significant regression coefficients across all models.
8
L.T. Hoyt et al. SSM - Population Health 10 (2020) 100549
generally continued to report poor psychological, behavioral, and factors, education level, father absence, social support), which is
physical health outcomes in young adulthood, even after accounting for consistent with a few longitudinal studies that have robustly tested the
demographic, social, and contextual predictors of poor health. However, effect of pubertal timing on BMI in females. Of particular note is a recent
in the final models (controlling for adolescent symptoms and health study that found age at menarche predicted higher BMI in a sample of
behaviors), we found limited direct associations with young adult health adult women from the UK Biobank Study, after adjusting for childhood
outcomes above and beyond what might be predicted by adolescent BMI and genetic risks for early puberty (Gill et al., 2018). The literature
levels. Overall, this pattern of results replicates previous research using is not consistent about this relationship in boys. While higher childhood
Add Health that found that girls who experienced earlier menarche were BMI contributes to earlier onset of puberty among girls, initial evidence
more prone to depressive symptoms in young adulthood than their on- suggests that it may be associated with later onset of puberty among
time or later developing peers primarily because they experienced boys (Lee et al., 2010). Despite sex differences in how pre-pubertal BMI
depression as adolescents, and that risk was sustained over time (Mendle plays a role in pubertal timing, earlier pubertal onset could increase risk
et al., 2018). We also expand on these findings in several important for higher BMI over time for both boys and girls via several psycho-
ways. logical and behavioral pathways, including disordered eating behaviors,
By examining a wide range of outcomes, we observed that links insufficient sleep, and stress associated with early body transformation.
between maturational timing and health extend to behavioral and
physical health markers including risky health behaviors, sleep, self- 4.1. Limitations and future directions
reported health, and BMI. Further, while overall peer-relative pubertal
timing in girls replicated the longitudinal links between menarche and There are many benefits to using a nationally representative dataset
health, we also identified a few key differences. Namely, girls with later such as Add Health, but there are also several challenges and limitations.
peer-relative timing (i.e., girls who reported looking younger than most While the longitudinal, multivariable models used in this study control
of their same-sex peers during adolescence) also reported more depres- for many sources of confounding variation, they do not address biases
sive symptoms. Interestingly, these results persisted in the model with associated with unmeasured characteristics that change between Wave I
the full set of baseline demographic and adolescent health controls, and Wave IV (e.g., changes in household economic status or family
suggesting that these association between later peer-relative pubertal structure), which may affect young people’s health trajectories. Another
timing and young adult depressive symptoms hold above and beyond limitation is that Wave I occurred when youth were in grades 7–12,
adolescent symptoms – and independent of risky behaviors and physical which is later than most youth begin pubertal onset (particularly for
health. This finding highlights the important role of social perceptions in girls), although inspection of initial variation provides ample grounds
adolescent development. Adults, peers, and youth themselves may for analysis.
equate visible signs of physical development with social or cognitive Additionally, our measures of physical development fail to capture
maturity, leading to different behavioral expectations or assumptions the extent and tempo of the diverse morphological changes that occur
(Carter, Mustaffa, & Leath, 2017; Mora, 2012). As a result, girls who during puberty for both boys and girls. Therefore, it is important that
look older or younger than their peers/classmates during adolescence, this work is replicated in future representative study samples that recruit
may be treated differently by teachers, parents, and other peers, with and track a younger cohort of youth. It is also possible that the ante-
implications for future mental health, as well as social, educational, and cedents of early puberty, rather than pubertal timing itself, underlie the
economic trajectories across the transition to adulthood. relationship between pubertal timing and young adult health. We
Overall, there was more evidence for the early timing hypothesis examined a number of variables known to be associated with pubertal
than the off-time hypothesis for the effects of boys’ pubertal timing on timing at Wave I (e.g., race/ethnicity, adolescent BMI, family stress), but
adolescent outcomes, with the exception of depressive symptoms (i.e., we do not have early childhood covariates to explore.
later maturational timing was associated with more depressive symp- Despite these limitations, the current study provides new insights
toms). In the longitudinal models, early maturational timing was asso- into the relationship between pubertal timing and young adult health
ciated with higher young adult BMI; later timing was associated with and suggests that we should re-examine existing theoretical models on
three positive (i.e., fewer sex partners, less drug use, and more sleep) and pubertal timing. While early-onset puberty may be a stressful experi-
only one negative (i.e., more screen time) health behavior. Boys who ence, it does not generate uniform reactions across girls and boys and
reported looking older than their peers (i.e., early peer-relative timing) may depend on social and cultural factors (Deardorff, Hoyt, Carter, &
also reported less screen time. One possible explanation is that while Shirtcliff, 2019; Morales-Chicas & Graham, 2015; Seaton & Carter,
later maturation provides some protection from socially deviant activ- 2017; White, Deardorff, & Gonzales, 2012; White, Deardorff, Liu, &
ities, boys who develop later also have an athletic disadvantage (e.g., Gonzales, 2013(White et al., 2012)(White et al., 2013)). Additionally,
smaller stature, lower muscle mass) and may turn to TV or video games particularly in more conservative settings, youth may not be adequately
for recreational activities. Interestingly, the links between pubertal prepared for the physical changes of puberty and therefore important
timing and screen time remained statistically significant even when maturational events may be accompanied by feelings of shame and the
controlling for adolescent levels of screen time, suggesting that later need to conceal it from others (Lahme, Stern, & Cooper, 2016; Stubbs,
maturing boys spend more time in front of screens as young men, in- 2008). Further, though research on SES and pubertal timing is mixed,
dependent of their screen time as adolescence. Understanding cumula- the most recent research suggests that early maturing youth from lower
tive vulnerability to this health behavior represents an important area of SES backgrounds may have worse outcomes than early developing youth
future research as technology continues to advance and change the ways from more advantageous backgrounds (Mendle & Koch, 2019). Future
in which both youth and adults interact with screens. studies would benefit from a biopsychosocial perspective in under-
Another noteworthy finding was that higher BMI was the most robust standing the complex interactions between physiological changes, cul-
risk outcome associated with earlier pubertal timing, and this risk tural and contextual factors, social norms, behaviors, and values in
extended into young adulthood. Prior observational studies have shown determining health trajectories across the transition from adolescence to
inverse links between onset of menarche and BMI in females, however, adulthood in an ethnically and racially diverse sample of youth. For
most studies did not adjust for childhood obesity and antecedents of instance, research could explore the interaction between objective pu-
early timing, making it difficult to evaluate whether pubertal timing bertal markers (e.g., Tanner stage, hormone levels) and peer-relative
increases risk for obesity, or vice versa (Biro, Greenspan, & Galvez, pubertal timing. A young person who begins puberty early and also
2012). We found that early pubertal timing effects on young adult BMI perceives him/herself as more physically advanced than their peers may
persist after adjusting for adolescent BMI (for girls but not boys) and have different psychological and behavioral outcomes than an early
situational factors that affect the onset of puberty (e.g., ethnicity, SES maturing youth who perceives their maturation as less advanced
9
L.T. Hoyt et al. SSM - Population Health 10 (2020) 100549
compared to their peers. adolescence) may be a strategic “teachable moment” for adolescents and
Finally, pubertal research has largely been deficit-focused, and po- those who support them, as young people gain increased cognitive ca-
tential benefits associated with varying pubertal trajectories are vastly pacity and autonomy to make their own health-related decisions. During
unexplored. A recent study found that pubertal maturation, controlling this time, educators, families, and health care providers could intervene
for age, was associated with increases in attention skills in both boys and to promote positive choices and behaviors that will influence long-term
girls (Chaku & Hoyt, 2019). Given research that physical development health.
accompanying pubertal onset are associated with changes in brain
development (Goddings, Burnett Heyes, Bird, Viner, & Blakemore, Ethical statement
2012), future studies should consider how cognitive and pubertal pro-
cesses interact to influence health-related outcomes, and how increases All authors (listed on the title page) have made substantial contri-
in cognitive development driven by pubertal maturation may in fact butions to the study design/analysis and writing/revising the manu-
prove protective for some youth. script and have approved the final version. My coauthors and I do not
have any conflicts of interest to disclose.
4.2. Implications for promoting population health Procedures for data access and analysis were implemented as
approved by the Institutional Review Board at the University of Mas-
The current analysis demonstrated that early pubertal timing was sachusetts, Amherst (with an IAA agreement at Fordham University),
linked to long-term health outcomes via poor psychological functioning, and in agreement with the sensitive data security plan approved by Add
risky behaviors, and higher BMI during adolescence (i.e., cumulative Health data managers.
vulnerability over time), particularly for girls. This aligns with previous
research that adolescence often contains the developmental roots of Declaration of competing interest
lifetime psychopathology and health habits (Harris, 2010). Therefore, it
is vital to address early psychosocial and behavioral functioning in None.
adolescence, utilizing limited resources from multiple sectors to reduce
the negative effects of early/off-time pubertal timing that drive poor CRediT authorship contribution statement
health outcomes, and health disparities, in the population. One impor-
tant step is to ensure high-quality puberty education for all youth early Lindsay T. Hoyt: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing - orig-
in life. inal draft, Supervision, Funding acquisition. Li Niu: Conceptualization,
Despite secular trends in the declining age of pubertal onset shifting Methodology, Formal analysis, Software, Writing - review & editing,
into primary schools for girls (e.g., White and Asian girls usually start to Visualization. Mark C. Pachucki: Conceptualization, Software, Re-
show secondary sex characteristics by ages 9 or 10; and Black and His- sources, Data curation, Writing - review & editing, Funding acquisition.
panic girls typically start developing a year or two earlier) (Lee & Styne, Natasha Chaku: Methodology, Formal analysis, Writing - review &
2013; Parent et al., 2003), puberty education typically does not occur editing.
until middle or high school (often in combination with sexual educa-
tion), if it is taught at all (Brener et al., 2012; Herbert et al., 2017). This Acknowledgements
lack of age-appropriate puberty education targeted to younger children
may leave many youth uninformed and ill-prepared for pubertal tran- This research uses data from Add Health, a program project directed
sition, especially for those who mature earlier than their peers. This is by Kathleen Mullan Harris and designed by J. Richard Udry, Peter S.
especially important giving our findings, which highlight the important Bearman, and Kathleen Mullan Harris at the University of North Car-
role of peer-relative pubertal timing (i.e., social comparison) in pre- olina at Chapel Hill, and funded by grant P01- HD31921 from the Eunice
dicting health outcomes. Educators, clinicians, and parents could help Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Devel-
normalize the pubertal process and underscore (and appreciate) indi- opment, with cooperative funding from 23 other federal agencies and
vidual differences in body shape, which become more apparent during foundations. Special acknowledgment is due to Ronald R. Rindfuss and
this developmental period. Awareness, social support, and early inter- Barbara Entwisle for assistance in the original design. Information on
vention may be especially significant for girls, who experience these how to obtain the Add Health data files is available on the Add Health
overt physical changes several years before same-aged boys. website (http://www.cpc.unc.edu/addhealth). No direct support was
The physical manifestations of puberty are observable to the devel- received from grant P01- HD31921 for this analysis. Research reported
oping adolescent, but they are also noticeable to others, and may be in this publication was supported by the National Institute of Nursing
compounded by sex or racial/ethnic stereotypes. These changes may Research under Award Number R21NR017154 to Co-PIs Mark C.
signal to adults or friends that youth are now emerging adults, despite Pachucki & Lindsay T. Hoyt. The content is solely the responsibility of
being the same chronological age as their peers and classmates (who the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the
have more child-like appearances). For instance, more mature youth National Institutes of Health.The authors thank Drs. Jane Mendle and
(particularly youth of color) may be perceived by others as more Rebecca M. Ryan for helpful advice on our analytic approach.
aggressive or violent, and more likely to have academic and social
problems than their same-age peers (Carter et al., 2017; Deardorff et al.,
Appendix A. Supplementary data
2019). Therefore it is imperative that adults – including parents,
teachers, and physicians – are knowledgeable about and sensitive to
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
individual differences in physical development and their own implicit
org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2020.100549.
biases.
Finally, theories of life course health and human development sug-
gest that humans pass through sensitive periods in which the social References
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