Menjalankan penyelidikan bermaksud mencari maklumat lebih lanjut mengenai sesuatu perkara ,
menyelami lebih lanjut, menjalankan kajian menyeluruh atau menyiasat dengan lebih mendalam.
Penyelidikan di definasikan sebagai penyiasatan yang penuh berhati-hati, mendalam, secara
bijak dan meluas mengenai sesuatu perkara atau subjek spesifik, dengan bertujuan
meningkatkan dan meluaskan ilmu pengetahuan manusia sejagat. (Manheim, 1977, mukasurat
4)
Penyelidikan adalah aktiviti penyelesaian masalah yang membawa kepada pengetahuan dan
penemuan baru dengan mengunakan kaedah mengenalpasti dan persoalan yang sedang
digunapakai oleh sarjana-sarjana didalam bidang tersebut. (Helmstadter, 1970, mukasurat 5)
Penyelidikan adalah suatu penyiasatan atau ujikaji yang bertujuan menemukan dan
mengintrepretasikan fakta-fakta, mengulang semula teori yang diterima didalam penemuan baru
atau amalan penggunaan teori atau undang undang dan peraturan baru atau yang digunapakai
semula. (Woolf, 1975 mukasurat 984)
Penyelidikan adalah persoalan berhati-hati atau pengujian bertujuan mendapatkan atau
menemukan maklumat atau perhubungan dan mengembangkan dan mengesahkan pengetahuan
tersedia (Rummel dan Ballaine – Research and Methodology in Business)
Penyelidikan Saintifik adalah kaedah penyelidikan bersistematik dan diperhalusi dengan
mengunakan peralatan dan prosedur tertentu bagi mendapatkan penyelesaian bermakna bagi
sesuatu masaalah dari pengunaan kaedah yang tidak membawa makna (Rummel dan Ballaine –
Research and Methodology in Business)
Kerjasama adalah dipohon dari peserta kursus untuk memperbetulkan terjemahan-
terjemahan berikut , petikan diambil dari nota Hj Kamudin. Rasional permintaan ini adalah
untuk melihat sejauh mana peserta memberi kerjasama dan membuktikan :
Ho : peserta kursus metodologi adalah kumpulan yang hanya mementingkan diri sendiri ;
Ha : peserta kursus metodologi adalah kumpulan yang tidak mementingkan diri sendiri;
Mari kita sama-sama tunggu dan lihat beberapa ramai dari peserta yang akan membantu
menterjemahkan perkara ini. Tetapi saya yakin ramai akan buat tak peduli sahaja.
Ciri-Ciri Penyelidikan
Ia bermula dengan satu persoalan didalam pemikiran seorang penyelidik
Ia memerlukan satu perancangan
Ia menuntut kenyataan yang jelas mengenai sesuatu masaalah
Ia melibatkan permasaalahan utama dengan permasalaahan berkaitan
Ia mencari tuju arah melalui hipotesis berkenaan
Ia melibatkan fakta dan makna fakta
Ia adalah berhubungkait Menghimpun dan Menganalisa Data (Prinsip 4A)
Availability (Sumber Tersedia) ia adalah agak sukar untuk mendapatkan data
dari menentukan jenis data yang diperlukan
Authenticity (Perakuan) penyelidik mestilah memastikan ketepatan data
Adequacy (Mencukupi) merujuk kepada perolehan data samada mencukupi bagi
membolehkan kesimpulan sah dinyatakan
Validity (Kesahan) penyelidik hendaklah memastikan data dan maklumat adalah
tepat dan sah
References
What Is a Research
What Is A Survey
A Guide To Writing A Research Paper
Social Science Research Network
American Educational Research Journal
American Journal of Education
American Journal for Vocational Education Research
British Educational Research Journal
British Educational Research Journal
Australian Educational Research Journal
Statistics Research Educational Journal
Proses Penyelidikan
Proses Merancang dan Merekabentuk Penyelidikan
Tentukan masalaah sebenar/spesifik penyelidikan (Define)
Mulakan dengan menumpukan permasaalahan sebenar (Initiate)
Nyatakan alasan sebenar tujuan menjalankan penyelidikan (Justify)
Nyatakan objektif menjalankan penyelidikan (Objective)
Kaji semula maklumat asal (Literature review)
Sejarah masaalah penyelidikan (History)
Membuat jangkaan peluang kejayaan (Estimating)
Konsep masaalah penyelidikan
Pandangan mengenai kajian semula maklumat asal
Kerangka teori masaalah penyelidikan
Soalan-Soalan Penyelidikan
Hipotesis yang akan dijalankan
Populasi yang akan dikaji
Memilih dan menentukan kaedah penyelidikan
Kaedah penganalisaan yang akan dijalankan
Data yang akan dikumpulkan
Kaedah pengumpulan data
Memilih dan menentukan alat pengumpulan data
Rumuskan
Rumuskan
Masaalah
Hipotesis
Asal
Jalankan
.Azizi
Temuan Page 4
Rumusan 12/8/21
Penyelidikan Permasaalahan Semula
Awal Berlainan Permasaalahan
Data Asal
Pendapat (Estimation)
Kenal Pasti Masaalah Ubah Hipotesis
Teori
Hipotesis
Tolak Hipotesis
Model
Kajian Awal
Pengumpulan Data
Analisa Data
Ujian Hipotesis
Penerimaan Hipotesis
Penemuan
Rumusan
Cadangan
Pengujian Hipotesis
Pengujian hipotesis ialah satu proses untuk memastikan sama ada sesuatu andaian saintifik
yang dilakukan itu diterima atau sebaliknya. Tujuan utamanya ialah untuk menentukan probabiliti
(kemungkinan) yang sesuatu itu adalah benar dan dapat disokong oleh fakta.
Daripada sini hipotesis kajian boleh dibentuk sama ada hipotesis tersebut berarah atau tidak
berarah. Hipotesis yang berarah ialah merupakan hipotesis yang menentukan arah jangkaan
jawapan kajian dan sebaliknya bagi hipotesis tidak berarah.
Pernyataan Hipotesis
Di dalam membentuk hipotesis terdapat dua jenis hipotesis yang sering digunakan. Antaranya
ialah :
1. Hipotesis Nul (kosong)
Hipotesis ini adalah merupakan hipotesis sementara yang tidak pincang (Mohd Majid, 1998).
Ianya adalah merupakan hipotesis negatif atau menunjukkan tiada perbezaan / tiada terdapat
persamaan / tiada perhubungan / tiada terdapat perkaitan antara kedua – dua pemboleh ubah
(sama ada berarah atau tidak berarah).
2. Hipotesis Alternatif / penyelidikan
Statististiks menumpukan kepada dua jenis perkara iaitu penerangan data dan juga pengaruh
pembinaan sesuatu populasi yang berdasrakan maklumat terkandung didalam sampel. Tersurat
dalam perkara ini adalah kita sebenarnya boleh membuat pengukuran ciri-ciri berkenaan.
Apabila pemerhatian keatas sesuatu fenomena atau sesuatu hasilan ujian berterusan didapati
tidak berubah ianya dipanggil “malar” (constant). Contoh bagi malar ialah jika kita bertanya
kepada semua peserta didalam kelas ini berapakah harga yang dibayar untuk memperbaharui
lesen memandu kita akan dapati bahwa jawapan yang diberikan adalah sama.
Apabila pemerhatian terhadap sesuatu fenomena berubah dari satu ujian ke satu ujian yang lain
ianya dipanggil pembolehubah. Contohnya adalah apabila kita bertanya berapakah yang
dibelanja oleh pegawai-pegwai INTAN untuk makan tengahari tentunya kita akan dapati
jawapannya tidak sama kerana perbelanjaan makan tengahari adalah berbeza dari seorang
pegawai dengan yang lain.
Ahli sains sosial biasanya menumpukan pada pemerhatian pembolehubah. Rumusan dan
ringkasan data akan lebih mudah jika pemerhatian dibuat keatas pemalar. Tiada mana-mana
maklumat teori diperlukan untuk dijadikan sandaran jika nilai-nilai pemerhatian adalah constant
dari satu ujian ke satu ujian yang lain.
Skala Nominal menerangkan kategori tertentu dengan nama. Kategori ini dipanggil tahap
skala. Semua pembolehubah kualitatif diukur dengan skala nominal. Contohnya, kaum boleh
dibahagikan kepada empat jenis iaitu Melayu, Cina , India dan lain-lain agar semua pemerhatian
setiap bakal repsonden boleh diukur atau dikategorikan pada tahap peringkat tertentu.
Bagaimana pun nombor-nombor ini tidak mewakili mana-mana nilai dan kita tidak boleh
menyatakan peringkat-peringkat tetap tertentu bagi tahap-tahap tersebut
Skala Ordinal
Skala ordinal mengabungkan ciri-ciri skala turutan dan ciri tambahan yang diperhatikan boleh
disusun atau diletakkan dalam turutan dari rendah ke tinggi. Walaupun pada skala ordinal kita
boleh meletakkan tahap pemerhatian dari rendah ke tinggi, kita tidak boleh menetapkan jarak
diantara satu tahap. Contohnya kita boleh mengkelasifikasikan kakitangan awam kepada empat ,
kumpulan A, B, C, dan D tetapi kita tidak boleh menyatakan status tahap atau jarak diantara
kelas tersebut adalah sama diantara satu yang lain.
Skala interval mengabungkan semua ciri-ciri ordinal atau nominal dan kita boleh menyatakan
jarak atau had bagi sesuatu skala. Contohnya adalah seperti Ujian IQ yang sama tahap
dijalankan bagi 8 buah sekolah di sesuatu kawasan , jika purata ujian skor bagi setiap sekolah
seperti yang ditunjukkan dibawah , kita bukan sahaja boleh mengkelaskan purata IQ tersebut dari
tinggi ke rendah tetapi kita boleh juga mengetahui jarak sebenar, yang diukur dalam unit skorbagi
ujian IQ terebut diantara sekolah-sekolah terlibat. Berdasatkan purata skor IQ, skor sekolah 7
lebih mirip dengan skor sekolah 6 dari skor sekolah 8
Keputusan Purata IQ
Sekolah IQ
1 150
2 128
3 126
4 125
5 122
6 120
7 110
8 75
Satu ciri kurang baik skala ini adalah punca skala tidak dinyatakan yakni kita tidak tahu dimana 0
diletakkan, dengan tidak mengetahui dimana 0 diletakkan pada skaal bermakna , kita tidak boleh
mengesahkan nisbah pemerhatian. Sebagai contoh kita mungkin ingin mengetahui nisbah bagi
IQ Sekolah 1 = 150 = 2
IQ Sekolah 8 75
Keputusan yang diperolehi tidak membenarkan kita menyatakan purata pencapaian IQ pelajar
tahun 6 pada Sekolah 1 adalah dua kali lebih baik dari pelajar Sekolah 8. Jika 0 boleh dinyatakan
pada skala selang, skala tersebut menjadi skala nisbah.
Kriteria Pengukuran
Tiga kriteria utama dalam membuat penilaian dalam pengukuran ialah kebolehpercayaan
(reliability), kesahihan (validity) dan sensitivity.
Kebolehpercayaan (reliability)
Soerang tukang jahit mengukur kain dengan mengunakan pita pengukur, mengukur dengan tepat
, panjang kain yang perlu dipotong dan jika tukang jahit tersebut membuat ukuran berulang dan
sentiasa menanggar ukuran yang sama adalah dikatakan pengukuran menggunakan pita
pengukur adalah boleh dipercayao. Apabila hasilan proses mengukur disiapkan , alat pengukuran
dikatakan boleh dipercayai.
Kebolehpercayaan digunakan bagi mengukur keputusan yang sama berbilang kali sepanjang
masa. Secara amnya, kebolehpercayaan adalah tahap pengukuran dimana ianya bebas dari
kesilapan dan menghasilkan keputusan yang tekal (consistent, tidak berubah) Ujian yang
digunakan adalah Alpha-Cronbach.
Kesahihan (Validity)
Tujuan pengukuran ini adalah untuk mengukur apa yang kita ingin ukurkan. Kesahihan
menyatakan pemasalaahan mengenai samada pengukuran yang dijalankan mengukur apa yang
sepatutnya diukur. Kebiasanya kesahihan mengukur kandungan (content), kriteria (criterion) dan
konstruk (construct)
Sensitiviti
Skala sensitiviti adalah konsep pengukuran yang mustahak apabila perubahan sikap atau
hipotetikal konstruk dikaji. Ia merujuk kepada kebolehan instrumen mengukur dengan tepat
kelainan jawapan dan rangsangan.
Pembelajar
an (K)
Proses Pengukuran
Asingkan
Peristiwa Emperik
Bentuk Konsep
Minat
Huraikan Konsep
Pembentukan dan
Operasi
Bentuk Skala
Pengukuran
Nilai Skala
Mengikut
Kebolehpercayaan
dan Kesahihan
Gunaka
Skala
I. WHAT IS TO BE MEASURED?
A. Concepts
B. Operational Definitions
I.WHAT IS TO BE MEASURED?
Any researcher has the opportunity to select a measuring system. Unfortunately, many
measurement scales used in business research are not directly comparable. The first question
the researcher must ask is "What is to be measured?" This question is not as simple as it first
seems. A precise definition of the concept may require a description of how it will be measured,
A. Concepts: Before the measurement process can occur, the researcher has to identify
and define the concepts relevant to the problem. A concept (or construct) is a
generalized idea about a class of objects, attributes, occurrences, or processes.
Concepts such as brand loyalty, personality, and so on, present great problems in terms
of definition and measurement.
B. Operational definitions: Concepts must be made operational in order to be measured.
An operational definition gives meaning to a concept by specifying the activities or
operations necessary to measure it. It specifies what the investigator must do to measure
the concept under investigation. An operational definition tells the investigator "do such-
and-such in so-and-so manner." Exhibit 13.2 presents some operational definitions and
measures of job challenge from a study on the quality of life.
A rule is a guide instructing us what to do. An example of a measurement rule might be "assign
the numerals 1 through 7 to individuals according to how brand loyal they are. If the individual is
an extremely brand loyal individual, assign a 1. If the individual is a total brand switcher with no
brand loyalty, assign a 7." Operational definitions help the researcher specify the rules for
assigning numbers.
A scale may be defined as any series of items that are progressively arranged according to value
or magnitude into which an item can be placed according to its quantification. In other words, a
scale is a continuous spectrum or series of categories. The purpose of scaling is to represent,
usually quantitatively, an item's, a person's, or an event's place in the spectrum.
This chapter thus far focused on measuring a concept with a single question or a single
observation. However, measuring more complex concepts may require more than one question
because the concept has several attributes. An attribute is a single characteristic or fundamental
feature pertaining to an object, person, situation, or issue.
Multi-itemed instruments for measuring a single concept with several attributes are called index
measures, or composite measures. For example, index of social class may be based on three
weighted averages: residence, occupation, and residence. Asking different questions in order to
measure the same concept provides a more accurate cumulative measure than does a single-
item measure.
The second underlying dimension of reliability concerns the homogeneity of the measure.
An attempt to measure an attitude may require asking several questions or a battery of
scale items. To measure the internal consistency of a multiple-item measure, scores on
subsets of items within the scale must be correlated. The split-half method, when a
researcher checks the results of one half of the scale items to the other half, is the most
basic method for checking internal consistency.
The equivalent-form method is utilized when two alternative instruments are designed
to be as equivalent as possible. If there is a high correlation between the two scales, the
researcher can conclude that the scales are reliable. However, if there is a low
correspondence, the researcher will be unsure as to whether the measure has
intrinsically low reliability, or whether the particular equivalent-form has failed to be similar
to the other form.
Both of the above methods assume that the concept is uni-dimensional; they measure
homogeneity rather than over-time stability.
1. Face or content validity: This refers to the subjective agreement of professionals that
a scale logically appears to be accurately reflecting what it purports to measure.
2. Criterion validity: Criterion validity is an attempt by researchers to answer the
question "Does my measure correlate with other measures of the same construct?"
Consider the physical concept of length. If a new measure of length were developed,
finding that the new measure correlated with other measures of length would provide
some assurance that the measure was valid. Criterion validity may be classified as either
concurrent validity (when the measure is taken at the same time as the criterion
measure) or predictive validity (when the measure predicts a future event).
3. Construct validity: Construct validity is established by the degree to which the
measure confirms a network of related hypotheses generated from a theory based on the
concept. In its simplest form, if the measure behaves the way it is supposed to in a
pattern of intercorrelation with a variety of other variables, then there is evidence for
construct validity. This is a complex method of establishing validity and of less concern to
the applied researcher than to the basic researcher.
4. Convergent and discriminant validity: Convergent validity is the same as criterion
validity because a new measure is expected to predict or converge with similar
measures. A measure has discriminant validity when it has a low correlation with
measures of dissimilar concepts.
C. Reliability versus validity: The concepts of reliability and validity should be compared.
Reliability, although necessary for validity, is not in itself sufficient. The differences
between reliability and validity can be illustrated using the rifle target in Exhibit 13.5.
Research forms a circle. It originates with a question in the mind of the researcher, and
ends with an answer to the question.
Research cannot continue if the aim of the research is not stated clearly and
unambiguously.
Direction is given to the research by means of setting applicable hypotheses which are
based on suppostions.
A title
A problem statement/question
A subproblem statement
Hypotheses statement
Demarcation of the terrain of study (assumptions, limitations and delimitations)
Definition of terminology
Indication of the importance/significance of the study
Review of related literature
A careful and detailed analysis of the proposed research procedures
A time schedule
A budget (where applicable)
Researcher's qualifications
A resource list
Before an attempt is made to start with a research project, a research proposal should be
compiled. For the beginner researcher, this is usually the most difficult part. It is, however, the
most important aspect of the research project and should be considered carefully by the
researcher. This does not only require subject knowledge, but also insight into the problem
that is going to be investigated, so as to give logic and structure to research envisaged.
The research proposal can be envisaged as the process (step by step guidelines) to plan and to
give structure to the prospective research with the fina1 aim of increasing the validity of the
research. It is therefore a written submission to spell out in a logic format the nature of the design
and the means and strategies that are going to be used.
1 The Title
The title is usually only formulated after the research problem and subproblems have been stated
in a more or less final format. The research project title should demarcate the following:
2 Problem Statement
It was previously mentioned that research forms a circle. It starts with a problem and ends with a
solution to the problem. Problem statement is therefore the axis which the which the whole
research revolves around, because it explains in short the aim of the research. Prospective
researchers can search within their own subject field for suitable problems. What should,
however, be mentioned, is that not all identified problems within a scientific field of study is
suitable for research.
The prospective researcher should think on what caused the need to do the research (problem
identification). The question that he/she should ask him/herself is: Are there questions about this
problem to which answers have not been found up to the present? The research problem should
be stated in such a way that it would lead to analytical thinking on the part of the researcher with
the aim of possibly concluding solutions to the stated problem.
The research problem should always be formulated grammatically cor rect and as
completely as possible. You should bear in mind the wording (expressions) you use.
Avoid meaningless words. There should be no doubt in the mind of the reader what your
intentions are.
Demarcating the research field into manageable parts by dividing the main problem into
subproblems is of the utmost importance.
The main and subproblems should, however, form a research unit. After you have stated the
research problem, you should continue to formulate the relevant hypotheses.
3 Formulating Hypotheses
From the literature it is concluded that a hypothesis is a tentative statement, that implies a
proposed answer to a problem, setting accountability and responsibility of effective research
procedure as high priority (De Wet, Monteith, Steyn & Venter 1981 :76).
It should, however, be emphasized that in no way a hypothesis statement can claim to be the
only solution to the problem. It serves only as a point of departure - the chain between the theory
and the research that leads to the broadening of knowledge (Smit 1983:19).
Hypotheses are thus tentative statements that should either be acknowledged or rejected by
means of research.
A research hypothesis is usually stated in an explanatory form, because it indicates the expected
reference of the difference between two variables. ln other words it verifies the reference that the
researcher expects by means of incorporating selected research procedures.
ln order to assist you in formulating a research hypothesis, you should ascertain the criteria used
in formulating hypotheses.
According to Srnit (1983: 20-21 ) the following criteria are of importance in formulating
hypotheses. A hypothesis should:
stand a test;
be expressed in clear language;
be in accordance with the general theme of other hypotheses statements
in the same field of study, and should be regarded as valid;
be. co-ordinated with the theory of science;
be a tentative answer to the formulated problem;
be logical and simplistic;
consider available research techniques (to be able to analyze and
interpret the results);
be specific; and
be relevant to the collection of empirical phenomenons and not merely
conclude value judgements.
From the aforementioned it is clear that hypotheses can be formulated in more than one way.
Smit (1983:21) demonstrates the latter by using the words ...if and ... then when formulating a
hypothesis. The following serves as an example: If first-year students pass through an orientation
programme then they will be better equipped for study success.
Landman (1988:12) explains the term hypothesis testing as follows: The purpose of testing a
hypothesis is to determine the probability that it is supported by facts.
In this section a precise indication is given of the scope of the research with indication of the
assumptions made, limitations and delimitations of the research before the research is started.
5 Defining of Terminology/Concepts
An indication is given of how the researcher interpreted and is going to use terminology/ concepts
in the research report. This is very important, because some concepts/terms are often used in
different meanings by different authors.
The researcher should indicate and defend why it is necessary to undertake the research. The
benefits that will result from the research and to whom it will be beneficial should be indicated.
7 Literature Survey
To conduct research regarding a topic, by implication means that the researcher has obtained
sound knowledge with regard to the research topic. It is therefore imperative that the researcher,
at the time of the submission of the research proposal, clearly indicates what theoretical
knowledge he possesses about the prospective research. A literature search therefore will entail
the literature the prospective researcher has already consulted.
An overview of the literature anticipates the background knowledge of the researcher and a
possible classification of the content for the purpose of stating the research problem. This should
also reveal the importance of the contemplated research. A literature search therefore simplifies
the formulation of hypotheses for the researcher.
It should further noted that the research design must be accompanied by a preliminary list of
references consulted by the researcher during the preparation of the research proposal. The list
The researcher supply here a careful and detailed analysis of the proposed research procedures
he/she intends to follow.
9 Time Schedule
A detailed indication of the funds needed to undertake the research. This is necessary where the
researcher intends to apply for funding from the FRD, etc.
11 Researchers Qualifications
12 Resource List
The list of resources used will only include resources referred to in the research proposal. Use
the APA style. An information pamphlet is available from the library.
Although the research proposal is considered the preliminary planning of a research problem, it
should comply with the following requirements:
A front page.
The name and surname of the researcher.
Apart of the aforementioned format, Leedy (1987:107-108) recommends the following guidelines
to assist you in structuring your presentation logically:
Relevant data.
Research methodology.
Subproblem 1
Data required.
Where will you find the data.
How will you obtain the data.
How will you calculate/interpret the data.
Subproblem 2
..........................
Landman (1988: 88) holds the view that preparing a research proposal is an important task,
especially when the researcher wishes to obtain funds for the research project. He emphasizes
that the research proposal format should include the following:
What should however be emphasized is the fact that the research proposal forms part of the
research project, and is not merely a means to acquire funding. If you want to obtain funds for
your research project, a definite recipe does not exist for preparing a successful application. The
basic guidelines given by Leedy (1985) and Landman (1988) should suffice.
A research problem is the situation that causes the researcher to feel apprehensive, confused
and ill at ease. It is the demarcation of a problem area within a certain context involving the WHO
or WHAT, the WHERE, the WHEN and the WHY of the problem situation.
There are many problem situations that may give rise to reseach. Three sources usually
contribute to problem identification. Own experience or the experience of others may be a source
of problem supply. A second source could be scientific literature. You may read about certain
findings and notice that a certain field was not covered. This could lead to a research problem.
Theories could be a third source. Shortcomings in theories could be researched.
The prospective researcher should think on what caused the need to do the research (problem
identification). The question that he/she should ask is: Are there questions about this problem to
which answers have not been found up to the present?
Research originates from a need that arises. A clear distinction between the PROBLEM and the
PURPOSE should be made. The problem is the aspect the researcher worries about, think
about, wants to find a solution for. The purpose is to solve the problem, ie find answers to the
question(s). If there is no clear problem formulation, the purpose and methods are meaningless.
The research problem should be stated in such a way that it would lead to analytical thinking on
the part of the researcher with the aim of possible concluding solutions to the stated problem.
Research problems can be stated in the form of either questions or statements.
Subproblems are problems related to the main problem identified. Subproblems flow from the
main problem and make up the main problem. It is the means to reach the set goal in a
manageable way and contribute to solving the problem.
The statement of the problem involves the demarcation and formulation of the problem, ie the
WHO/WHAT, WHERE, WHEN, WHY. It usually includes the statement of the hypothesis.
YES NO
Is the problem of current interest? Will the research results have social,
1
educational or scientific value?
2 Will it be possible to apply the results in practice?
3 Does the research contribute to the science of education?
4 Will the research opt new problems and lead to further research?
5 Is the research problem important? Will you be proud of the result?
6 Is there enough scope left within the area of reseach (field of research)?
Can you find an answer to the problem through research? Will you be able to
7
handle the research problem?
8 Will it be pratically possible to undertake the research?
9 Will it be possible for another researcher to repeat the research?
10 Is the research free of any ethical problems and limitations?
11 Will it have any value?
Do you have the necessary knowledge and skills to do the research? Are you
12
qualified to undertake the research?
13 Is the problem important to you and are you motivated to undertake the research?
Is the research viable in your situation? Do you have enough time and energy to
14
complete the project?
15 Do you have the necessary funds for the research?
16 Will you be able to complete the project within the time available?
Do you have access to the administrative, statistic and computer facilities the
17
research necessitates?
TOTAL:
The research topic or title should be specific and clear. The topic should indicate the
WHO/WHAT, WHEN, WHY, WHERE and HOW clearly. It is the focus of your research.
YES NO
Does the title include
1 the WHO/WHAT?
2 the WHEN?
3 the WHY?
4 the HOW?
5 Does the title include the problem stated?
6 Does the title include the solution to the problem?
7 Is the tile clear and to the point?
TOTAL:
The research method you will follow, is directly connected to your problem statement and goal of
research. Because the research goal and problem may vary different methods of research can
be utilized.
Research is a purposeful, precise and systematic search for new knowledge, skills, attitudes and
values, or for the re-interpretation of existing knowledge, skills, attitudes and values.
The various kinds of human science research can be subdivided according to three criteria:
basic research
applied research
in-service research
action research
descriptive research
prophetic research
diagnostic research
library research
field research
laboratory research
METHODS OF RESEARCH:
Exploratory research
Experimental research
Ex post facto research
Correlation research
Descriptive research
Testing research
Case studies
Sociometric research
Instrumental-nomological research
Interpretative-theoretical research
Micro-study
Macro-study
Longitudinal (diachronic) study
Cross-sectional (synchronic) study
Pilot study
Action research is regarded as research that is normally carried out by practitioners (persons that
stand in the field of work). It is a method par excel lance for instructors/trainers. It enables the
researcher to investigate a specific problem that exists in practice. According to Landman (1988:
51) this requires that the researcher should be involved in the actions that take place. A further
refinement of this type of research is that the results obtained from the research should be
relevant. to the practice. In other words it should be applicable immediately. This means that the,
researcher, as expert, and the person standing in the practice, jointly decide on the formulation of
research procedures, allowing the problem to be solved (Jacobs et al. 1992: 431).
Action research is characterized according to (Jacobs et al. 1992: 45) by the following four
features:
- Type of empirical research. Thirdly, action research is characterized as a means to change the
practice while the research is going on.
Outcome of research can not be generalized. Lastly, action research is characterized by the fact
that problem solving, seen as renewed corrective actions, can not be generalized, because it
should comply with the criteria set for scientific character.
Historical research, as the term implies, is research based on describing the past. This type of
research includes for instance investigations like the recording , analysis and interpretation of
events in the past with the purpose of discovering generalizations and deductions that can be
useful in understanding the past, the present and to a limited extent, can anticipate the future
(Landman 1988: 65). Historians should consequently aspire to getting to the original events that
took place and therefore the researcher is dependent on the availability of documentary sources.
According to Klopper (1990: 62) collected data for historical research should pass the following
test before it can be applied for research purposes namely:
external evidence or criteria that will account for the authenticity of the information should
be included;
internal evidence or criteria should be included that will explain the meaning of the data.
On account of the voluminous data that historians collect, it is extremely important that attention
should be given to a specific plan for the obtaining and organizing of information as well as the
retrieval thereof, before this type of research is attempted.
Lastly, it should be mentioned that historical research also encompasses research concerning the
origin, development and influence of ideas of the past. As examples, aspects like the origin,
development and influence of communism, democracy, capitalism etc can be mentioned. Should
you like to do this type of research you can consult the recommended literature listed in the
bibliography.
The term descriptive is self-explanatory and terminology synonymous to this type of research is:
describe, write on, depict. The aim of descriptive research is to verify formulated hypotheses that
refer to the present situation in order to elucidate it.
Descriptive research is thus a type of research that is primarily concerned with describing the
nature or conditions and degree in detail of the present situation (Landman 1988: 59). The
emphasis is on describe rather than on judge or interpret.
recording in the form of a written report of that which has been perceived.
The aim of the latter is, that when the total record has been compiled, revision of the documents
can occur so that the perceptions derived at can be thoroughly investigated .
Because the total population (universum) during a specific investigation can not be contemplated
as a whole, researchers make use of the demarcation of the population or of the selection of a
representative test sample. Test sampling therefore forms an integral part of descriptive research.
In descriptive research the following steps should be included:
Problem selection and problem formulation. The research problem being tested should
be explicitly formulated in the form of a question.
Literature search. Intensive literature search regarding the formulated problem enables
the researcher to divide the problem into smaller units.
Problem reduction.
Hypothesis formulation.
Test sampling. The researcher should determine the size of the test sample.
Report writing. The report entails the reproduction of factual information, the
interpretation of data, conclusions derived from the research and recommendations.
You should make sure that you understand the meaning of the terminology used. Consult the
recommended sources for detailed explanations. However, further reference must be made to
aspects related to test sampling.
Test sampling
Two important questions arise frequently when test sampling is anticipated by researchers,
namely:
- What is the probability of mistakes occurring in the use of test sampling (instead of the whole
population)?
Special care should be taken with the selection of test samples. The results obtained from a
survey can never be more authentic than the standard of the population or the representatives of
the test sample, according to Klopper (1990: 64). The size of the test sample can also be
specified by means of statistics. It is important for the researcher to bear in mind that it is
desirable that test sampling be made as large as possible. The most important criterium that
serves as a guideline here, is the extent to which the test sample corresponds with the qualities
and characteristics of the general population being investigated. The next three factors should be
taken into consideration before a decision is made with regard to the size of the test sample:
- What is the grade of accuracy expected between the test sample and the general population?
- What is the variability of the population? (This, in general terms, is expressed as the standard
deviation.)
Bias saying
When you attempt descriptive research, you should take care that the test sample reflects the
actual population it represents. The following example holds validity for the latter: you cannot
make a statement regarding all first-year students if you do not include all first-year students in
your research. If you do make such a statement, you have to select enrolled first-year students at
all the tertiary institutions or a balanced proportional manner, and include the latter when you
select your test sample for your research.
Landman ( 1988: 91) points out that, when a test sample does not truly represent the population
(universum) from which it is drawn, the test sample is considered a bias sample. It then becomes
virtually impossible to make an accurate statement or to predict about the population.
This type of research is known in literature by a variety of names. Synonyms are, for instance: the
cause and consequence method, before and after design, control group design and the
laboratory method. Landman (1988: 82) summarises experiential research when he states that it
is research designed to study cause and consequence. A clear distinction between the terms
experiment and experimental research should be evident. In the former there is normally no
question about the interpretation of data in the discovery of new meaning. Experimental research,
however, has control as fundamental characteristic. The selection of control groups, based on
proportional selection, forms the basis of this type of research. Experimental research is basically
the method that can be applied in a research laboratory. The basic structure of this type of
research is elementary: two situations (cause and consequence) are assessed in order to make a
comparison. Following this, attempts should be made to treat the one situation (cause) from the
Control group
Because: control is a fundamental characteristic of this type of research, control groups are a
prerequisite. Control groups are selected from a group of selected persons whose experience
corresponds with that of the experimental group. The only difference is that they do not receive
the same treatment (Landman 1988: 58).
Variable
A variable is any characteristic (of man or his environment) that can take on different values.
Objects are usually not considered as variables - but their characteristics are. As example the
following can be considered: a transparency is not a variable (it is an object). The characteristics
of the transparency are variables, for example the colour, design etc. In other words, a
transparency as an object can take on different values.
Independent variable
Dependent variable
The dependent variable, on the other hand, is the circumstances or characteristics that change,
disappear or appear when the researcher implements the independent variable. For example,
learning content that should be mastered (student performance) is the dependent variable, while
the manipulation of study methods by means of different teaching methods, is the independent
variable.
The importance of control in conducting experimental research has been pointed out earlier. A
further pre-requisite for this type of research is validity.
Validity is a term used in research methodology that indicates the extent to which a test complies
with the aim it was designed for. (You should ensure that you understand the terminology used.)
Experimental research, where the researcher manipulates the independent variable, whilst the
dependable variable are controlled with the aim of establishing the effect of the independent
variable on the dependable variable, is also applicable.
The term ex post facto according to Landman (1988: 62) is used to refer to an experiment in
which the researcher, rather than creating the treatment, examines the effect of a naturally
occurring treatment after it has occurred. In other words it is a study that attempts to discover the
pre-existing causal conditions between groups.
It should, however, be pointed out that the most serious danger of ex post facto-research is the
conclusion that because two factors go together, one is the cause and the other is the effect.
Jacobs et al. (1992: 81) refers to the following procedures when conducting ex post facto-
research:
- Following this is the determination of the group to be investigated. Two groups of the
population that differ with regard to the variable, should be selected in a proportional manner for
the test sample.
- Groups, according to variables, are set equal by means of paring off and statistical
techniques of identified independent and dependent variables.
- Data is collected. Techniques like questionnaires, interviews, literature search etc:. are used
to determine the differences.
- Next follows the interpretation of the research results. The hypothesis is either confirmed or
rejected.
Lastly it should be mentioned that this type of research has shortcomings, and that only partial
control is possible.
Hipotesis (Hypothesis)
It indicates the expectations of the researcher regarding certain variables. It is the most specific
way in which an answer to a problem can be stated.
Mouton's (1990: Chapter 6) and Guy's (1987: 116) presentation of the hypothesis:
Mouton:
Guy:
Both an hypothesis and a problem contribute to the body of knowledge which supports or refutes
an existing theory. An hypothesis differs from a problem. A problem is formulated in the form of
a question; it serves as the basis or origin from which an hypothesis is derived. An hypothesis is
a suggested solution to a problem. A problem (question) cannot be directly tested, whereas an
hypothesis can be tested and verified.
An hypothesis is formulated after the problem has been stated and the literature study has been
concluded. It is formulated when the researcher is totally aware of the theoretical and empirical
background to the problem.
It offers explanations for the relationships between those variables that can be empirically
tested.
It furnishes proof that the researcher has suffucient background knowledge to enable
him/her to make suggestions in order to extend existing knowledge.
It gives direction to an investigation.
It structures the next phase in the investigation and therefore furnishes continuity to the
examination of the problem.
RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
Schools in which pupil-teacher relations are open/friendly will have less unrest than comparable
schools where pupil-teacher relations are closed/tense.
NULL HYPOTHESIS
"You are wrong, there is no relation; disprove me if you can" (Kerlinger, 1973)
NB
Literature study
Observation
Questionnaires
Check lists
Measurement
* It develops the ability to recognize and select the significant and the relevant, without getting
lost in trivialities.
* It helps in gauging the quality of research material and in planning his research accordingly.
* It develops a critical attitude regarding others' research as well as his own efforts.
* It trains him to be an astute observer especially in respect of certain obstacles, making it
possible for him to avoid them.
* Knowledge of relevant literature helps the researcher to define the boundaries of his field.
* select a research problem or theme. Relevant literature enables the researcher to discover
where inconsistencies, wrong designs and incorrect statistical conclusions occur.
Often research reports are concluded with recommendations regarding research which still needs
to done. The researcher's thinking can be shaped in this way, which in turn will enable him to:
* consider the procedures and the instruments which he will use in his research. After having
considered other researchers' procedures and instruments, the researcher becomes more
sophisticated in the choice of his own;
* see his own problem in better perspective through a better understanding of the underlying
theory. This enables him to establish whether his research will make a contribution and what the
value of his contribution would be;
* better evaluate the significance of his own findings. This applies especially in respect of which
techniques were used, and which contributions were made to gaining a better understanding of
the problem, etc;
* carry out his research more purposefully. In time he learns to eliminate the unnecessary. He
learns from the successes and failures of others.
* Comprehension literature, ie books and articles by experts in which they state their opinions,
experiences, theories and ideas on concepts and constructs within a specific problem area, as
well as their opinions on what is good or bad, desirable or undesirable, valuable or worthless
regarding insight into specific concepts or constructs. For the young researcher it is very useful
because it helps him to understand the validity of correctness of theories (outdated, existing or
newly formed) better. It also shows him where there are shortcomings in a specific field (thus
requiring research). It also shows its strengths which he may wish to pursue.
* Research literature: This includes reporting in respect of research already undertaken in the
field (and is currently drawing attention) and gives the researcher a good indication of successes
and problems in respect of research procedures, design, hypotheses, techniques and
instruments.
* The results of studying these two types of literature are thus a personal frame of reference,
i.e. an insight into the body of basic knowledge, possible differences, underlying theories, et
cetera.
* It furthermore leads to a greater awareness of those matters within the field which have
already sufficiently been demonstrated and proved, as well as those matters still requiring more
in-depth research.
Primary sources of a specific type of information are the original works, books, magazine articles,
films, sound recordings, et cetera, which reflect the information firsthand. Secondary sources
include commentaries, explanations, elucidations et cetera, which other writers have done on the
primary sources.
It is desirable (especially in historical research) that, where possible, the primary source should
preferably be consulted. T here are, however, problems with consulting primary sources.
* The source is out of print, has been destroyed or is unobtainable. Then secondary sources have
to be consulted.
* The primary source is in a foreign language, rendering it inaccessible for the researcher.
Translations have to be used with the expressed knowledge that such translations are possibly
inaccurate or even incorrect. Sometimes it helps to read an expert's comment on the translation.
* The primary source is so complicated and advanced that the researcher cannot understand it. It
then helps to read explanations in technical dictionaries, encyclopaedias or elementary
handbooks.
This, does not mean, however, that secondary sources are of no value whatsoever. The
researcher could possibly encounter many useful references to primary sources in his study of
secondary sources.
Consulting specifically focused documentation systems can be very useful. These are
systematically arranged sources of reference or literature dealing with a specific subject which
have appeared. They have many additional references to related themes. The following are some
examples of the most useful indices and/or sources of information:
* The Educational Resources Information Centre (ERIC) which has a "Current Index to Journals
in Education" (CIJE) series. Every English article of any significance dealing with Education which
has been written since 1969, has been included in this series and has been indexed and cross-
referenced according to key words.
* The Institute of Contemporary History (INCH) at the University of the Free
State, Bloemfontein's documentation systems. At this Institute all South African
magazines and newspapers are read, cuttings are taken and documented
according to key concepts. RAU is linked to the system by telephone. If one dials
a relevant number, the cutting appears on a television screen. Photostats (very
indistinct) are available at 20 cents per page.
* The system of documentation and computer printout service of the HSRC.
This contains printouts of research which has been done in South Africa in
specific subjects.
1.6.1 Start with the most recent works and work back to earlier (timeless) works: your chances
of adhering to outdated or faulty theories are then much smaller. Earlier misunderstandings and
obscurities can be eliminated at this point. The recent works should lead you to older works by
referring to them - not vice versa.
1.6.2 You should preferably start with the works of recognized writers dealing with the specific
theme. For example, research on human thinking which does not refer to writers such as
Ausubel, Fenerstein, Bruner or Piaget is incomplete. Then too, it would be unforgivable not to
read the original works of such writers.
1.6.3 Further, it is worthwhile starting with articles, treatises and dissertations. This kind of
literature is usually very well-documented and will quickly put you on the track of other relevant
sources.
1.6.5 Before making notes, you should skim through the whole chapter, paragraph or section in
order to ascertain whether, and if so how, the section links up with your own problem. This will
help to determine the kind of notes to be made. Much valuable time can be saved in this way.
1.6.6 Work on cards and not on scraps of paper. Write your notes directly on to record cards,
and save yourself the double trouble of rewriting. (You will also eliminate the possibility of
unnecessary errors made while rewriting your notes from scraps of paper on the cards). Cards
(as a result of their stiffness and uniform size) are easier to handle and file than scraps of paper
or the backs of envelopes.
1.6.7 For this reason, it is a sound habit always to keep a few record cards on hand (in the
pocket of your jacket, in your handbag) so that ideas can be jotted down as soon as they occur.
Such ideas may occur in the bus, while you are waiting to see someone, or while listening to a
lecture or presentation.
1.6.8 You should select a comfortably sized card. I personally fine 150 cm x 100 cm (6" x 4")
the most useful. It is small enough to fit into a jacket pocket and yet big enough to allow for plenty
of information.
1.6.9 In order to facilitate filing and sorting, and to allow for flexibility, a single piece of
information (thought, opinion) should be entered on a single card. You should preferably only
write on one side of the card. In cases where more than one card is used to enter a specific
argument (or episode), cards which belong together can be kept together by means of elastic
bands.
1.6.10 The source and a relevant page number should be clearly entered on each card. This
will later eliminate many frustrations.
1.6.11 Each card should have a suitable heading/key word. This facilitates filing and retrieving
information. Apart from this, it already serves to structure the chapters of the research report.
1.6.12 You should try, as far as possible, to summarise the writer's thoughts in your own
words. This eliminates the danger of plagiarism, and will force you to try to understand the
information. You should only rewrite verbatim those thoughts which you cannot paraphrase
better. In such cases you should ensure that you rewrite the quotation absolutely correctly. Each
punctuation mark, each capital, must be correct. Be careful to spell correctly.
1.6.13 You should clearly distinguish on your cards if you have written (1) a direct quotation;
(2) a paraphrased summary or your own comment.
1.6.14 Very long quotations should rather be photostatted and pasted on to the cards - this will
save time and eliminate unnecessary rewriting errors.
1.6.15 Neat handwriting is not a requirement. Retyping notes, or first taking them down in
shorthand and later rewriting them neatly, is an unnecessary waste of time.
1.6.16 You should plan ahead and acquire a sturdy filing system. Initially, shoe boxes are very
useful.
* The sources which should be included depend on the final format of the research report. For
example, fewer sources will be mentioned in an article than will be done in a thesis or
dissertation.
2 OBSERVATION TECHNIQUE
Observation means that a researcher studies or observes a specific situation or type of situation.
2.1 There are 5 steps which together make up the observation technique (of the classic
scientific method):
2.1.3 Hypothesis and premises are formulated or predictions are made. All three these are
based on observations.
2.1.4 Subsequently a procedure is designed which may be used to test the hypotheses.
2.1.5 Further steps follow concurrently, as well as simultaneously: the further extending,
refining and restructuring of existing/new theories.
* the classification, organization and structuring of the observed information and
This development was made possible by especially the development and use of aids such as the
microscope and the television camera etc. Further, there was a gradual change from the
observation of natural phenomena to the studying of simulated conditions in laboratories.
The four most important data-gathering techniques in which questioning plays a role are:
- interviews
- questionnaires
3.1 Interviews
In the interview, the researcher talks to the respondent and obtains information directly.
3.1.1 Advantages:
a) Flexible. In-depth.
3.1.2 Disadvantages:
a) Time.
b) Costs.
d) Subjectivity.
Structured or unstructured.
The questionnaire is usually more superficial than the interview. It is usually used in group work.
The questionnaire is especially useful to obtain information about reasonably big groups.
3.3.1 Advantages:
3.3.2 Disadvantages:
a) Inflexible.
Closed questions
Open-ended questions
If a researcher has ensured that he has made provision for all the possible alternatives to each
question, and that the respondent need merely tick the answer, the questionnaire is called a
check list. A check list is structured and the questions are closed.
4.1 Advantages:
a) Convenient to answer.
4.2 Disadvantages:
The respondent may be irritated by not being able to find his specific chosen
answer among the given alternatives.
Often the information which the researcher hopes to obtain is so difficult to obtain that he/she
prefers to use existing media to "measure" (or, stated in anthropological-personological terms: to
evaluate the respondent's position with regard to some or other construct).
5.1 One of the most common forms of measuring is physical measuring, e.g. the mass, length of
a child; his endurance, as reflected by the number of push-ups which he can do in one stretch;
his nutritional condition as reflected by the thickness of the skin when tested at the triceps.
5.2 Then there are numerous objective tests used in educational research. Here one
distinguishes between:
The application of statistics in research is well documented. Before choosing a statistical method
for your own research project, knowledge regarding scales of measurement is a prerequisite.
Scales of measurement per se have to do with the allocation of numerical values to
characteristics according to certain rules. Measurement can thus either be quantitative or
qualitative. The quantitative level of measurement includes among other things, aspects such as
interpretation and paragraph analysis, whilst the quantitative level of measurement focuses on
measures such as nominal, ordinal, internal and ratio levels of measurement. The latter are basic
scales of measurement and will be briefly outlined.
Nominal measurement
Nominal measurement includes the awarding of a numeral value to a specific characteristic. Tr~is
type of measurement is the most basic form of measurement, because it measures the lowest
level that can be measured and is therefore considered a scale of measurement with limitations.
The following serves as an example of nominal measurement: A researcher wants to
determine the profile of the academic background of his students. For this he/she might
need information regarding the specific level (HG, SD, LG) his students passed during
their matriculation examination. The different matriculation subjects would then be listed i.e.
Mathematics, English, Geography etc. To each subject passed on the higher grade a numerical
value 1 will be allocated, and the numerical value 2 for a pass in the standard grade and so forth.
The numerical value 1 does not mean half of 2, it merely indicates a difference.
This scale of measurement is used mainly for the compiling of frequency tables (Smit 1983: 208).
The ordinal scale implies that the entity being measured is quantified in terms of either higher or
lower, greater (more) or lesser (less) without specifying the size of the intervals (Leedy 1993: 38).
The numerical 1 can be the highest, whilst 3 could be the lowest. The following serves as an
example of measurement on ordinal level: A school wants to select the best student of the
year. After the evaluators (in this case the teachers) have nominated the best students, the
finalists should be placed in rank order according to the set criteria in order to determine the best
student. In this case the numeral 1 is an indication of the best student, and therefore the winner.
The ordinal scale of measurement can be applied to determine the median, percentage, rank
order, correlations and percentile (Smith 1983: 209).
Interval measurement
- a zero point which has been established arbitrarily (Leedy 1993: 38).
The latter indicates that there is not an absolute zero point. There is therefore a specific:
relationship between the distance (interval) of the numerical value and the different sizes of a
characteristic. Because of the before mentioned characteristics, this measure scale is considered
to be a more advanced type of measuring scale. An increase or decrease of the one
characteristic goes hand in hand with an increase or decrease of the other. The interval level of
measurement enables the researcher to compromise between aspects and to indicate clearly
how much more the one has of a characteristic than the other. As an example of this type of
measurement the following is given: an individual intelligence score is 110 whilst another is
100. The difference between these scores is exactly 10. It should also be remembered that
intelligence measurement has no zero point. A second example of interval measurement is the
Lickert attitude scale.
The interval scale of measurement is therefore suitable to calculate arithmetic mean averages, do
standard deviations and determine correlation studies, provided that the researcher takes care
that the preconditions set for each scale of measurement, are abided by.
Ration measurement
This is considered the highest order of measurement that exist, because of the fixed proportions
(ratio) between the number (numerical) and the amount of the characteristic; that it represents.
What should be mentioned is that, when ration levels are measured, a fixed (absolute) zero point
exists. Ration level of measurement thus enables researchers to determine whether aspects
possess something of a characteristic or not. The following can serve as example of ration level
of measurement: The average weight of a gymnast is 55 kilograms. On the other hand, the
average weight of a rugby player is 75 kilograms. Kilograms are expressed in constant units,
and a zero point does exist, because "no weight" can be determined. Because scores on this type
of measuring scale possess absolute values, any type of arithmetical calculations are allowed.
Reliability
Reliability is the term used to deal with accuracy. A scale measurement is considered reliable if it
measures that which it is supposed to measure. Further refining of the term reliable is that, when
a test is repeated by the same researcher i.e. with a different group representing the original
group, the same results should be obtained .
Validity
Validity on the other hand is concerned with the soundness and the effectiveness of the
measuring instrument (Leedy 1 993: 40).
From the literature consulted four types of validity stands out, namely:
- content validity,
- prognostic validity,
- construct validity.
Content validity deals with the accuracy with which an instrument measures the factors or content
of the course or situations, under study.
Prognostic validity on the other hand relies basically upon the possibility to make judgements by
virtue of results obtained by the instrument. The judgement is future orientated. Consider the
following as an example: it can be predicted from the matriculation results of a prospective
student that he would be a successful medical student.
Simultaneous validity is tested by comparing one measuring instrument to another one that
measures the same characteristic and which is available immediately. The second, as a criteria,
checks the accuracy of the first measure and sets a standard against which to measure the
results. The data of the measuring instrument should correlate with equivalent data of the
criterion.
Construct validity is interested in the degree to which the construct is actually measured.
Before a researcher can use a statistical method for his research, he should be familiarized with
the various statistical methods as well as the prerequisites for the implementation thereof.
Because of the circumference of statistical methods, an in-depth discussion cannot take place for
the purpose of this element. It will suffice to highlight the basic statistical methods.
Statistical methods in the broadest sense are classified into two main groups namely descriptive
and inferential statistics.
Descriptive statistics
- Ratios. This indicates the relative frequency of the various variables to one another, for
example 1.
- Percentages. Percentages (%) are calculated by multiplying a ratio with 100. In other words it
is a ratio that represents a standard unit of 100.
- Frequency tables. It is a means to tabulate the rate of recurrence of a specific measurement,
for example a specific achievement in a test. Data arranged in such a manner is known as
distribution. If the distribution tendency is large, larger class intervals are used in order to acquire
a more systematic and orderly system.
In order to understand and interpret a frequency table, you are referred to Huysamen (1976: 24).
Central tendency is defined as the central point around which data revolve. The following
techniques can be employed:
The mode
The mode is defined as the score (value or category) of the variable which is observed most
frequently. For example:
375864595
From the above mentioned, the mode equals 5 because 5 appears to be the most frequent score
amongst all the numbers (occurred 3X).
Median
The median indicates the middle value of a series of sequentially ordered scores. Because the
median divides frequencies into two equal parts, it can also be described as being the fiftieth
percentile.
The median in the above-mentioned is the fifth score, that is 18. There are 4 counts on both sides
of the numerical value 18.
Arithmetic mean
The arithmetic mean refers to a measure of central tendencies found by adding all scores and
dividing them by the number of scores. The following is an example:
5 2 6 1 6 =
(Sum total of
scores )
Thus 5 + 2 + 6 + 1 + 6 = 20, because there are 5 scores, N = 5, and the sum total of the scores
(20) is divided by 5.
Standard deviation
The standard deviation is a measure of the spread of dispersion of a distribution of scores. The
deviation of each score from the mean is squared; the squared deviations are then summed, the
result divided by N-1, and the square root taken (Landman 1988: 94).
Inference statistics
Apart from descriptive statistics that deal with central tendencies, statistical methods enabling
researchers to go from the known to the unknown data also exist. This is to say to make
deductions or statements regarding the broad population as the samples from which the 'known'
data are drawn. These methods, according to literature are called inferential or inductive statistics
(Landman 1988: 95). These methods includes estimation, predictions, hypothesis testing and so
forth.
In conclusion the role of statistical methods in research is to enable the researcher to accurately
utilize the gathered information and to be more specific in describing his findings. For more
details on statistical calculations you are referred to Huysamen (1976).
5 Self-test
a) The following marks were allocated to students during a test they wrote:
- histogram
8 11 12 3 31 12 8 9 12 10 5.
Leedy, PD 1985 Practical Research: Planning and Design. Third Edition.
New Tork: McMillan Publishing Co.