Antiobiotika golongan lain yang ada di Indonesia adalah : Klindamisin, metronidazol, colistin, tinidazol, fosfomycin,

teicoplanin, vancomycin dan linezolid. Berikut informasi detail dari antibiotika golongan lain :
1.

Klindamisin
Klindamisin digunakan untuk infeksi bakteri anaerob. Seperti infeksi pada saluran nafas, septikemia, dan
peritonitis. Untuk pasien yang sensitif terhadap penisilin Klindamisin juga dapat digunkan untuk infeksi bakteri
aerobik. Klindamisin juga dapat digunakan untuk infeks pada tulang yang disebabkan staphylococcus aureus.
Sediaan topikalnya dalam bentuk Klindamisin posfat digunkan untuk jerawat yang parah.
Klindamisin efektif untuk infeksi yang disebabkan mikroba sebagai berikut :

2.

Bakteri aerobik gram positif seperti golongan Staphylococus dan Streptococus (pneumococcus)

Bakteri anaerobik gram negatif termasuk golongan Batericoides dan Fusobacterium

Metronidazol
Metronidazol efektif untuk bakteri anaerob dan protozoa yang sensitif karena beberapa organisme memiliki
kemampuan untuk mengurangi bentuk aktif metronidazol di dalam selnya. Secara sistemik metronidazol
digunakan untuk infeksi anaerobik, trikomonasis, amubiasis, lambiasis dan amubiasis hati.

3.

Colistin
Colistin digunakan dalam bentuk sulfat atau kompleks sulfomethyl, colistimetate. Tablet Colistin sulfat digunakan
untuk mengobati infeksi usus atau untuk menekan flora di kolon. Colistin sulfat juga digunakan dalam bentuk
krim kulit, bubuk dan tetes mata. Colistimethat digunakan untuk sedian parenteral dan dalam bentuk aerosol
untuk pengobatan infeksi paru-paru.

4.

Tinidazol
Tinidazol merupakan kelompok antibiotika azol. Mekanisme kerjanya dengan cara masuk ke dalam sel mikroba
dan berikatan dengan DNA.Dengan cara ini mikroba tidak dapat berkembang biak. Tinidazol adalah antibiotika
khusus yang digunakan untuk menghentikan penyebaran bakteri anaerob. Bakteri ini biasanya menginfeksi
lambung,

tulang,

otak

Sumber

dan

paru-paru.
:

http://www.tiscali.co.uk/lifestyle/healthfitness/health_advice/netdoctor/
archive/100003949.html

5.

Teicoplanin
Teicoplanin merupakan kelompok antibiotika dari glikopeptida. Bakteri memiliki dinding sel luar yang
dipertahankan oleh molekul peptidoglikan. Dinding sel sangat vital untuk mempertahankan pada lingkungan
normal di dalam tubuh di mana bakteri hidup.Teicoplanin bekerja dengan mengunci formasi dari peptidoglikan.
Dengan cara tersebut dinding bakteri menjadi lemah sehingga bakteri mati. Teicoplanin digunakan untuk infeksi

serius pada hati dan darah. Teicoplanin tidak dapat diserap di lambung sehingga hanya diberikan dengan cara
infus

atau

injeksi.

Sumber

http://www.tiscali.co.uk/lifestyle/healthfitness/health_advice/netdoctor/
archive/100003919.html

6.

Vancomycin
Vancomycin bekerja dengan membunuh atau menghentikan perkembangan bakteri.
Vancomycin digunakan untuk mengobati infeksi pada beberapa bagian tubuh. Kadangkala digabung dengan
antibiotika lain.Vancomycin juga digunakan untuk penderita dengan gangguan hati (mis demam rematik) atau
prosthetic (artificial) hati yang alergi dengan penisilin.Dengan kondisi khusus, antibiotika ini juga dapat
digunakan untuk mencegah endocarditis pada pasien yang telah melakukan operasi gigi atau operasi saluran
nafas atas (hidung atau tenggorokan).
Vancomycin diberikan dalam bentuk injeksi untuk infeksi serius kalau obat lain tidak berguna. Walaupun
demikian, obat ini dapat menimbulkan beberapa efek samping yang serius, termasuk merusak pendengaran
dan

ginjal.

Efek

samping

ini

akan

sering

terjadi

pada

pasien

yang

berumur

lanjut.

Sumber : http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/uspdi/202590.html
7.

Linezolid
Linezolid digunakan untuk mengobati infeksi termasuk pneumonia,infeksi saluran kemih dan infeksi pada kulit
dan darah. Linezolid termasuk golongan antibiotika oxazolidinon.Cara kerja dengan menghentikan perkembang
biakan bakteri.
Linezolid dapat berupa tablet atau suspensi oral. Biasanya diminum sesudah atau sebelum makan dua kali
sehari (setiap 12 jam) untuk 10 sampai 28 hari. Jangan minum kurang atau lebih dari yang diresepkan dokter
anda.
Sebelum minum suspensi oral, bulak balik botol dengan baik tiga hingga lima kali. Jangan dikocok.
Lanjutkan minum obat hingga habis walau anda merasa sudah sembuh.Jangan hentikan minum obat tanpa
bicara

ke

dokter

anda.

Sumber : http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/medmaster/a602004.html
Untuk pemilihan antibiotika golongan lain yang tepat ada baiknya anda harus periksakan diri dan konsultasi ke dokter.
Di apotik online medicastore anda dapat mencari antibiotika golongan lain dengan merk yang berbeda secara mudah
dengan mengetikkan di search engine medicastore. Sehingga anda dapat memilih dan beli antibiotika golongan lain
sesuai dengan kebutuhan anda.

Comment
1.

asma yunita lubison 03 November 2014

IMIPENEM
Indikasi:

infeksi gram positif dan gram negatif, aerobik dan anaerobik, profilaksis
bedah. Tidak dianjurkan untuk infeksi SSP.
Peringatan:

hipersensitif terhadap beta-laktam, gangguan fungsi ginjal, gangguan SSP

(misalnya epilepsi), kehamilan.
Kontraindikasi:

hipersensitivitas terhadap imipenem atau silastatin, menyusui.

Efek Samping:

mual, muntah, diare (pernah dilaporkan timbulnya kolitis), gangguan

pengecapan, gangguan darah, uji Coombs positif, reaksi alergi (ruam,
urtikaria, anafilaksis, nekrolisis epidermal toksik), mioklonus, konvulsi,
bingung, gangguan fungsi mental, peningkatan enzim hati dan bilirubin,
peningkatan ureum dan kreatinin serum, warna kemerahan di urin, reaksi
lokal berupa nyeri, kemerahan, indurasi dan tromboflebitis.
Dosis:

injeksi intramuskuler: Infeksi ringan dan sedang 500-750 mg tiap 12 jam.

Uretritis dan servisitis gonokokus, 500 mg dosis tunggal.
Injeksi intravena: 1-2 gram per hari (dalam 3-4 kali pemberian). Untuk
kuman yang kurang sensitif, 50 mg/kg bb/hari (maksimum 4 g/hari). ANAK di
atas 3 bulan, 60 mg/kgbb (maksimum 2 g/hari) dibagi dalam 3-4 dosis.
Profilaksis bedah, 1 gram intravena, pada waktu induksi anestesi, diulangi 3
jam kemudian. Pada operasi dengan risiko infeksi tinggi (misal: kolorektal)
dilanjutkan 500 mg,
8 dan 16 jam setelah induksi.

List Nama Dagang

Elastyn Iv

Pelastin

Imiclast

Tienam

Imipenem-Cilastatin

Timipen

Imipex

Xerxes I.V

Pelascap

http://pionas.pom.go.id/monografi/imipenem

Cefepime sebagai Antibiotik Sefalosporin Generasi IV

Posted on March 20, 2009 | Leave a comment

Cefepime sebagai Antibiotik Sefalosporin Generasi IV

Yosafat reno ogata / 068114009
Andreas yulianto / 068114071
Cefepime adalah antibiotik injeksi sefalosporin generasi IV & merupakan
suatu molekul zwitter ion. Zwitter ion merupakan suatu ion dipolar yang tidak
mempunyai muatan. Sebagai zwitter ion, cefepime mempunyai suatu muatan
negatif pada posisi 4 pada inti cephalosporin dan suatu substituen yang
mengandung nitrogen kuartener (muatan positif) pada posisi 3 dari inti cephem. Hal
ini dikenal sebagai bullet-shaped. Konfigurasi tertentu zwitter ion ini bertanggung
jawab untuk penetrasi yang cepat daricefepime melalui membran luar bakteri
gram negatif dan sebagai salah satu kunci dari potensi antibakterialnya. Hal ini
dibuktikan dari terjadinya penetrasi sel yang cepat, disebabkan dari efek penolakan
anion tertentu pada periplasma namun tidak terjadi pada campuran ion dipolar ini.
Modifikasi pada struktur inti cephem untuk menghasilkancefepime menciptakan
suatu antibiotik dengan suatu spektrum antimikrobial yang seimbang dan luas serta
merupakan suatu potensi yang berharga untuk perawatan infeksi, baik oleh bakteri
gram positif maupun gram negatif.

Farmakodinamik
Cefepime telah terbukti kemampuan bakterisidalnya melalui analisis time-kill
(killing-curves) dan penentuan minimum bactericidal concentrations (MBC) pada
berbagai jenis bakteri. Rasio MBC/MIC cefepime adalah < 2 untuk lebih dari 80%
dari seluruh isolat spesies gram positif dan gram negatif yang diuji. Cefepime juga
sinergis dengan aminoglikosida secara in vitro, terutama pada isolat Pseudomonas
aeruginosa.
Berikut ini beberapa strain organisme yang sensitif terhadap cefepime:
Aerob Gram-positif:
Staphylococcus aureus (termasuk strain penghasil beta-laktamase)
Staphylococcus epidermidis (termasuk strain penghasil beta-laktamase)
Staphylococci yang lain termasuk S. hominis, S. saprophyticus
Streptococcus pyogenes (Group A streptococci)
Streptococcus agalactiae (Group B streptococci)
Streptococcus
pneumoniae (termasuk intermediate
strainsdengan MIC penicillin 0,1 sampai 1 mcg/ml)

penicillin

resistant

b-hemolytic streptococci lain (Group C. G, F), S. bovis (Group D), Viridans

streptococci.
Aerob Gram-negatif:
Acinetobacter calcoaceticus (subsp. anitratus. Iwoffi)
Citrobacter spp. termasuk C. diversus, C. treundii
Enterobacter spp. termasuk E. cloacae, E. aerogenes
Escherichia coli
Haemophilus influenzae (termasuk strain penghasil beta-laktamase)
Klebsiella spp. termasuk K. pneumoniae, K oxytoca, K. Ozaenae
Morganella morganii
Moraxella catarrhalis (Branhamella catarrhalis) termasuk strain penghasil beta
laktamase

 Neisseria meningitidis
Providencia spp., termasuk P. rettgeri. P. Stuartii
Pseudomonas spp., termasuk P. aeruginosa, P. putida, P. stutzeri
Salmonella spp.
Serratia termasuk S marcescens
Shigella spp.2
Farmakokinetik
Dari sisi farmakokinetik, konsentrasi cefepime terdistribusi luas pada
berbagai jaringan & cairan tubuh yang spesifik sehingga ideal sebagai pilihan terapi
empirisberbagai kasus infeksi seperti terlihat pada tabel berikut.
Tabel konsentrasi rata-rata cefepime di dalam berbagai jaringan (mcg/g) dan cairan
tubuh (mcg/ml) pada laki-laki
WAKTU RATA-RATA

KONSENTRA

DOSIS
(IV)

DARI SAMPLE POST-

SI RATA-

DOSE (JAM)

RATA

500 mg

0-4

292

1g

0-4

926

Urin

2g

0-4

3,120

Empedu

2g

9,4

17,8

Cairan
peritoneal

2g

4,4

18,3

Cairan lepuh

2g

1,5

81,4

Mukosa
bronkus

2g

4,8

24,1

Sputum

2g

4,0

7,4

Prostat

2g

1,0

31,5

JARINGAN ATAU
CAIRAN TUBUH

Apendiks

2g

5,7

5,2

Kantung
empedu

2g

8,9

11,9

Berdasarkan luasnya spektrum bakteri dan distribusi cefepime pada berbagai

jaringan dan cairan tubuh maka cefepime dapat diindikasikan pada kasus:
Septikemia
Pengobatan empiris pada pasien febrile neutropenia
Infeksi saluran pernapasan bawah: pneumonia dan bronkopneumonia
Infeksi saluran kemih bagian atas (pyelonephritis) dan bawah dengan komplikasi
Infeksi intraabdominal: peritonitis dan infeksi saluran empedu2
KONTRA INDIKASI Hipersensitif terhadap sefalosporin, penisilin, atau antibiotik laktam lainnya.
PERHATIAN Pseudomembran kolitis. Pemakaian jangka panjang. Anak < 13 tahun.
Kehamilan & laktasi.
EFEK SAMPING Reaksi hipersensitif, gangguan gastrointestinal, nyeri dada,
takikardi, batuk, sakit tenggorokan, dyspnea, sakit kepala, pusing, ansietas,
kebingungan, reaksi lokal.
DOSIS

Dewasa

1 g IM / IV tiap 12 jam.

Infeksi saluran kemih ringan sampai sedang

500 mg- 1 g IV / IM tiap 12 jam.

Infeksi ringan sampai sedang selain infeksi saluran kemih

1 g IV / IM tiap 12 jam.

Infeksi berat

2 g IV tiap 12 jam.

Infeksi sangat berat sampai mengancam jiwa

2 g IV tiap 8 jam. Terapi selama: 7-10 hari atau lebih untuk infeksi berat.

Sumber pustaka
Dexa Media jurnal kedokteran dan farmasi no 2, vol 20 april-juni 2007
http://medicastore.com, diakses tanggal 19 Maret 2009

Ceftazidime
Injeksi
PT DEXA MEDICA
OBAT ANTIBIOTIK
direkomandasi oleh 35 orang. Beri rekomendasi

Indikasi:
Infeksi-infeksi yang disebabkan oleh kuman yang susceptible antara lain: Infeksi umum: septicaemia; bacteriaemia;
peritonitis; meningitis; penderita ICU dengan problem spesifik, misalnya luka bakar yang terinfeksi. Infeksi saluran
pernapasan bagian bawah: pneumonia, bronkopneumonia; pleuritis pada paru-paru; emfisema; bronciectasis yang
terinfeksi; abcess pada paru-paru; infeksi paru-paru pada penderita cystic fibrosis. Infeksi saluran kemih:
pyelonephritis akut dan kronis; pyelitis; prostatitis; berbagai abscess renal Infeksi jaringan lunak dan kulit: celullitis;
erysipelas; abscess; mastitis; luka bakar atau luka lain yang terinfeksi; ulkus pada kulit Infeksi tulang dan sendi:
osteotitis, osteomyelitis; artritis septik; bursitis yang terinfeksi infeksi abdominal dan bilier cholangitis, cholecystitis;
peritonitis; diverkulitis; penyakit radang pelvic Dialysis Infeksi-infeksi yang dikaitkan dengan dialisis haemo dan
peritoneal dan CAPD (continous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis).
Kontra Indikasi:
Penderita yang hipersensitif terhadap antibiotika sefalosporin.
Komposisi:
CEFTAZIDIME 1 g mengandung:
Ceftazidime pentahidrat setara dengan Ceftazidime 1 g

Farmakologi:
Ceftazidime merupakan antibiotika sefalosporin semisintetik yang bersifat bakterisidal. Mekanisme kerja antibakteri
dengan menghambat enzym yang bertanggung jawab terhadap sintesis dinding sel. Secara in vitro Ceftazidime
dapat mempengaruhi mikroorganisme dalam range/spektrum yang luas, termasuk strain yang resisten terhadap
gentamicin dan aminoglikosid lainnya. Selain itu Ceftazidime sangat stabil terhadap sebagian besar beta-laktamase,
plasmid dan kromosomal yang secara klinis dihasilkan oleh kuman gram negatif dan dengan demikian Ceftazidime
aktif terhadap beberapa strain resisten terhadap ampisilin dan sefalosporin lainnya.
Bakteriologi:
Didasarkan pada spektrum aktivitasnya, Ceftazidime umumnya diklasifikasikan sebagai sefalosporin generasi ketiga.
Secara in vitro Ceftazidime aktif terhadap kuman-kuman berikut:
Kuman gram negatif, aerob:
Citrobacter spp. (termasuk C. freundii dan C. diversaus); Enterobacter spp. (termasuk E. cloacae dan E.
aerogenes);Escherichia coli; Haemophilus influenzae, termasuk strain yang resisten terhadap
ampisilin; Klebsiella (termasuk K. pneumonia); Neisseria meningitidis; Proteus mirabilis, Proteus vulgaris;
Pseudomonas spp. (termasuk Pseudomonas aeruginosa); Serratia spp.
Kuman gram positif, aerob:
Staphylococcus aureus, termasuk strain yang menghasilkan penisilinase dan yang tidak.
Streptococcus aglaticae (Streptococci group B); Streptococcus pyogenes (Streptococci beta-hemolitik A)
Kuman lainnya:
Acinobacter spp., Clostridium spp. (kecuali C. difficile), Haemophilus parainfluenzae, Morganella morganii, Neisseria
gonorrheoae, Peptococcus spp., Providencia spp. (termasuk P. rettgeri), Salmonella spp., Shigela spp.,
Staphylococcus epidermis dan Yersinia entrocobacter.
Dosis:
Dosis umum
Ceftazidime digunakan secara parenteral, dosis tergantung pada tingkat keparahan, sensitifitas dan tipe infeksi serta
usia, berat badan dan fungsi ginjal penderita.
Dewasa:
Dosis Ceftazidime yang digunakan untuk orang dewasa adalah 1-6 gram per hari, dapat diberikan dosis masingmasing 500 mg, 1 g atau 2 g setiap 12 atau 8 jam secara IV atau IM.
Untuk infeksi saluran kemih dan infeksi yang kurang serius, dosis 500 mg atau 1 g setiap 12 jam sudah mencukupi
Untuk sebagian besar infeksi sebaiknya diberikan dosis 1 g setiap 8 jam atau 2 g setiap 12 jam.
Untuk infeksi yang parah terutama untuk penderita immunocopromised, termasuk neutropenia, dapat diberi dosis 2
g setiap 8 jam atau 12 jam.
Untuk penderita cystic fibrosis dengan fungsi ginjal yang normal yang mengalami infeksi paru-paru pseudomonal
sebaiknya digunakan dosis 100-150 mg/kg/hari sebagai dosis terbagi.

Pada orang dewasa dengan fungsi ginjal normal penggunaan dosis 9 g/hari masih aman.
Bayi dan anak:
Dosis lazim untuk anak-anak yang berusia lebih dari 2 bulan adalah 30-100 mg/kg/hari, diberikan sebagai dosis
terbagi (2-3 kali). Dosis hingga 150 mg/kg/hari (maksimum 6 g sehari) dalam 3 dosis terbagi dapat diberikan pada
anak-anak yang menderita fibrocystic, infected immunocompromised dan meningitis.
Neonatus dan bayi di bawah 2 bulan
Dosis 25-60 mg/kg/hari diberikan dosis sebagai dosis terbagi 2 kali sehari, telah terbukti efektif. Waktu paruh
Ceftazidime pada neonatus dapat 3-4 kali lebih lama dibandingkan dengan orang dewasa.
Dosis pada penderita dengan gangguan fungsi ginjal.
Ceftazidime diekskresikan melalui ginjal secara filtrasi glomeruler. Sehingga dosis pada penderita dengan gangguan
fungsi ginjal harus disesuaikan atau diturunkan.
Pada penderita infeksi berat terutama neutropenia yang biasanya mendapatkan dosis 6 g sehari, ini tidak bisa
dilakukan pada penderita dengan gangguan fungsi ginjal, maka unit dosis pada tabel di atas dapat dinaikkan 50%
atau frekuensi pemberian disesuaikan. Pada penderita ini dianjurkan agar kadar Ceftazidime dalam serum dipantau
dan kadar dalam serum tidak boleh lebih dari 40 mg/liter.
Bila hanya ada klirens kreatinin serum, maka rumus (persamaan Cokcroft's) dapat digunakan untuk mengestimasi
klirens kreatinin.
Kreatinin serum menunjukkan fungsi ginjal pada keadaan tunak.
Pria:
Klirens kreatinin = berat badan (kg) x (140 usia lanjut) / 72 x kreatinin serum (mg/dL)
Wanita: 0,85 x nilai di atas.
Perubahan kreatinin serum dari u mol liter menjadi mg dL adalah dengan membagi 88,4.
Pada anak-anak klirens kreatinin disesuaikan dengan luas area atau bobot tubuh dan frekuensi pemberian seperti
pada orang dewasa.
Cara pemberian:
Ceftazidime dapat diberikan secara IV dan IM ke dalam masa otot yang besar misalnya pada daerah gluteus
maximus bagian atas atau otot lateral pada paha.
Peringatan dan Perhatian:
Peringatan:
Seperti antibiotika beta-laktam lainnya, sebelum pengobatan dengan Ceftazidime sebaiknya dilakukan pemeriksaan
riwayat reaksi hipersensitifitas terhadap Ceftazidime, sefalosporin, penisilin dan obat lainnya.
Ceftazidime sebaiknya diberikan dengan perhatian khusus pada penderita dengan tipe I atau reaksi hipersensitif

terhadap penisilin. Bila terjadi reaksi alergi, hentikan penggunaan obat ini. Reaksi hipersensitif yang serius dapat
diatasi dengan efinefrin (adrenalin), hidrokortison, antihistamin atau pengatasan emergensi lainnya.
Perhatian:
Pemberian sefalosporin dosis tinggi harus hati-hati bila diberikan bersama-sama dengan obat-obat nefrotoksik
seperti aminoglikosida, furosemid, karena kombinasi ini diduga mempengaruhi fungsi ginjal.
Percobaan klinik menyebutkan bahwa hampir tidak ada masalah pada penggunaan dosis lazim. Tidak ada bukt
bahwa Ceftazidime mempengaruhi fungsi ginjal pada dosis teurapetik, tetapi perlu dilakukan penurunan dosis untuk
penderita gagal ginjal, karena Ceftazidime diekskresikan melalui ginjal, yaitu untuk mencegah konsekuensi klinik
akibat peningkatan kadar antibiotik seperti konvulsi.
Tidak ada bukti eksperimental terhadap efek embyophatik dan teratogenik dari Ceftazidime, tetapi seperti semua
obat lainnya maka pemberian obat ini pada masa awal kehamilan dan awal pertumbuhan janin harus hati-hati.
Penggunaan selama masa kehamilan harus dipertimbangkan keuntungannya dibandingkan dengan resiko yang
terjadi.
Ceftazidime diekskresi melalui air susu dengan demikian perlu perhatian khusus bila Ceftazidime diberikan ibu
menyusui.
Ceftazidime tidak mempengaruhi uji glikosuria yang berdasarkan enzym. Telah diobservasi terjadi sedikit pengaruh
terhadap metode reduksi kupri (Benedict's Fehling dan Clintest). Ceftazidime tidak mempengaruhi alkali pikrat pada
pemeriksaan kreatinin.
Penggunaan Ceftazidime untuk jangka waktu yang lama dapat mengakibatkan kelebihan pertumbuhan kuman yang
non-susceptible (misalnya: candida, Enterococci) sehingga perlu dilakukan penghentian pengobatan dan gunakan
obat terapi lainnya.
Efek samping:
Percobaan klinik menyebutkan bahwa Ceftazidime ditoleransi dengan baik. Efek samping umumnya jarang terjadi
termasuk:
Lokal; flebitis atau tromboflebitis pada pemberian IV; rasa sakit atau inflamasi setelah injeksi IM; hipersensitivitas;
rash makulopapular atau urtikarial; fever; angiodema (sangat jarang); reaksi-reaksi anafilaktik (bronkospase dan atau
hipotensi); gastrointestinal (diare, nausea, nyeri, abdominal, thrust atau kolitis (dangat jarang)).
Efek samping lain yang dikaitkan dengan Ceftazidime termasuk:
- Genito-urinary: candidosis vaginitis
- Susunan saraf pusat: sakit kepala, pusing paraestesia dan rasa tidak enak.
Perubahan sementara terhadap hasil uji laboratorium selama pengobatan dengan Ceftazidime termasuk eosinofilia,
test Coombs' positif tanpa haemolisis, trombositosis dan sedikit peningkatan enzym hepatik SGOT, SGPT, LDH, GGT

dan alkalin fosfatase,

Kadang-kadang: peningkatan sementara urea darah, nitrogen urea dan atau kreatinin serum.
Sangat jarang: transient leucopenia, thrombocytopeniaosis dan lymphocytosis.
Interaksi obat:
Pemberian bersama-sama dengan aminoglikosida dapat mengakibatkan inaktivasi. Bila diberikan bersamaan
sebaiknya diinjeksikan pada tempat (bagian tubuh) yang berbeda. Jangan mencampur kedua obat ini dalam kantong
atau botol infus yang sama.
Dengan vancomycin dapat terjadi pengendapan sehingga untuk pemberian dengan infus harus dibilas terlebih
dahulu bila menggunakan selang yang sama.
Perhatian Farmasetik:
CEFTAZIDIME dikemas dalam vial dengan tekanan rendah; tekanan positif dihasilkan dari rekonstitusi karena
pengeluaran gas karbondioksida. Setelah direkonstruksi CEFTAZIDIME bertahan selama 18 jam bila disimpan pada
suhu 25C dan selama 7 hari bila disimpan dalam lemari es. Sedikit peningkatan warna terjadi selama penyimpanan.
CEFTAZIDIME untuk injeksi tercampur dengan cairan infus yang biasa digunakan. Larutan 1 mg/ml dan 40 mg/ml
dalam larutan infus berikut dapat disimpan hingga 18 jam pada suhu di bawah 25C dan selama 7 hari dalam lemari
es.
Larutan injeksi Natrium laktat M/6; Larutan injeksi Natrium laktat compound (Larutan Hartmann's); Larutan injeksi
Dekstrosa 5%; Larutan injeksi Dekstrosa 5% dan NaCl 0.225%; Larutan injeksi Dekstrosa 5% dan NaCl 0.45%;
Larutan injeksi Dekstrosa 5% dan NaCl 0.9%; Larutan injeksi Dekstrosa 5% dan NaCl 0.18%, Larutan injeksi
Dekstrosa 10%; Larutan injeksi 10% Dexstran 40 dalam larutan injeksi NaCl 0.9%, Larutan injeksi 10% Dexstran 40
dalam larutan injeksi Dekstrosa 5%; Larutan injeksi 6% Dekstran 70 dalam larutan injeksi NaCl 0.9%; Larutan injeksi
6% Dexstran 70 dalam larutan injeksi Dekstrosa 5%.
(Ceftazidime kurang stabil dalam larutan injeksi Natrium Bikarbonat dibandingkan dengan larutan intravena lainnya.
Tidak dianjurkan sebagai diulen).
CEFTAZIDIME untuk injeksi dapat disimpan hingga 18 jam di bawah suhu 25C atau selama 7 hari dalam lemari es
pada kadar 0,05 mg/ml dan 0,25 mg/ml dalam cairan Dyalisis Intraperitoneal (Laktat).
CEFTAZIDIME untuk injeksi telah diketahui dapat tercampurkan selama 8 jam di bawah suhu 25C dan selama 7 hari
dalam lemari es bila dicampur pada kadar 4 mg/ml dengan larutan berikut:
Larutan injeksi hidrokortison (hidrokortison natrium fosfat) 1 mg/ml dalam larutan injeksi NaCl 0,9% atau larutan
injeksi Dekstrosa 5%.
Larutan injeksi cefuroxime (cefuroxime natrium) 3 mg/ml dalam larutan injeksi NaCl 0,9%.

Larutan injeksi cloxacillin (cloxacillin natrium) 4 mg/ml dalam larutan injeksi NaCl 0,9%.
Heparin 10 u/ml atau 50 u/ml dalam larutan NaCl 0,9%.
Larutan injeksi Kcl 10 mEq/l atau 40 mEq/l dalam larutan injeksi NaCl 0,9%.
Untuk penggunaan IM dapat dicampur dengan larutan injeksi Lignocain 0,5% atau 1%.
Cara Pembuatan Larutan
Penggunaan IM:
untuk vial 1 g, tambahkan 3,0 ml air untuk injeksi.
Penggunaan IV:
untuk vial 1 g, tambahkan 10,0 ml air untuk injeksi
Penyimpanan:
SIMPAN DI TEMPAT KERING DAN SEJUK, SUHU DI BAWAH 30C. TERLINDUNG DARI CAHAYA.

http://dechacare.com/Ceftazidime-P748-1.html

Endangered species
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Endangered species (disambiguation).

"Endangered" redirects here. For other uses, see Endangered (disambiguation).

Conservation status
by IUCN Red List category

Extinct

Extinct (EX)

(list)

Extinct in the Wild (EW)

(list)

Threatened

Critically Endangered (CR)

(list)

Endangered (EN)

(list)

Vulnerable (VU)

(list)

Lower Risk

Near Threatened (NT)

(list)

Conservation Dependent (CD)

(list)

Least Concern (LC)

Other categories

Data Deficient (DD)

Not Evaluated (NE)

Related topics

International Union for the

Conservation of Nature (IUCN)

IUCN Red List

Lists of organisms by population

(list)

An Endangered (EN)species is a species which has been categorized by the International Union
for Conservation of Nature(IUCN) Red List as likely to become extinct. "Endangered" is the second
most severeconservation status for wild populations in the IUCN's schema after Critically
Endangered (CR).
In 2012,the IUCN Red List featured 3079 animal and 2655 plant species as endangered (EN)
worldwide.[1] The figures for 1998 were, respectively, 1102 and 1197[citation needed]
Many nations have lawsthat protect conservation-reliant species: for example, forbiddinghunting,
restricting land development or creating preserves. Population numbers, trends and species'
conservation status can be found in thelists of organisms by population.
Contents
[hide]

1Conservation status

2IUCN Red List

o

2.1Criteria for 'Endangered (EN)'

3United States

3.1Endangered Species Act

4Invasive species

5Conservation
o

5.1Captive breeding

5.2Private farming

6Countries with endangered animals

7Gallery

8See also

9Notes and references

10Bibliography

[7]

11External links

Conservation status[edit]
Main article: Conservation status
The conservation status of a species indicates the likelihood that it will become extinct. Many factors
are considered when assessing the conservation status of a species; e.g., such statistics as the
number remaining, the overall increase or decrease in the population over time, breeding success
rates, or known threats.[2] The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species is the best-known worldwide
conservation status listing and ranking system.[3]
Over 40% of the world's species are estimated to be at risk of extinction. [4] Internationally, 199
countries have signed an accord to create Biodiversity Action Plans that will protect endangered and
other threatened species. In the United States, such plans are usually calledSpecies Recovery
Plans.[citation needed]

IUCN Red List[edit]

The Siberian tiger is an Endangered (EN)tiger subspecies. Three tiger subspecies are already extinct (see List
of carnivorans by population).[5]

Blue-throated macaw, an endangered species

Brown spider monkey, an endangered species

Siamese crocodile, an endangered species

Malayan tiger, an endangered species

Kemp's ridley sea turtle, an endangered species

Though labelled a list, theIUCN Red List is a system of assessing the global conservation status of
species that includes "Data Deficient" (DD) species species for which more data and assessment
is required before their status may be determined as well species comprehensively assessed by
the IUCN's species assessment process. Those species of "Near Threatened" (NT) and "Least
Concern" (LC) status have been assessed and found to have relatively robust and healthy
populations, though these may be in decline. Unlike their more general use elsewhere, the List uses
the terms "endangered species" and "threatened species" with particular meanings:
"Endangered" (EN) species lie between "Vulnerable" (VU) and "Critically Endangered" (CR) species,
while "Threatened" species are those species determined to be Vulnerable, Endangered or Critically
Endangered.
The IUCN categories, with examples of animals classified by them, include:
Extinct (EX)

Examples: aurochs
Bali tiger
blackfin cisco
Caribbean monk seal
Carolina parakeet
Caspian tiger
dodo
dusky seaside sparrow
eastern cougar
golden toad
great auk

 Japanese sea lion

Javan tiger
Labrador duck
passenger pigeon
Schomburgk's deer
Steller's sea cow
thylacine
toolache wallaby
western black rhinoceros
Extinct in the wild (EW)
Captive individuals survive, but there is no free-living, natural population.

Examples: Barbary lion

Hawaiian crow
Pre David's deer
scimitar oryx
Socorro dove
Wyoming toad
Critically endangered (CR)
Faces an extremely high risk ofextinction in the immediate future.

Examples: addax
African wild ass
Alabama cavefish
Amur leopard
Arakan forest turtle
Asiatic cheetah
axolotl
Bactrian camel
black rhino
blue-throated macaw
Brazilian merganser
brown spider monkey
California condor
Chinese alligator
Chinese giant salamander
gharial
Hawaiian monk seal
Javan rhino
kakapo
Leadbeater's possum
Mediterranean monk seal
mountain gorilla
northern hairy-nosed wombat
Philippine eagle
red wolf
saiga
Siamese crocodile

Malayan tiger
Spix's macaw
southern bluefin tuna
South China tiger
Sumatran orangutan
Sumatran rhinoceros
Sumatran tiger
vaquita
Yangtze river dolphin
northern white rhinoceros
hawksbill sea turtle
Kemp's ridley sea turtle
Endangered (EN)
Faces a high risk of extinction in the near future.

Examples: African penguin

African wild dog[a]
Asian elephant
Asiatic lion
Australasian bittern
blue whale
bonobo
Bornean orangutan
common chimpanzee
dhole
eastern lowland gorilla
hispid hare
giant otter
giant panda
Goliath frog
green sea turtle
loggerhead sea turtle
Grevy's zebra
hyacinth macaw
Humblot's heron
Iberian lynx
Japanese crane
Japanese night heron
Lear's macaw
Malayan tapir
markhor
Malagasy pond heron
Persian leopard
proboscis monkey
purple-faced langur
pygmy hippopotamus
red-breasted goose
Rothschild's giraffe

snow leopard
South Andean deer
Sri Lankan elephant
takhi(near Critically Endangered) Toque macaque
Vietnamese pheasant
volcano rabbit
wild water buffalo
white-eared night heron
fishing cat
tasmanian devil
Vulnerable (VU)
Faces a high risk of endangerment in the medium term.

Examples: African grey parrot

African bush elephant[b]
African lion[b]
American paddlefish
common carp
clouded leopard
cheetah[c]
dugong
Far Eastern curlew
fossa
Galapagos tortoise[d]
gaur
blue-eyed cockatoo
golden hamster
whale shark
hippopotamus
Humboldt penguin
Indian rhinoceros
Komodo dragon[e]
lesser white-fronted goose
mandrill
maned sloth
mountain zebra
polar bear
red panda
sloth bear
takin
yak
great white shark
American crocodile
dingo
king cobra
Near-threatened (NT)
May be considered threatened in the near future.

Examples: American bison

Asian golden cat
blue-billed duck
emperor goose
emperor penguin
Eurasian curlew
jaguar
leopard
Larch Mountain salamander
Magellanic penguin
maned wolf
narwhal
margay
montane solitary eagle
Pampas cat
Pallas's cat
reddish egret
white rhinoceros
striped hyena
tiger shark
white eared pheasant
Least concern (LC)
No immediate threat to species' survival.

Examples: American alligator

American crow
Indian peafowl
olive baboon
bald eagle
brown bear
brown rat
brown-throated sloth
Canada goose
cane toad
common wood pigeon
cougar
common frog
giraffe
grey wolf
house mouse
wolverine[6]
human
palm cockatoo
mallard
meerkat
mute swan
platypus
red-billed quelea

red-tailed hawk
rock pigeon
scarlet macaw
southern elephant seal
milk shark
red howler monkey

Criteria for 'Endangered (EN)' [7][edit]

A) Reduction in population size based on any of the following:
1. An observed, estimated, inferred or suspected population size
reduction of 70% over the last 10 years or three
generations, whichever is the longer, where the causes of the
reduction are clearly reversible AND understood AND
ceased, based on (and specifying) any of the following:
1. direct observation
2. an index of abundance appropriate for the taxon
3. a decline in area of occupancy, extent of occurrence
and/or quality of habitat
4. actual or potential levels of exploitation
5. the effects of introduced taxa, hybridisation,
pathogens,pollutants, competitors or parasites.
2. An observed, estimated, inferred or suspected population size
reduction of 50% over the last 10 years or three
generations, whichever is the longer, where the reduction or
itscauses may not have ceased OR may not be understood
OR may not be reversible, based on (and specifying) any of
(a) to (e) under A1.
3. A population size reduction of 50%, projected or suspected to
be met within the next 10 years or three generations,
whichever is the longer (up to a maximum of 100 years), based
on (and specifying) any of (b) to (e) under A1.
4. An observed, estimated, inferred, projected or suspected
population size reduction of 50% over any 10 year or three
generation period, whichever is longer (up to a maximum of
100 years in the future), where the time period must include
both the past and the future, and where the reduction or its
causes may not have ceased OR may not be understood OR
may not be reversible, based on (and specifying) any of (a) to
(e) under A1.

B) Geographic range in the form of either B1 (extent of occurrence)

OR B2 (area of occupancy) OR both:
1. Extent of occurrence estimated to be less than 5,000 km, and
estimates indicating at least two of a-c:
1. Severely fragmented or known to exist at no more
than five locations.
2. Continuing decline, inferred, observed or projected,
in any of the following:
1. extent of occurrence
2. area of occupancy
3. area, extent and/or quality of habitat
4. number of locations or subpopulations
5. number of mature individuals
3. Extreme fluctuations in any of the following:
1. extent of occurrence
2. area of occupancy
3. number of locations or subpopulations
4. number of mature individuals
2. Area of occupancy estimated to be less than 500 km, and
estimates indicating at least two of a-c:
1. Severely fragmented or known to exist at no more
than five locations.
2. Continuing decline, inferred, observed or projected,
in any of the following:
1. extent of occurrence
2. area of occupancy
3. area, extent and/or quality of habitat
4. number of locations or subpopulations

5. number of mature individuals

3. Extreme fluctuations in any of the following:
1. extent of occurrence
2. area of occupancy
3. number of locations or subpopulations
4. number of mature individuals
C) Population estimated to number fewer than 2,500 mature
individuals and either:
1. An estimated continuing decline of at least 20% within five
years or two generations, whichever is longer, (up to a
maximum of 100 years in the future) OR
2. A continuing decline, observed, projected, or inferred, in
numbers of mature individuals AND at least one of the follow
(a-b):
1. Population structure in the form of one of the following:
1. no subpopulation estimated to contain more
than 250 mature individuals, OR
2. at least 95% of mature individuals in one
subpopulation
2. Extreme fluctuations in number of mature individuals
D) Population size estimated to number fewer than 250 mature
individuals.
E) Quantitative analysis showing the probability of extinction in
the wild is at least 20% within 20 years or five
generations,whichever is the longer (up to a maximum of 100 years).
1.

Jump up^ Near-critically endangered.

2.

^ Jump up to:a b Particularly sensitive to poaching levels.

3.

Jump up^ Near-endangered due to poaching.

4.

Jump up^ May vary according to levels of tourism.

5.

Jump up^ Varies according to female populations.

United States[edit]
There is data from the United States that shows a correlation between
human populations and threatened and endangered species. Using
species data from the Database on the Economics and Management of
Endangered Species (DEMES) database and the period that
theEndangered Species Act (ESA) has been in existence, 1970 to
1997, a table was created that suggests a positive relationship between
human activity and species endangerment.[8] As early as the 1800s,
humans began noticing the decline of certain species of animals in their
usual habitats. An example is the whooping crane. Once abundant from
Canada to Mexico, it was estimated in 1941 that only 16 birds remained
in the wild. Another early example of mankind noticing the extinction of
species was the introduction of kudzu in the southern United States.
This fast-growing plant took over the south, growing on plants and trees
and squelching the life out of them.[9]

Endangered Species Act[edit]

"Endangered" in relation to "threatened" under the ESA.

Under the Endangered Species Act in the United States, species may
be listed as "endangered" or "threatened". The Salt Creek tiger
beetle (Cicindela nevadica lincolniana) is an example of an endangered
subspecies protected under the ESA. The US Fish and Wildlife Service
as well as the National Marine Fisheries Service are held responsible
for classifying and protecting endangered species, and adding a
particular species to the list can be a long, controversial process
(Wilcove & Master, 2008, p. 414).
Some endangered species laws are controversial. Typical areas of
controversy include: criteria for placing a species on the endangered
species list and criteria for removing a species from the list once its
population has recovered; whether restrictions on land development
constitute a "taking" of land by the government; the related question of
whether private landowners should be compensated for the loss of
uses of their lands; and obtaining reasonable exceptions to protection
laws. Also lobbying from hunters and various industries like
the petroleum industry, construction industry, and logging, has been an
obstacle in establishing endangered species laws.

The Bush administration lifted a policy that required federal officials to

consult a wildlife expert before taking actions that could damage
endangered species. Under the Obama administration, this policy has
been reinstated.[10]
Being listed as an endangered species can have negative effect since it
could make a species more desirable for collectors and poachers. [11]This
effect is potentially reducible, such as in China where commercially
farmed turtles may be reducing some of the pressure to poach
endangered species.[12]
Another problem with the listing species is its effect of inciting the use
of the "shoot, shovel, and shut-up" method of clearing endangered
species from an area of land. Some landowners currently may perceive
a diminution in value for their land after finding an endangered animal
on it. They have allegedly opted to silently kill and bury the animals or
destroy habitat, thus removing the problem from their land, but at the
same time further reducing the population of an endangered species.
[13]
The effectiveness of the Endangered Species Act which coined the
term "endangered species" has been questioned by business
advocacy groups and their publications but is nevertheless widely
recognized by wildlife scientists who work with the species as an
effective recovery tool. Nineteen species have been delisted and
recovered[14] and 93% of listed species in the northeastern United States
have a recovering or stable population.[15]
Currently, 1,556 known species in the world have been identified as
near extinction or endangered and are under protection by government
law. This approximation, however, does not take into consideration the
number of species threatened with endangerment that are not included
under the protection of such laws as the Endangered Species Act.
According to NatureServe's global conservation status, approximately
thirteen percent of vertebrates (excluding marine fish), seventeen
percent of vascular plants, and six to eighteen percent of fungi are
considered imperiled.[16]:415 Thus, in total, between seven and eighteen
percent of the United States' known animals, fungi and plants are near
extinction.[16]:416 This total is substantially more than the number of
species protected in the United States under the Endangered Species
Act.

Bald eagle

American bison

Ever since mankind began hunting to preserve itself, over-hunting and

fishing has been a large and dangerous problem. Of all the species
who went extinct due to interference from mankind, thedodo, passenger
pigeon, great auk,Tasmanian tiger and Steller's sea cow are some of
the more well known examples; with the bald eagle, grizzly
bear, American bison,timber wolf[disambiguation needed] andsea turtle having been
hunted to near-extinction. Many began as food sources seen as
necessary for survival but became the target of sport. However, due to
major efforts to prevent extinction, the bald eagle, or Haliaeetus
leucocephalus is now under the category of Least Concern on the red
list.[17] A present-day example of the over-hunting of a species can be
seen in the oceans as populations of certain whales have been greatly
reduced. Large whales like the blue whale, bowhead whale, finback
whale, gray whale, sperm whale and humpback whale are some of the
eight whales which are currently still included on the Endangered
Species List. Actions have been taken to attempt reduction in whaling
and increase population sizes, including prohibiting all whaling in United
States waters, the formation of the CITES treaty which protects all
whales, along with the formation of the International Whaling
Commission (IWC). But even though all of these movements have been
put in place, countries such as Japan continue to hunt and harvest
whales under the claim of "scientific purposes".[18] Over-hunting, climatic
change and habitat loss leads in landing species in endangered
species list and could mean that extinction rates could increase to a
large extent in the future.

Invasive species[edit]
Main article: Introduced species
The introduction of non-indigenous species to an area can disrupt the
ecosystem to such an extent that native species become endangered.
Such introductions may be termed alien or invasive species. In some
cases the invasive species compete with the native species for food or
prey on the natives. In other cases a stable ecological balance may be
upset by predation or other causes leading to unexpected species
decline. New species may also carry diseases to which the native
species have no resistance.[19]

Conservation[edit]

The dhole, Asia's most endangered top predator, is on the edge of extinction.

Captive breeding[edit]
Main article: Captive breeding
Captive breeding is the process of breeding rare or endangered
species in human controlled environments with restricted settings, such
as wildlife preserves, zoos and other conservation facilities. Captive
breeding is meant to save species from extinction and so stabilize the
population of the species that it will not disappear.[20]

This technique has worked for many species for some time, with
probably the oldest known such instances of captive mating being
attributed to menageries of European and Asian rulers, an example
being the Pre David's deer. However, captive breeding techniques are
usually difficult to implement for such highly mobile species as some
migratory birds (e.g. cranes) and fishes (e.g. hilsa). Additionally, if the
captive breeding population is too small, then inbreeding may occur
due to a reduced gene pool and reduce immunity.
In 1981, the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) created
aSpecies Survival Plan (SSP) in order to help preserve specific
endangered and threatened species through captive breeding. With
over 450 SSP Plans, there are a number of endangered species that
are covered by the AZA with plans to cover population management
goals and recommendations for breeding for a diverse and healthy
population, created by Taxon Advisory Groups. These programs are
commonly created as a last resort effort. SSP Programs regularly
participate in species recovery, veterinary care for wildlife disease
outbreaks, and a number of other wildlife conservation efforts. The
AZA's Species Survival Plan also has breeding and transfer programs,
both within and outside of AZA - certified zoos and aquariums. Some
animals that are part of SSP programs are giant pandas, lowland
gorillas, and California condors.[21]

Private farming[edit]

Black rhino

Southern bluefin tuna

Whereas poaching substantially reduces endangered animal

populations, legal, for-profit, private farming does the opposite. It has
substantially increased the populations of the southern black
rhinoceros and southern white rhinoceros. Dr Richard Emslie, a
scientific officer at the IUCN, said of such programs, "Effective law
enforcement has become much easier now that the animals are largely
privately owned... We have been able to bring local communities into
the conservation programmes. There are increasingly strong economic
incentives attached to looking after rhinos rather than simply poaching:
from Eco-tourism or selling them on for a profit. So many owners are
keeping them secure. The private sector has been key to helping our
work."[22]
Conservation experts view the effect of China's turtle farming on the
wild turtle populations of China and South-Eastern Asia many of
which are endangered as "poorly understood".[23] Although they
commend the gradual replacement of turtles caught wild with farmraised turtles in the marketplace the percentage of farm-raised
individuals in the "visible" trade grew from around 30% in 2000 to
around 70% in 2007[24] they worry that many wild animals are caught
to provide farmers with breeding stock. The conservation expert Peter
Paul van Dijk noted that turtle farmers often believe that animals caught
wild are superior breeding stock. Turtle farmers may, therefore, seek
and catch the last remaining wild specimens of some endangered turtle
species.[24]
In 2009, researchers in Australia managed to coax southern bluefin
tuna to breed in landlocked tanks, raising the possibility that fish
farmingmay be able to save the species from overfishing.[25]

Countries with endangered animals[edit]

Around the world hundreds of thousands of species are lost to
extinction, many of them only discovered as remains, after they are
gone. Thus, not only biological variability, but also genetic diversity, and
perhaps sources of livelihood for future generations are lost. An
endangered species is a species that may become extinct in the near
future. Throughout history millions of species have disappeared, due to
natural processes. In the past 300 years, however, humans have
increased the rate of extinction.[citation needed]
For some plant and animal species, living seems to be a daily hazard.
And humans seem to pose the biggest threat. Ecological disasters,

hunting/poaching, deforestation and other consequences of human

action causes damage to the food chain, breeding grounds, and
habitat.

Gallery[edit]

The endangered (near threatened) island fox.

Though endangered, the sea otter has a relatively large population.

1870s photo of American bison skulls. By 1890, overhunting had reduced

the population to 750.

Immature California condor.

Loggerhead sea turtle

Asian arowana

Hawksbill sea turtle

See also[edit]

ARKive

The Last paradises: On

of Rare Animals (1967 film

Biodiversity

Cobthorn Trust

critically endangered

endangered plants of Europe

Endangered Species Act

Ex-situ conservation

extinction

Holocene extinction

Habitat fragmentation

Hawaiian honeycreeper
conservation

In-situ conservation

IUCN Red List

critically endangered
species

endangered animal
species

List of endangered spe

India

List of endangered spe

North America

List of National Wildlife

established for endangere

Overexploitation

NatureServe conservat

Rare species

Red Data Book of the R

Federation

red-listed / blue-listed

threatened species

United States Fish and

Service list of endangered

World Conference on B

endangered Species in Ca
an Aid to their Survival (W

World Conservation Un

World Wide Fund for Na

(WWF)

Notes and references[edit]

1.

Jump up^ "IUCN Red List version 2012.2: Table 2: Changes in

numbers of species in the threatened categories (CR, EN, VU) from
1996 to 2012 (IUCN Red List version 2012.2) for the major taxonomic
groups on the Red List" (PDF). IUCN. 2012. Retrieved 2012-12-31.

2.

Jump up^ "NatureServe Conservation Status". NatureServe. April

2007. Retrieved 2 June 2012.

3.

Jump up^ "Red List Overview". IUCN. February 2011. Archived

from the original on May 27, 2012. Retrieved 2 June 2012.

4.

Jump up^ "Threatened Species". Conservation and Wildlife.

Archived from the original on September 13, 2012. Retrieved 2
June 2012.

5.

Jump up^ "The Tiger". Sundarbans Tiger Project. Retrieved 2

June 2012.

6.

Jump up^ Abramov, A., Belant, J. & Wozencraft, C. (2009). "Gulo

gulo". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version
2009.2. International Union for Conservation of Nature.
Retrieved 2010-01-25.

7.

Jump up^ http://www.iucnredlist.org/static/categories_criteria_3_1

8.

Jump up^ Shogren, Jason F.; Tschirhart, John (eds.). Protecting

Endangered Species in the United States: Biological Needs, Political
Realities, Economic Choices. Cambridge University Press.
p. 1. ISBN 0521662109.

9.

Jump up^ "Endangered Species List". endangeredspecies2050.com.

Retrieved2015-11-02.

10. Jump up^ FWS.gov

11. Jump up^ Courchamp, Franck; Elena Angulo; Philippe Rivalan;
Richard J. Hall; Laetitia Signoret; Leigh Bull; Yves Meinard. "Rarity
Value and Species Extinction: The Anthropogenic Allee Effect". PLoS
Biology. Retrieved2006-12-19.
12. Jump up^ Dharmananda, Subhuti. "Endangered Species issues
affecting turtles and tortoises used in Chinese medicine". Institute for
Traditional Medicine, Portland, Oregon. Retrieved 2006-12-19.
13. Jump up^ "Shoot, Shovel and Shut Up". Reasononline. Reason
Magazine. 2003-12-31. Retrieved 2006-12-23.
14. Jump up^ "USFWS Threatened and Endangered Species System
(TESS)". U. S. Fish & Wildlife Service. Retrieved 2007-08-06.
15. Jump up^ Success Stories for Endangered Species Act
16. ^ Jump up to:a b Wilcove & Master 2008.
17. Jump up^ "Haliaeetus leucocephalus (Bald
Eagle)". www.iucnredlist.org. Retrieved 2015-11-01.
18. Jump up^ Freedman, Bill (2008). "Endangered species". Gale (4th
ed.).
19. Jump up^ Chiras, Daniel D. (2011). "Invader Species". Grolier.
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20. Jump up^ "Captive Breeding Populations - National Zoo".
Nationalzoo.si.edu. Retrieved 2009-12-06.

21. Jump up^ "Association of Zoos and Aquariums Species Survival

Programs".
22. Jump up^ He's black, and he's back! Private enterprise saves
southern Africa's rhino from extinction, The Independent, June 17,
2008
23. Jump up^ Shi, Haitao; Parham, James F.; Fan, Zhiyong; Hong,
Meiling; Yin, Feng (2008-01-01). "Evidence for the massive scale of
turtle farming in China". Oryx 42 (Cambridge University Press).
pp. 147150.doi:10.1017/S0030605308000562. Retrieved 2009-1226.
24. ^ Jump up to:a b "Turtle farms threaten rare species, experts say". Fish
Farmer, 30 March 2007. Their source is an article by James Parham,
Shi Haitao and two other authors, published in February 2007 in the
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Discoveries: 5. Breeding Tuna on Land, Time magazine, December 8,
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Bibliography[edit]

Glenn, C. R. 2006. "Earth's Endangered Creatures".

Ishwaran, N., & Erdelen, W. (2005, May). Biodiversity Futures, Frontiers in

Ecology and the Environment, 3(4), 179.

Kotiaho, J. S., Kaitala, V., Komonen, A., Pivinen, J. P., & Ehrlich, P. R.
(2005, February 8). Predicting the Risk of Extinction from Shared
Ecological Characteristics, proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of America, 102(6), 1963-1967.

minteer, B. A., & Collins, J. P. (2005, August). Why we need an "Ecological

Ethics", Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 3(6), 332-337.

Raloff, J. (2006, August 5). Preserving Paradise, Science News, 170(6),

92.

Wilcove, D. S., & Master L. L. (2008, October). How Many Endangered

Species are there in the United States? Frontiers in Ecology and the
Environment, 3(8), 414-420.

Freedman, Bill. "endangered species." Gale Encyclopedia of Science. Ed.

K. Lee Lerner and Brenda Wilmoth Lerner. 4th ed. Detroit: Gale Group,
2008. Discovering Collection. Gale.

Chiras, Daniel D. "Invader Species." Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia.

Grolier Online, 2011.

"endangered Species." Current Issues: Macmillan social Science Library.

Detroit: Gale, 2010.

External links[edit]

Endangered species profiles from Earth's endangered Creatures

List of species with the category Endangered as identified by

theIUCN Red List of Threatened Species

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Endangered Species & Wetlands Report Independent print and

online newsletter covering the ESA, wetlands and regulatory
takings.

USFWS numerical summary of listed species in US and elsewhere

https://worldwildlife.org/species
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